MODULE-I

INTRODUCTION:

Electromagnetic theory is concerned with the study of charges at rest and in motion. Electromagnetic
principles are fundamental to the study of electrical engineering. Electromagnetic theory is also required
for the understanding, analysis and design of various electrical, electromechanical and electronic systems.

Electromagnetic theory can be thought of as generalization of circuit theory. Electromagnetic theory deals
directly with the electric and magnetic field vectors where as circuit theory deals with the voltages and
currents. Voltages and currents are integrated effects of electric and magnetic fields respectively.

Electromagnetic field problems involve three space variables along with the time variable and hence the
solution tends to become correspondingly complex. Vector analysis is the required mathematical tool with
which electromagnetic concepts can be conveniently expressed and best comprehended. Since use of
vector analysis in the study of electromagnetic field theory is prerequisite, first we will go through vector
algebra.

Applications of Electromagnetic theory:

This subject basically consist of static electric fields, static magnetic fields, time-varying fields & it’s
applications.

One of the most common applications of electrostatic fields is the deflection of a charged particle such as
an electron or proton in order to control it’s trajectory. The deflection is achieved by maintaining a
potential difference between a pair of parallel plates. This principle is used in CROs, ink-jet printer etc.
Electrostatic fields are also used for sorting of minerals for example in ore separation. Other applications
are in electrostatic generator and electrostatic voltmeter.

The most common applications of static magnetic fields are in dc machines. Other applications include
magnetic deflection, magnetic separator, cyclotron, hall effect sensors, magneto hydrodynamic generator
etc.

Vector Analysis:

The quantities that we deal in electromagnetic theory may be either scalar or vectors. Scalars are
quantities characterized by magnitude only. A quantity that has direction as well as magnitude is called a
vector. In electromagnetic theory both scalar and vector quantities are function of time and position.

A vector can be written as, , where, is the magnitude and is the unit vector
which has unit magnitude and same direction as that of .
Two vector and are added together to give another vector . We have
................(1.1)

Let us see the animations in the next pages for the addition of two vectors, which has two rules:
1: Parallelogram law and 2: Head & tail rule

Scaling of a vector is defined as , where is scaled version of vector and is a scalar.

Some important laws of vector algebra are:

Commutative Law..........................................(1.3)

Associative Law.............................................(1.4)

Distributive Law ............................................(1.5)

The position vector of a point P is the directed distance from the origin (O) to P, i.e., = .

If = OP and = OQ are the position vectors of the points P and Q then the distance vector

Fig 1.3: Distance Vector

Product of Vectors

When two vectors and are multiplied, the result is either a scalar or a vector depending how the
two vectors were multiplied. The two types of vector multiplication are:

Scalar product (or dot product) gives a scalar.

Vector product (or cross product) gives a vector.
The dot product between two vectors is defined as = |A||B|cosθAB ..................(1.6)

Vector product
 is unit vector perpendicular to and

Fig 1.4 : Vector dot product

The dot product is commutative i.e., and distributive i.e., .

Associative law does not apply to scalar product.
The vector or cross product of two vectors and is denoted by . is a vector
perpendicular to the plane containing and , the magnitude is given by and direction is
given by right hand rule.

............................................................................................(1.7)

where is the unit vector given by,

.
The following relations hold for vector product.

= i.e., cross product is non commutative ..........(1.8)

i.e., cross product is distributive.......................(1.9)

i.e., cross product is non associative..............(1.10)

Scalar and vector triple product :

Scalar triple product .................................(1.11)

Vector triple product ...................................(1.12)

Co-ordinate Systems:
In order to describe the spatial variations of the quantities, we require using appropriate co-ordinate
system. A point or vector can be represented in an orthogonal coordinate system. An orthogonal system is
one in which the co-ordinates are mutually perpendicular.
In electromagnetic theory many physical quantities are vectors, which are having different components.
So we use orthogonal co-ordinate systems for representing those quantities and depending on the
symmetry of the physical quantities different coordinate systems are used.
Cartesian Co-ordinate System :
A point P(x, y, z) in Cartesian co-ordinate system is represented as intersection of three
planes x = constant, y = constant and z = constant, as shown in the figure below. The unit vectors along
the three axes are as shown in the figure.

Coordinate system represented by (x,y,z) that are three orthogonal vectors in straight lines that intersect at
a single point (the origin). The range of variation along the three axes are shown below.

The vector A in this coordinate system can be written as,

The differential lengths, area and volumes are as shown below.

Cylindrical Co-ordinate System :
For cylindrical coordinate systems we have as shown in figure below.

Figure: Cylindrical Coordinate System

Cylindrical Coordinate system represented by (  ,  ,z) that are three orthogonal vectors, varies in the
range,

The vector A in this coordinate system can be written as,

The following equations can be used to convert between cylindrical and Cartesian coordinate systems,

The differential elements in cylindrical coordinate system are shown below.

Spherical co-ordinate system:

Coordinate system represented by (r,  ,  ) that are three orthogonal vectors (as shown in the figure
below) emanating from or revolving around the origin in the range,

The unit vectors in the three orthogonal directions are,

z

The vector A in this coordinate system can be written as,

The following equations can be used to convert between spherical and Cartesian coordinate systems.
The differential elements in spherical coordinate system are shown below.

Co-ordinate transformation:
Matrix Transformations: Cartesian to Cylindrical

Matrix Transformations: Cartesian to Spherical

Del operator:
Del is a vector differential operator. The del operator will be used in for differential operations throughout
any course on field theory. The following equation is the del operator for different coordinate systems.

Gradient of a Scalar:

• The gradient of a scalar field, V, is a vector that represents both the magnitude and the direction of the
maximum space rate of increase of V.

• To help visualize this concept, take for example a topographical map. Lines on the map represent equal
magnitudes of the scalar field. The gradient vector crosses map at the location where the lines packed into
the most dense space and perpendicular (or normal) to them. The orientation (up or down) of the gradient
vector is such that the field is increased in magnitude along that direction.

-Fundamental properties of the gradient of a scalar field

– The magnitude of gradient equals the maximum rate of change in V per unit distance
– Gradient points in the direction of the maximum rate of change in V
– Gradient at any point is perpendicular to the constant V surface that passes through that point
– The projection of the gradient in the direction of the unit vector a, is

and is called the directional derivative of V along a. This is the rate of change of V in the
direction of a.
– If A is the gradient of V, then V is said to be the scalar potential of A.

Divergence of a Vector:
• The divergence of a vector, A, at any given point P is the outward flux per unit volume as volume
shrinks about P.

Divergence Theorem:
• The divergence theorem states that the total outward flux of a vector field, A, through the closed surface,
S, is the same as the volume integral of the divergence of A.
• This theorem is easily shown from the equation for the divergence of a vector field.
Curl of a Vector:
• The curl of a vector, A is an axial vector whose magnitude is the maximum circulation of A per unit
area as the area tends to zero and whose direction is the normal direction of the area when the area is
oriented to make the circulation maximum.
-Curl of a vector in each of the three primary coordinate systems are,

Stokes Theorem:
• Stokes theorem states that the circulation of a vector field A, around a closed path, L is equal to the
surface integral of the curl of A over the open surface S bounded by L. This theorem has been proven to
hold as long as A and the curl of A are continuous along the closed surface S of a closed path L
• This theorem is easily shown from the equation for the curl of a vector field.
 Classification of vector field:
The vector field, A, is said to be divergenceless ( or solenoidal) if .
– Such fields have no source or sink of flux, thus all the vector field lines entering an enclosed surface, S,
must also leave it.
– Examples include magnetic fields, conduction current density under steady state, and imcompressible
fluids
– The following equations are commonly utilized to solve divergenceless field problems

• The vector field, A, is said to be potential (or irrotational) if

– Such fields are said to be conservative. Examples include gravity, and electrostatic fields.
– The following equations are commonly used to solve potential field problems;

Solved Examples:

1. Given that

a. Determine the angle between the vectors A and B .

b. Find the unit vector which is perpendicular to both A and B .

Solution:

a. We know that for two given vector A and B,

For the two vectors A and B

 or

b. We know that is perpendicular to both A and B.

The unit vector perpendicular to both A and B is given by,

2. Given the vectors

Find :
a. The vector C = A + B at a point P (0, 2,-3).

b. The component of A along B at P.

Solution:

The vector B is cylindrical coordinates. This vector in Cartesian coordinate can be written as:

Where
The point P(0,2,-3) is in the y-z plane for which .

a. C = A + B

b. Component of A along B is where is the angle between A is and B.

i.e., =

3. A vector field is given by

Transform this vector into rectangular co-ordinates and calculate its magnitude at P(1,0,1).

Solution:

Given,

The components of the vector in Cartesian coordinates can be computed as follows:

 6. A given vector function is defined by . Evaluate the scalar line integral from a point
P1(1, 1, -1) to P2(2, 4, -1).

a. along the parabola

b. along the line joining the two points.

Is F a conservative field?

Solution:
 a. For evaluating the line integral along the parabola , we find that

dy=2xdx

b. In this case we observe that z1 = z2 = -1, hence the line joining the points P1 and P2 lies in the z = -1
plane and can be represented by the equation

Or, y = 3x -2

dy=3dx

F . d l = (3x -2)d x + x . 3d x

= (6x -2)d x

=7

The field F is a conservative field.

7. If , calculate over a hemispherical surface bounded by r =2 & .

 3.5 Gradient of a Scalar   73

3. V at any point is perpendicular to the constant V surface that passes through that
point (see points P and Q in Figure 3.13).
4. The projection (or component) of V in the direction of a unit vector a is =V # a
and is called the directional derivative of V along a. This is the rate of change of V
in the direction of a. For example, dV/dl in eq. (3.26) is the directional derivative
of V along P1P2 in Figure 3.13. Thus the gradient of a scalar function V provides us
with both the direction in which V changes most rapidly and the magnitude of the
maximum directional derivative of V.
5. If A 5 =V , V is said to be the scalar potential of A.

EXAMPLE 3.3
Find the gradient of the following scalar fields:
(a) V 5 e2z sin 2x cosh y
(b) U 5 r2z cos 2f
(c) W 5 10r sin2 u cos f
Solution:
'V 'V 'V
(a) =V 5 a 1 a 1 a
'x x 'y y 'z z
5 2e2z cos 2x cosh y ax 1 e2z sin 2x sinh y ay 2 e2z sin 2x cosh y az
'U 1 'U 'U
(b) =U 5 a 1 a 1 a
'r r r 'f f 'z z
5 2rz cos 2f ar 2 2rz sin 2f af 1 r2 cos 2f az
'W 1 'W 1 'W
(c) =W 5 a 1 a 1 a
'r r r 'u u r sin u 'f f
2
5 10 sin u cos f ar 1 10 sin 2u cos f au 2 10 sin u sin f af

PRACTICE EXERCISE 3.3

Determine the gradient of the following scalar fields:

(a) U 5 x2y 1 xyz
(b) V 5 rz sin f 1 z2 cos2 f 1 r2
(c) f 5 cos u sin f ln r 1 r2f

Answer: (a) y 1 2x 1 z 2 ax 1 x 1 x 1 z 2 ay 1 xyaz

z2
(b) 1 z sin f 1 2r 2 ar 1 az cos f 2 sin 2fbaf 1
r
1 r sin f 1 2z cos2 f 2 az
cos u sin f sin u sin f
(c) a 1 2rfbar 2 ln r au 1
r r
cot u
a cos f ln r 1 r csc ubaf
r

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 3.6 Divergence of a Vector and Divergence Theorem   79

FIGURE 3.17 Volume v enclosed by surface S.

surface S

of A through a closed surface, we simply find the right-hand side of eq. (3.42) instead
of the left-hand side of the equation.

EXAMPLE 3.6
Determine the divergence of these vector fields:
(a) P 5 x2yzax 1 xzaz
(b) Q 5 r sin f ar 1 r2z af 1 z cos f az
1
(c) T 5 2 cos u ar 1 r sin u cos f au 1 cos u af
r

Solution:
' ' '
(a) = # P 5 Px 1 Py 1 Pz
'x 'y 'z
' 2 ' '
5 1 x yz 2 1 102 1 1 xz 2
'x 'y 'z
5 2xyz 1 x
1 ' 1 ' '
(b) = # Q 5 1 rQr 2 1 Q 1 Q
r 'r r 'f f 'z z
1 ' 1 ' '
5 1 r2 sin f 2 1 1 r2z 2 1 1 z cos f 2
r 'r r 'f 'z
5 2 sin f 1 cos f
1 ' 2 1 ' 1 '
(c) = # T 5 1 r Tr 2 1 1 T sin u 2 1 1T 2
r2 'r r sin u 'u u r sin u 'f f
1 ' 1 ' 1 '
5 1 cos u 2 1 1 r sin2 u cos f 2 1 1 cos u 2
r2 'r r sin u 'u r sin u 'f
1
501 2r sin u cos u cos f 1 0
r sin u
5 2 cos u cos f

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