K. K.

Wagh Institute of Engineering

Education and Research, Nashik.

Department of
Electronics & Telecommunication Engineering

Subject : Electromagnetic
Engineering
By
Mrs. S. D. Raut
 Unit I : Electrostatics

 Sources and effects of electromagnetic fields, Coordinate

Systems
 Vector fields Gradient, Divergence, Curl – theorems and
applications
 Coulomb‘s Law, Electric field intensity
 Field due to discrete and continuous charges – Gauss‘s law
and applications.
 Electric potential –Concept of Uniform and Non Uniform
field, Utilization factor.

2
 Sources of Electromagnetics
 Microwaves,
 antennas,
 electric machines,
 satellite communications,
 bioelectromagnetics,
 nuclear research,
 fibre optics,
 electromagnetic interference and compatibility.

3
 Scalar, Vector and Unit Vector
 A scalar is a quantity that has only magnitude.
Quantities such as time, mass, distance, temperature, entropy,
electric potential, and population
are scalars.

A vector is a quantity that has both magnitude and

direction.
Vector quantities include velocity, force, displacement, and
electric field intensity.

 Vector is represented by an arrow on top of it, such as A and

B, or by a letter in boldface type such as A and B.

 A scalar is represented simply by a letter.

e.g., A, B, U, and V. 4
Scalar, Vector and Unit Vector

5
Scalar, Vector and Unit Vector

6
Vector Addition & Subtraction

7
Vector Addition & Subtraction

8
 Position Vector

The position vector r,. (or radius vector) of point

P is as the directed distance from the origin O to
P i.e.,

9
 Distance Vector

The distance vector is the displacement from one point to

another.

If two points P and Q are given by (Xp,Yp,Zp) and (XQ, YQ, ZQ),
the distance vector (or separation vector) is the
displacement from P to Q as shown in Figure 1.5; that is,

10
 At a Glance......
What is studied so far.... What is to be
studied...?
1 Sources of Vector Multiplication
Electromagnetics
2 Scalar, Vector, Unit DOT Product
vector
3 Vector Addition, CROSS Product
Subtraction
4 Position Vector Properties
5 Distance Vector
11
 VECTOR MULTIPLICATION

There are two types of vector multiplication:

Multiplication of two vectors A,B:
1. Scalar (or dot) product: A • B
2. Vector (or cross) product: A X B
Multiplication of three vectors A, B, and C:
1. Scalar triple product: A • (B X C)
2. Vector triple product: A X (B X C)

12
 VECTOR MULTIPLICATION
A. Dot Product: The dot product of two vectors
A and B, written as A • B is defined
geometrically as the product of the magnitudes
of A and B and the cosine of the angle between
them.

where θAB is the smaller angle between A and B.

The result of A • B is called either the scalar
product because it is scalar, or the dot product
due to the dot sign. If A = (Ax, Ay, Az) and
B = (Bx, By, Bz), then
13
 VECTOR MULTIPLICATION
Two vectors A and B are said to be
orthogonal (or perpendicular) with each
other if A • B = 0.

14
 VECTOR MULTIPLICATION
B. Cross Product
 The cross product of two vectors A and B written as
A X B is a vector quantity whose magnitude is the
area of the parallelepiped formed by A and B (see
Figure 1.7) and is in the direction of advance of a
right-handed screw as A is turned into B.
AxB

A
Figure 1.7 The cross product of A and B is a vector with magnitude equal to the
area of the parallelogram and direction as indicated.
15
Properties of Cross Product

16
Figure 1.9 Cross product using cyclic permutation:
(a) moving clockwise leads to positive results:
(b) moving counter clockwise leads to negative results.

17
 Vector Multiplication
C. Scalar Triple Product
Given three vectors A, B, and C, we define the scalar
triple product as;

If A = (Ax, Ay, Az), B = (Bx, By, Bz), and C = (Cx, Cy, Cz),
then A • (B X C) is the volume of a parallelepiped
having A, B, & C as edges and is easily obtained by
finding the determinant of the 3 X 3 matrix formed by
A, B, and C; that is,

18
 Vector Multiplication
D. Vector Triple Product
For vectors A, B, and C, we define the vector
triple product as;

Kindly note that,

19
 REVIEW/Assignment
Q1. What is Scalar & Vector?
Q2. What is Unit Vector?
Q3. How to perform vector dot product?
Q4. How to perform cross product?
Q5. Why to study this?

20
 At a Glance......
What is studied so far.... What to study...?
1 Sources, Scalar, Vector, Coordinate System
Unit vector
2 Vector Addition, Cartesian/
Subtraction, Rectangular
3 Position Vector, Circular Cylindrical
Distance Vector

4 Vector Multiplication Spherical

21
 COORDINATE SYSTEMS

An orthogonal system is one in which the

coordinates are mutually perpendicular.
Examples of orthogonal coordinate systems
include the Cartesian (or rectangular), the
circular cylindrical, the spherical, the elliptic
cylindrical, the parabolic cylindrical, the
conical, the prolate spheroidal, the oblate
spheroidal, and the ellipsoidal.

22
 1. CARTESIAN COORDINATES (X, Y, Z)

The ranges of the coordinate variables x, y,

and z are

A vector A in Cartesian (otherwise known as

rectangular) coordinates can be written as,

23
2. CIRCULAR CYLINDRICAL COORDINATES (p,φ,z)
A point P in cylindrical coordinates is represented as (p, φ, z)
and is as shown in Figure 2.1.
Observe Figure 2.1. We define each space variable:
p is the radius of the cylinder passing through P or the radial
distance from the z-axis
φ, called azimuthal angle, is measured from the x-axis in the
xy- plane; and
z is the same as in the Cartesian system.
The ranges of the variables are;

Figure 2.1 Point P and unit vectors in the cylindrical coordinate system.
24
 2. CIRCULAR CYLINDRICAL COORDINATES (p,φ,z)
A point P in cylindrical coordinates is represented as (p, φ, z)
and is as shown in Figure 2.1.

Figure 2.1 Point P and unit vectors in the cylindrical coordinate system.
25
 CIRCULAR CYLINDRICAL COORDINATES (p,φ,z)

The relationships between the variables (x, y, z) of

the Cartesian coordinate system and those of the
cylindrical system (p, φ, z) are easily obtained from
Figure 2.2

26
CARTESIAN (x, y, z) AND CIRCULAR
CYLINDRICAL COORDINATES (p,φ,z)

Figure 2.2 Relationship between (x, y, z) and (p,φ,z)

27
 3. SPHERICAL COORDINATES (r, θ, φ)
A point P can be represented as (r, θ, φ) and is illustrated in
Figure 2.4.
From Figure 2.4, we notice that r is defined as the distance
from the origin to point P or the radius of a sphere centred
at the origin and passing through P;
θ (called the colatitude) is the angle between the z-axis and
the position vector of P; and
φ is measured from the x-axis (the same azimuthal angle in
cylindrical coordinates). According to these definitions, the
ranges of the variables are

28
 SPHERICAL COORDINATES (r, θ, φ)
• A vector A in spherical coordinates may be
written as

Figure 2.4 Point P and unit vectors in spherical coordinates.

29
 SPHERICAL COORDINATES (r, θ, φ)

The space variables (x, y, z) in Cartesian

coordinates can be related to variables (r, θ, φ)
of a spherical coordinate system

30
 Relation between Cartesian, Circular
Cylindrical and Spherical coordinate System

Figure 2.5 Relationships between space variables (x, y, z), (r, θ, φ) and (p,φ, z)

31
 REVIEW/Assignment
Q1. What is Scalar & Vector?
Q2. What is Unit Vector?
Q3. How to perform vector dot product?
Q4. How to perform cross product?
Q5. Why to study this?

32
 At a Glance......
What is studied so far.... What to study...?
1 Sources, Scalar, Vector, Vector Calculus
Unit vector
2 Vector Addition, Differential Length
Subtraction,
Multiplication
3 Position Vector, Distance Differential Area
Vector (Surface)
4 Coordinate System Differential Volume

33
 VECTOR CALCULUS
No man really becomes a fool until he stops asking questions.
—CHARLES P. STEINMETZ

 DIFFERENTIAL LENGTH, AREA, AND VOLUME

A. Cartesian Coordinates
1. Differential displacement is given by
2. Differential normal area is given by

3. Differential volume is given by

Figure 3.1 Differential elements in the right-handed Cartesian coordinate system.

34
Differential normal surface area

35
 DIFFERENTIAL LENGTH, AREA, AND VOLUME
B. Circular Cylindrical System
1. Differential displacement is given by

2. Differential normal area is given by

3. Differential volume is given by

Figure 3.2 Differential normal

areas in Cartesian coordinates

36
 DIFFERENTIAL LENGTH, AREA, AND VOLUME
C. Spherical System:
1. The differential displacement is
2. The differential normal area is

3. The differential
Volume is
Figure 3.6 Differential normal areas in spherical
coordinates:

37
 At a Glance......
What is studied so far.... What to study...?
1 Sources, Scalar, Vector, Unit Line, Surface and
vector
Volume Integral
2 Vector Addition, Subtraction, Del Operator
Multiplication

3 Position Vector, Distance Gradient of a Scalar

Vector Coordinate System

4 Vector Calculus

38
 LINE, SURFACE, AND VOLUME INTEGRALS
Line Integrals:
• The line integral A • dl is the integral of the
tangential component of A along curve L.
Given a vector field A and a curve L, we define
the integral

Figure 3.8 Path of integration of vector field A.

39
 Surface Integrals
At any point on S, an is the unit normal to S. For a closed surface,

which is referred to as the net outward flux of 'A from S.

Figure 3.9 The flux of a vector field A through surface S

Notice that a closed path defines an open surface whereas a

closed surface defines a volume. 40
 Volume Integrals
• We define the integral as the volume integral of the scalar ρv
over the volume v.
i.e.

• The physical meaning of a line, surface, or volume integral

depends on the nature of the physical quantity represented
by A or ρv.

41
 DEL OPERATOR(DIFFERENTIATOR)
• The del operator, written ∇, is the vector differential operator.
Properties:
1. The gradient of a scalar V, written, as ∇V
2. The divergence of a vector A, written as ∇•A
3. The curl of a vector A, written as ∇ X A
4. The Laplacian of a scalar V, written as ∇²V
• In Cartesian coordinates,

• In Cylindrical coordinates,

• In spherical Coordinates,

42
 GRADIENT OF A SCALAR
• The gradient of a scalar field V is a vector that represents
both the magnitude and the direction of the maximum space
rate of increase of V.
• Gradient can be obtained by evaluating the difference in the
field dV between points P1 and P2 of Figure 3.12 where V1,
V2, and V3 are contours on which V is constant.

Figure 3.12 Gradient of a scalar.

43
 GRADIENT OF A SCALAR
The gradient of V can be expressed in Cartesian,
cylindrical, and spherical coordinates.

For Cartesian coordinates,

For cylindrical coordinates,

For spherical coordinates,

44
Derivative of hyperbolic functions

45
 GRADIENT OF A SCALAR

Formulae related to gradient :

Where U and V are scalar and n is integer.

1. The magnitude of ∇V equals the maximum rate of change in

V per unit distance.
2. ∇V points in the direction of the maximum rate of change in V.
3. ∇V at any point is perpendicular to the constant V surface
that passes through that point.
4. If A = ∇V, V is said to be the scalar potential of A.

46
GRADIENT OF A SCALAR

47
 REVIEW/Assignment
Q1. What is Del operator?
Q2. What is Gradient of a Scalar?
Q3. How to perform Del operation?
Q4. How to perform Gradient operation in all
coordinate system?
Q5. Why to study this?

48
 At a Glance......
What is studied so far.... What to study...?
1 Sources, Scalar, Vector, Unit Divergence, Divergence
vector , Vector Addition,
Subtraction, Multiplication Theorem
2 Position Vector, Distance Curl of a Vector
Vector, Coordinate System

3 Vector Calculus, Line, surface, Properties of Divergence

volume Integral
& Curl.
4 Del operator, Gradient of a
Scalar

49
 DIVERGENCE OF A VECTOR
• Let A be the flux density vector
• The divergence of A at a given point P is the outward
flux per unit volume as the volume shrinks about P.

Figure 3.14 Illustration of the divergence of a vector field at P;

(a) Positive divergence, (b) negative divergence, (c) zero divergence.
50
 DIVERGENCE OF A VECTOR
• We can obtain an expression for ∇•A in Cartesian
coordinates from the definition as follows.
• Suppose we wish to
evaluate the divergence
of a vector field A at
point P(xo, yo, zo)
then

Figure 3.15 Evaluation of ∇•A at point P(x0,y0,Zo)

51
 DIVERGENCE OF A VECTOR

Change in the flow rate through the pipe, whether it

increases or decreases, is called as
divergence. Divergence denotes only the magnitude of
change and so, it is a scalar quantity. It does not have a
direction.
When the initial flow rate is less than the final flow rate,
divergence is positive (divergence > 0).
If the two quantities are same, divergence is zero.
If the initial flow rate is greater than the final flow rate
divergence is negative (divergence <0).
52
 DIVERGENCE OF A VECTOR
Thus, the divergence of A at point P(xo, yo, zo)
in a

53
 Properties of Divergence of a Vector

• This is called the divergence theorem.

54
 DIVERGENCE THEOREM
 The divergence theorem states that the total outward
flux of a vector field A through the closed surface S is the
same as the volume integral of the divergence of A.
To prove the divergence theorem, subdivide volume v into
a large number of small cells. If the Kth cell has volume Δvk
and is bounded by surface Sk

This is the divergence theorem.

The theorem applies to any volume v
bounded by the closed surface S
such as that shown in Figure 3.16
Figure 3.16 Volume v enclosed by surface S.
55
56
 CURL OF A VECTOR
The circulation of a vector field A around a closed path L is the
integral

The curl of A is an axial (or rotational) vector whose magnitude

is the maximum circulation of A per unit area as the area tends
to zero and whose direction is the normal direction of the area
when the area is oriented so as to make the circulation
maximum i.e.

where the area ΔS is bounded by the curve L and an is

the unit vector normal to the surface ΔS and is determined using
the right- hand rule.

57
 CURL OF A VECTOR

 The curl of a vector field A at a point P may be regarded as a

measure of the circulation or how much the field curls
(rotates) around P.
 For example, Figure 3.19(a) shows that the curl of a vector
field around P is directed out of the page.................... (see next
slide)
 Figure 3.19(b) shows a vector field with zero curl.

58
 CURL OF A VECTOR

Figure 3.19 Illustration of a curl: (a) curl at P points out of the page; (b) curl at P is
zero.

59
 REVIEW/Assignment
Q1. What do you mean by Divergence of a Scalar?
Q2. What are the types of Divergence?
Q3. What is a curl of a Vector?
Q4. How will you state divergence theorem in a
simple way?
Q5. Why to study this?

60
 At a Glance......
What is studied so far.... What to study...?
1 Sources, Scalar, Vector, Unit STOKES’S Theorem
vector , Vector Addition,
Subtraction, Multiplication
2 Position Vector, Distance Laplacian of a Scalar
Vector, Coordinate System

3 Vector Calculus, Line, surface, Coulomb’s Law

volume Integral

4 Del operator, Gradient of a Electric Field

Scalar
Intensity
5 Divergence, Curl of a Vector

61
 STOKES’S THEOREM
Stokes's theorem states that the circulation of a
vector field A around a (closed) path L is equal to
the surface integral of curl of A over the open
surface S bounded by L provided that A and ∇ X A
are continuous on S.

Figure 3.21 Illustration of Stokes's theorem.

62
 LAPLACIAN OF A SCALAR
• The Laplacian of a scalar field V, written as
∇²V is the divergence of the gradient of V.
• It is the composite of gradient and divergence
operators. Thus, in Cartesian coordinates,

i.e.

63
 LAPLACIAN OF A SCALAR
• In cylindrical coordinates,

• In spherical coordinates,

A scalar field V is said to be harmonic in a given

region if its Laplacian vanishes in that region.
In other words, if
As we have considered the Laplacian of a scalar
since the Laplacian operator is a ∇² scalar operator.
64
 ELECTROSTATIC FIELDS
Take risks: if you win, you will be happy; if you lose you will be wise.
—PETER KREEFT

 COULOMB'S LAW: Coulomb's law states that the force F

between two point charges Q1 and Q2 is:
1. Along the line joining them,
2. Directly proportional to the product Q1 Q2 of the charges,
3. Inversely proportional to the square of the distance R
between them.

65
 COULOMB'S LAW
If point charges Q1 and Q2 are located at points having
position vectors r1 and r2, then the force F12 on Q2 due
to Q1, shown in Figure 4.1, is given by

Figure 4.1 Coulomb vector force on point charges Q1 and Q2

66
 COULOMB'S LAW
• If the force F21 on Q1 due to Q2 is given by,

Figure 4.2 (a), (b) Like charges repel; (c) unlike charges attract. Figure 4.2 (a), (b)
Like charges repel; (c) unlike charges attract.

 Like charges (charges of the same sign) repel each other while unlike charges
attract. This is illustrated in Figure 4.2.
 The distance R between the charged bodies Q1 and Q2 must be large compared
with the linear dimensions of the bodies; that is, Q1 and Q2 must be point charges.
 Q1 and Q2 must be static (at rest).
 The signs of Q1 and Q2 must be taken into account.

67
 COULOMB'S LAW
If we have more than two point charges, we can use
the principle of superposition to determine the force on
a particular charge. The principle states that if there are
N charges Q1,Q2, . . ., QN located respectively, at points
with position vectors r1; r2,. . ., rN, the resultant force F
on a charge Q located at point r is the vector sum of the
forces exerted on Q by each of the charges Q1, Q2,. QN.
Hence:

Or

68
 ELECTRIC FIELD INTENSITY
The electric field intensity (or electric field strength) E is the
force per unit charge when placed in the electric field.
Thus or

The electric field intensity E is obviously in the direction of the

force F and is measured in Newton/Coulomb or volts/meter.

The electric field intensity at point r due to a point charge

located at r' is given as;

69
 ELECTRIC FIELD INTENSITY
• For N point charges Q1, Q2,. . ., QN located at r1,r2,. .
. , rN, the electric field intensity at point r is obtained
as

70
Numerical on Coulomb’s law & Electric Field
Intensity

71
 REVIEW/Assignment
Q1. State Coulomb’s law
Q2. Define Electric field intensity.
Q3. How to implement Coulomb’s law for
more than two charges?
Q4. What you understood from STOKES’S
theorem?
Q5. How will you state Laplacian of a scalar ?

72
 At a Glance......
What is studied so far.... What to study...?
1 Sources, Scalar, Vector, Unit Continuous charge
vector , Vector Addition, distribution
Subtraction, Multiplication
2 Position Vector, Distance Types of charges
Vector, Coordinate System

3 Vector Calculus, Line, surface, Line charge distribution

volume Integral, Del
operator, Gradient of a Scalar
4 Divergence, Curl of a Vector Surface charge
distribution
5 Coulomb’s law, Electric field Volume charge
intensity distribution
73
 ELECTRIC FIELDS DUE TO CONTINUOUS
CHARGE DISTRIBUTIONS
• It is also possible to have continuous charge distribution
along a line, on a surface, or in a volume as illustrated in
Figure 4.5.
• It is customary to denote the line charge density, surface
charge density, and volume charge density by pL (in C/m), ps
(in C/m2), and pv (in C/m3), respectively.
• The charge element dQ and the total charge Q due to these
charge distributions are obtained as

Figure 4.5 Various charge distributions and charge elements.

74
 CHARGE DISTRIBUTION
• The electric field intensity due to each of the charge distributions pL, ps,
and pv may be regarded as the summation of the field contributed by the
numerous point charges making up the charge distribution. Thus by
replacing Q with charge element dQ = pL dl, ps dS, or pv dv and
integrating, we get

• It should be noted that R² and aR vary as the integrals in above equations

are evaluated.
• We shall now apply these formulas to some specific charge distributions.
75
 A LINE CHARGE
• Consider a line charge with uniform charge density pL extending from A
to B along the z-axis as shown in Figure 4.6. The charge element dQ
associated with element dl = dz of the line is
Hence the total charge Q is

Thus for a finite line charge,

For an infinite line charge, point B is at (0, 0, ∞)

and A at (0, 0, - ∞ ) so that α1 = ∏/2,
α2 = —∏/2; the z-component vanishes and
above eq. becomes

Figure 4.6 Evaluation of the E field due to a line charge

76
 A SURFACE CHARGE
• Consider an infinite sheet of charge in the xy-plane with
uniform charge density ps. The charge associated with an
elemental area dS is
• hence the total charge is Q,

In general, for an infinite sheet of charge

Where an is a unit vector normal to the sheet

In a parallel plate capacitor, the electric
field existing between the two plates having
Figure 4.7 Evaluation of the E field dueequal and opposite charges is given by
to an infinite sheet of charge

78
 A VOLUME CHARGE
•Let the volume charge distribution with uniform charge density
pv be as shown in Figure 4.8. The charge dQ associated with the
elemental volume dv is
hence the total charge in a sphere of radius ‘a’ is

Due to the symmetry of the charge

distribution, the electric field at P (r,θ,Φ) is
readily obtained as ;

This is identical to the electric field at the same

point due to a point charge Q located at the
Figure 4.8 Evaluation of the E field due origin or the centre of the spherical charge
to a volume charge distribution.
distribution
80
 REVIEW/Assignment
Q1. What are the types of charges?
Q2. How to derive equation for line charge?
Q3. How to derive surface charge equation?

81
 At a Glance......
What is studied so far.... What to study...?
1 Sources, Scalar, Vector, Unit
vector , Vector Addition, Electric Flux Density
Subtraction, Multiplication
2 Position Vector, Distance Gauss’s Law-Maxwell’s
Vector, Coordinate System Equation
3 Vector Calculus, Line, surface, Applications of Gauss’s
volume Integral, Del law.
operator, Gradient of a Scalar
4 Divergence, Curl of a Vector

5 Coulomb’s law, Electric field

intensity
6 Continuous charge
distribution
82
 ELECTRIC FLUX DENSITY
 The flux due to the electric field E can be calculated using the
general definition of flux Suppose a new vector field D independent
of the medium is defined by
 We define electric flux Ψ in terms of D as
 In SI units, one line of electric flux emanates from +1 C and
terminates on - 1 C. Therefore, the electric flux is measured in
coulombs. Hence, the vector field D is called the electric flux density
and is measured in coulombs per square meter. For historical
reasons, the electric flux density is also called electric displacement.
Electric flux
 For a point charge

 For a line charge

 for an infinite sheet of charge

 for a volume charge distribution

83
Electric Flux Density

84
 Electric Flux Density

Figure 4.11 Flux density D due to a point charge and an infinite line charge.
85
 GAUSS'S LAW—MAXWELL'S EQUATION
• Gauss's law states that the total electric flux Ψ through any
closed surface is equal to the total charge enclosed by that
surface.

Thus
By applying divergence theorem to the middle term

Comparing the two volume integrals

86
 GAUSS’S LAW
• Gauss's law is an alternative statement of Coulomb's law;
proper application of the divergence theorem to Coulomb's
law results in Gauss's law.
• Gauss's law provides an easy means of finding E or D for
symmetrical charge distributions such as a point charge, an
infinite line charge, an infinite cylindrical surface charge, and
a spherical distribution of charge.

Figure 4.12 Illustration of Gauss's law;

flux leaving v1 is 5 nC and that leaving v2 is 0
C.

87
 Special Gaussian surfaces
The surface over which Gauss law is applied is called Gaussian
surface. Such surface is closed surface and it has to satisfy
following conditions:

• The surface may be arregular but should be sufficiently large

so as to enclose the entire charge.
• The surface must be closed.
• At each point of the surface D is either normal or tangential
to the surface.
• The electric flux density D is constant over the surface at
which D is normal.

88
 Limitations of GAUSS’S LAW
• Applicable to symmetrical problems but cannot be applied to
non-symmetrical problems. The problem is said to be
symmetrical if D is normal to the Gaussian surface
everywhere.
• It is applicable on Gaussian surfaces only.
• It can be applied only if the surface encloses the volume
completely.

89
 APPLICATIONS OF GAUSS'S LAW
• A. Point Charge: Suppose a point charge Q is located at the
origin. To determine D at a point P, it is easy to see that
choosing a spherical surface containing P will satisfy
symmetry conditions. Thus, a spherical surface cantered at
the origin is the Gaussian surface in this case and is shown in
Figure 4.13.

Figure 4.13 Gaussian surface about a point

charge.
90
 B. Infinite Line Charge
•Suppose the infinite line of uniform charge pL C/m lies along
the z-axis. To determine D at a point P, we choose a cylindrical
surface containing P to satisfy symmetry condition as shown in
Figure 4.14. D is constant on and normal to the cylindrical
Gaussian surface i.e. D = Dpap.
• If we apply Gauss's law to an arbitrary length L of the line

Figure 4.14 Gaussian surface about an infinite line charge

91
 C. Infinite Sheet of Charge
 Consider the infinite sheet of uniform charge ps C/m2 lying
on the z = 0 plane. To determine D at point P, we choose a
rectangular box that is cut symmetrically by the sheet of
charge and has two of its faces parallel to the sheet as shown
in Figure 4.15. As D is normal to the sheet, D = Dzaz, and
applying Gauss's law gives

Note that D • dS evaluated on the sides

of the box is zero because D has no
components along ax and ay

Figure 4.15 Gaussian surface about an infinite line sheet of charge.

92
 D. Uniformly Charged Sphere
• Consider a sphere of radius ‘a’ with a uniform charge pv
C/m3. To determine D everywhere, we construct Gaussian
surfaces for cases r ≤ a and r ≥ a separately. Since the charge
has spherical symmetry, it is obvious that a spherical surface
is an appropriate Gaussian surface.

Figure 4.16 Gaussian surface for a uniformly

charged sphere when: (a) r ≥ a (b) r ≤ a

93
 REVIEW/Assignment
Q1. Define Electric flux density.
Q2. State Gauss’s law.
Q3. Illustrate the applications of Gauss’s law.
Q4. Define necessity of Gauss’s Law.
Q5. Why Maxwell’s equation?

94
 ELECTRIC POTENTIAL
Suppose we wish to move a point charge Q from point A to point B in an
electric field E as shown in Figure 4.18. From Coulomb's law, the force on Q is
F = QE so that the work done in displacing the charge by dl is

The negative sign indicates that the work is being done by an external agent.
Thus the total work done, or the potential energy required, in moving Q from
A to B is

Dividing W by Q in above eq. gives the potential energy per unit charge. This
quantity, denoted by VAB, is known as the potential difference between
points A and B. Thus

Figure 4.18 Displacement of point charge Q

in an electrostatic field E.

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Note:
1. In determining VAB, A is the initial point while B is the
final point.
2. If VAB is negative, there is a loss in potential energy in
moving Q from A to B; this implies that the work is
being done by the field. However, if VAB is positive, there
is a gain in potential energy in the movement; an
external agent performs the work.
3. VAB is independent of the path taken.
4. VAB is measured in joules per coulomb, commonly
referred to as volts (V).

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If the E field in Figure 4.18 is due to a point charge Q
located at the origin, then --------->

• In problems involving point charges, it is customary

to choose infinity as reference; that is, we assume
the potential at infinity is zero.
• Thus, if VA = 0 as rA ∞ the potential at any point (rB
r) due to a point charge Q located at the origin is

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• The potential at any point is the potential difference
between two point and a chosen point at which the
potential is zero.
• In other words, by assuming zero potential at
infinity, the potential at a distance r from the point
charge is the work done per unit charge by an
external agent in transferring a test charge from
infinity to that point. Thus,

• If the point charge Q is not located at the origin but

at a point whose position vector is r', the potential
V(x, y, z) or simply V(r) at r becomes

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• For n point charges Q1, Q2,.....,Qn located at points with
position vectors r1, r2,. . ., rn, the potential at r is
or

For continuous charge distributions,

we replace Qk in above eq.
with charge element
pL dl, ps dS, or pv dv and
the summation becomes
an integration, so the
potential at r becomes

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• If any other point is chosen as reference other than infinity

then

• The potential at a point can be determined in two ways

depending on whether the charge distribution or E is known.
If the charge distribution is known, we use one of eqs. as seen
earlier depending on the charge distribution.
• If E is known, we simply use

• The potential difference VAB can be found generally from

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ELECTRIC POTENTIAL

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 REVIEW/Assignment
Q1. What is Electrical potential?
Q2. Is it a scalar or vector quantity?
Q3. How to find potential between two or
more charges?
Q4. Why to study this?

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Welcomes Your Doubt

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