Analysis 1

Higher National School of Renewable Energies,

Environment and Sustainable Development

Chapter 01:
Set of real numbers
Batna, Algeria

Prepared by
DR. W. Ghecham

Year 2023 – 2024

RE2=SD 1 Preparatory Classes Department

1st Year
Contents

1 Set of real numbers 5

1.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

1.1.1 Rational and irrational numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

1.1.2 Irrational numbers. Algebraic numbers. Transcendental numbers . 6

1.2 Properties of Real Numbers R . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

1.2.1 The Axioms of a Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

1.2.2 The Order Axioms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

1.2.3 Lower bounds , Upper bounds, Supremum, Infimum, Maximum,

Minimum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

1.2.4 The Completeness Axiom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

1.2.5 The Archimedean property and . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

1.2.6 Density of Q and of R \ Q in R . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

1.2.7 Integer part of a real number . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

1.2.8 Absolute value of a real number . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

1.2.9 Characterization of supremum and infimum . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

1.2.10 Intervals of R . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

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W. Ghecham CONTENTS

English Français éJ K. Q«

Theorem Théorème éK Q¢
Axiom Axiome

éÒʂÓ
Proposition Proposition éJ ’¯
Definition Définition ­K QªK
Remark Remarque é¢kCÓ
Example Exemple ÈAJÓ
Property Propriété éJ “Ag
Lemma Lemme éJ£ñK
Notation Notation QÓQK
Respectively Respectivement I.KQË@ úΫ
Number Nombre XY«
Natural Naturel ùªJJ.£
Integer Entier iJm•
Rational Rationnel ‡£A  K
Irrational Irrationnel
 K Q«
‡£A
Real Réel ù®J ®k 
Algebraic Algébrique ø Q.g.
Transcendental Transcendant ÐA‚Ó
Odd Impair ø XQ¯
Even Pair úk. ð P
Addition Addition ©Ôg.
Multiplication Multiplication H. Qå•
Field Corps ɮk 
Commutative Commutative úÎK YJ.K
Associative Associative ùªJÒm.'
Additive identity Identité additive ùªÔg. YK Am×
Additive inverse Inverse additif ùªÔg. €ñºªÓ
Multiplicative identity Identité multiplicative úG. Qå• YK Am×
Multiplicative inverse Inverse multiplicatif úG. Qå• €ñºªÓ
Relation Relation é¯C«

Order Ordre I.KQK
Reflexive Réflexive éJ ƒA¾ªK@

3
W. Ghecham CONTENTS

English Français éJ K. Q«

Antisymmetric Antisymétrique éK Q£AJK Y“
Transitive Transitive éK YªJÓ
Bounded Borné XðYm×
Set Ensemble
 ×
é«ñÒm .
Lower bound Minorant úGX B@ áÓ XAg
Bounded below Minoré úGX B@ áÓ XðYm×
Upper bound Majorant úΫ B@ áÓ XAg
Bounded above Majoré úΫB@ áÓ XðYm×
Minimum Minimum øQª“ éÒJ  ¯
Maximum Maximum ùÒ¢« éÒJ  ¯
Infimum Borne inférieure úGX @ Yg
Supremum Borne supérieure úΫ @ Yg
Nonempty Non vide ÈAg Q«
Subset Partie ZQk.
Belong Appartenir ùÒJK

4
Chapter 1

Set of real numbers

1.1 Introduction

We use the symbol N to denote the set of natural numbers, that is

N = {0, 1, 2, ...., n}

The set of integers is denoted by Z so that

Z = {..., −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3, ...}

The set of rational numbers is denote by

( )
p
Q= / p ∈ Z and q ∈ Z∗ .
q

The set of real numbers is denote by R.

1.1.1 Rational and irrational numbers

The fact that there are elements in R that are not in Q. In the sixth century B.C.
the ancient Greek society of Pythagoreans discovered that the diagonal of a square with
unit sides could not be expressed as a ratio of integers. In view of the Pythagorean
Theorem for right triangles, this implies that the square of no rational number can equal
2. This discovery had a profound impact on the development of Greek mathematics.
One consequence is that elements of R that are not in Q became known as irrational
numbers, meaning that they are not ratios of integers denoted by R \ Q. Although the

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W. Ghecham CHAPTER 1. SET OF REAL NUMBERS

word “irrational” in modern English usage has a quite different meaning, we shall adopt
the standard mathematical usage of this term.

N⊂Z⊂Q⊂R

We will now prove that there does not exist a rational number whose square is 2. In
the proof we use the notions of even and odd numbers. Recall that a natural number is
even if it has the form 2n for some n ∈ N, and it is odd if it has the form 2n + 1 for some
n ∈ N.

Theorem 1.1
There does not exist a rational number r such that r2 = 2.

 2
Proof. Suppose, on the contrary, that p and q are integers such that pq = 2. We
may assume that p and q are positive and have no common integer factors other than 1.
As p2 = 2q 2 , we see that p2 is even. This implies that p is also even (because if p = 2n + 1
is odd, then its square p2 = 2(2n2 + 2n) + 1 is also odd). As p is even, then p = 2m for
some m ∈ N, and hence 4m2 = 2q 2 , so that 2m2 = q 2 . Therefore, q 2 is even, and it follows
that q is an even natural number. The last statement contradicts our assumption that p
and q have no common factor.

1.1.2 Irrational numbers. Algebraic numbers. Transcendental

numbers

Proposition 1
A number is rational if and only if it has an eventually periodic decimal expansion.

x = a, a1 ...ap , a1 ...ap , a1 ...ap , .....

| {z } | {z } | {z }
period period period

p ∈ N, finite , 0 ≤ ai ≤ 9

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W. Ghecham CHAPTER 1. SET OF REAL NUMBERS

Example 1
3
5 | {z } 28571
= 0, 6, 13 = 0, 3333..., 27 = 0, 28571 | {z } ...
Let’s show that x = 23, 2410211021... is a rational number.
First, we appear the periodic part just after the comma. Here the period begins two digits
after the comma, so we multiply by 100 :

100x = 2324, 1021

| {z } 1021
| {z } ... (1.1)

Multiply both side of (1.1) by 10000

| {z } 1021
10000 × 100x = 23241021, 1021 | {z } ... (1.2)

Subtracting the equation (1.1) from (1.2)

10000 × 100x − 100x = 23241021 − 2324 = 23238697

Thus 999900x = 23238697 and x = 23238697

999900
then x ∈ Q.

Algebraic numbers

Definition 1
An algebraic number is a number that is a root of a non-zero polynomial in one variable
with integer coefficients.

a0 + a1 x + ... + an xn = 0, a0 , ..., an ∈ Z (1.3)

Example 2
All rational numbers are algebraic. Indeed, if x = pq , so xq = p and xq − p = 0 Then
x = pq is solution of algebraic equation (n = 1, a0 = −p, a1 = q).

Example 3
√ √
1. The irrational number x = 2 is algebraic. Indeed, x = 2 is solution of algebraic
equation x2 − 2 = 0 (n = 2, a0 = −2, a1 = 0, a2 = 1).
√ √
2. The irrational number 3 is algebraic. Indeed, x = 3 is solution of algebraic
x2 − 3 = 0.

3. The irrational number √1

5
is algebraic. Indeed, x = √1
5
is solution of algebraic
5x2 − 1 = 0.

Transcendental numbers

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W. Ghecham CHAPTER 1. SET OF REAL NUMBERS

Definition 2
A transcendental number is not an algebraic number of any degree.

Example 4
1. The numbers π and e are transcendental irrationals numbers
√
2. The number 2 2
is transcendental number.

1.2 Properties of Real Numbers R

1.2.1 The Axioms of a Field

The real numbers R form a set which is also a field, as follows: There are two binary
operations on R, addition (+) and multiplication (×), which satisfy a set of axioms
which make the set R a commutative group under addition.

1. For every x and y, x + y = y + x. (Commutativity axiom for addition)

2. For every x, y and z, x + (y + z) = (x + y) + z. (Associativity axiom for addition)

3. there exists an element 0 in R such that 0 + x = x and x + 0 = x for all x in R

(Additive identity axiom).

4. for each x in R there exists an element −x in R such that x + (−x) = 0 and

(−x) + x = 0 (Additive inverse axiom).

The non-zero elements of R form a commutative group under multiplication:

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W. Ghecham CHAPTER 1. SET OF REAL NUMBERS

5. For every x and y, x × y = y × x (Commutativity axiom for multiplication)

6. For every x, y and z, x×(y×z) = (x×y)×z (Associativity axiom for multiplication)

7. there exists an element 1 ̸= 0 in R such that 1 × x = x and x × 1 = x for all x in R

(Multiplicative identity axiom)

8. for each x ̸= 0 in R there exists an element 1

x
in R such that x × ( x1 ) = 1 and
( x1 ) × x = 1 (Multiplicative inverse axiom).

To relate the additive group structure to the multiplicative structure, we require

that multiplication “distribute” over addition:

9. For every x, y and z, x × (y + z) = (x × y) + (x × z).

1.2.2 The Order Axioms

The above axioms make R a field. To obtain an ordered field, we need to require an
additional set of axioms, about the order relations among the elements, as follows: There
is a binary relation, (≤) on R with the following properties:

1. For all x ∈ R, x ≤ x (the reflexive property)

2. For all x, y ∈ R, x ≤ y and y ≤ x implies x = y (the antisymmetric property).

3. For all x, y, z ∈ R : (x ≤ y et y ≤ z) ⇒ x ≤ z (the transitive property)

1.2.3 Lower bounds , Upper bounds, Supremum, Infimum,

Maximum, Minimum

Definition 3 (Lower bounds , Upper bounds)

Let A be a nonempty subset of R.

(a) The set A is said to be bounded above if there exists a number M ∈ R such that
x ≤ M for all x ∈ A. Each such number M is called an upper bound of A.

(b) The set A is said to be bounded below if there exists a number m ∈ R such that
x ≥ m for all x ∈ A. Each such number m is called a lower bound of A.

(c) A set is said to be bounded if it is both bounded above and bounded below.

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W. Ghecham CHAPTER 1. SET OF REAL NUMBERS

Example 5
1. Let A =]5, 6[⊆ R.
4 and 5 are lower bounds of A because: for all x ∈ A, 5 ≤ x and 4 ≤ x.
6 and 7 are upper bounds of A because: for all x ∈ A, x ≤ 6 and x ≤ 7.

2. Let A = {−4, −3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5} ⊆ Z.

−4 is lower bound of A because: for all x ∈ A, −4 ≤ x.
5 is upper bound of A because: for all x ∈ A, x ≤ 5.

Remark 1
• Upper bound and lower bound of a set A are not unique. Indeed, in R the set
A =]5, 6[ has infinitely many lower bounds and upper bounds.

• Upper bound and lower bound of a set A may either belong to the set or not belong.
Indeed, the set A = {−4, −3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5}, −4 et −6 are two lower bounds
of A, −4 belong to A and −6 not belong to A.

Definition 4 (Minimum and maximum )

Let A be a nonempty subset of R.

• The upper bound of A which belongs to A is called the greatest element or maximum
of A. denoted max(A).

M is an upper bound of A




M = max(A) equivalent and

M belongs to A (M ∈ A)



• The lower bound of A which belongs to A is called the least element or minimum of
A. denoted min(A).

mis a lower bound of A





m = min(A) equivalent and

m belongs to A (m ∈ A)



Example 6
1. A = [1, 10].
min(A) = 1 because 1 is a lower bound of A and 1 belongs A.
max(A) = 10 because 10 is an upper bound of A and 10 belongs to A.

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W. Ghecham CHAPTER 1. SET OF REAL NUMBERS

2. A =]3, 6[
min(A) does not exist because there is no lower bound of A which belongs to A.
max(A) does not exist because there is no upper bound of A which belongs to A.

Remark 2
1. The minimum of A, if it exists, is unique.

2. The maximum of A, if it exists, is unique.

Definition 5 (supremum and infimum)

Let A be a nonempty subset of R.

• If A is bounded above, then a number s is said to be a supremum (or a least upper

bound) of A if it satisfies the conditions:

1. s is an upper bound of A.
2. s is the least upper bound of A. i.e (if v is any upper bound of A, then s ≤ v)

• If A is bounded below, then a number b is said to be an infimum (or a greatest

lower bound) of A if it satisfies the conditions:

1. b is an lower bound of A.
2. b is the greatest lower bound of A. i.e ( if t is any lower bound of A, then t ≥ b)

• If the supremum or the infimum of a set A exists, we will denote them by sup A and
inf A.

Remark 3
Let A ⊆ R. We assume that A has a supremum. Then A admits a maximum if and only
if sup(A) ∈ A. In this case, sup(A) = max(A).

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W. Ghecham CHAPTER 1. SET OF REAL NUMBERS

Example 7
Let A ⊆ N, A = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4} . M = 4, M = 5, M = 6... are upper bounds of A. because

0≤4
1≤4
2≤4
3≤4
4≤4

Then, we have:
∃ M = 4, ∀x ∈ A, x ≤ M . So M = 4 is upper bound of A.
the set A is bounded above. Denote by M the set of all upper bounds of A.

M = {α ∈ N such that α ≥ 4} = {4, 5, 6, 7, ...}

We have
∀x ∈ M : x ≥ 4
then 4 is the least upper bound of M. So by definition

4 = sup(A).

on the other hand, 4 belongs to the set A so by definition

4 = sup(A) = max(A)

By the same method, we obtain

0 = inf (A) = min(A)

Example 8
Let A ⊆ Z, A = {x ∈ Z : x2 ≥ 25}.
If x ≥ 5 ⇒ x2 ≥ 25 ⇒ x ∈ A.
If x ≤ −5 ⇒ x2 ≥ 25 ⇒ x ∈ A.
Therefore
A = {..., −7, −6, −5, 5, 6, 7, ...}
The set A is not bounded above and is not bounded below. Then sup(A) and inf (A)
don’t exist.

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W. Ghecham CHAPTER 1. SET OF REAL NUMBERS

Example 9
Let A ⊆ N, A = {x ∈ N : 5 ≤ x2 ≤ 25}.

0<5⇒0∈
/A
12 = 1 < 5 ⇒ 1 ∈
/A
22 = 4 < 5 ⇒ 2 ∈
/A
32 = 9 > 5 and 9 < 25 ⇒ 3 ∈ A
42 = 16 > 5 and 16 < 25 ⇒ 4 ∈ A
52 = 25 > 5 and 25 = 25 ⇒ 5 ∈ A
62 = 36 > 5 but 62 = 36 > 25 ⇒ 6 ∈
/A

So A = {3, 4, 5}.
Denote by M the set of upper bounds of A.

M = {α ∈ N such that α ≥ 5} = {5, 6, 7, 8, ...}

least upper bound of M is 5 and 5 ∈ A. Then

sup(A) = max(A) = 5

Denote by G the set of lower bounds of A.

G = {β ∈ N such that β ≤ 3} = {0, 1, 2, 3}

the greatest lower bound of G is 3 and 3 ∈ A. Therefore

3 = inf (A) = min(A)

1.2.4 The Completeness Axiom

Now we are in a position to formulate the completeness axiom for real numbers. This
property distinguishes the reals from the rationals.

Theorem 1.2
Every nonempty subset of real numbers that has an upper bound also has a supremum in
R.

Corollary 1
Every nonempty subset of real numbers that is bounded below has an infimum in R.

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W. Ghecham CHAPTER 1. SET OF REAL NUMBERS

Remark 4
The set of real numbers R is an ordered field satisfying the completeness axiom.

Remark 5
The set of rational numbers Q does not satisfy the completeness axiom.

Proposition 2
Let A = {r ∈ Q : r2 < 2}. Then sup(A) doesn’t exist in Q.

1.2.5 The Archimedean property and

Theorem 1.3
If x, y ∈ R, and x > 0, then there is a natural number n ∈ N such that nx > y.

(∀x ∈ R∗+ , ∀y ∈ R) (∃ n ∈ N) such that : nx > y (1.4)

Corollary 2
The set of natural numbers N is not bounded above.

Proof.

Let us take in the theorem 1.3, x = 1. We obtain

∀y ∈ R, ∃ n ∈ N such that : y < n

It is exactly the negation of: N is bounded above .

1.2.6 Density of Q and of R \ Q in R

Definition 6
Let A ⊂ R. We say that A is dense in R if for all x, y ∈ R if x < y, then there exists a
r ∈ A such that x < r < y.

Theorem 1.4 (Density of Q in R)

For all x, y ∈ R if x < y, then there exists a q ∈ Q such that x < q < y.

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W. Ghecham CHAPTER 1. SET OF REAL NUMBERS

Theorem 1.5 (Density of Irrationals in R)

For all x, y ∈ R if x < y, then there exists an irrational w such that x < w < y.

1.2.7 Integer part of a real number

Definition 7
Let x ∈ R. The greatest integer less than or equal to x is called integer part of x, denoted
int(x) or [x].

Example 10
√
int(15, 7) = 15, [ 2] = 1, int(−6, 8) = −7, int(5) = 5.

Properties of the integer part of a real number

1. For all x ∈ R, we have : [x] ≤ x < [x] + 1.

2. For all x ∈ R, we have: [x + n] = [x] + n with n ∈ N.

3. For all x, y ∈ R, we have: [x] + [y] ≤ [x + y] ≤ [x] + [y] + 1.

Integer part function

1.2.8 Absolute value of a real number

Definition 8
The absolute value of a real number x, denoted by |x|, is defined by

 x if x ≥ 0
|x| = (1.5)
 −x if x < 0

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W. Ghecham CHAPTER 1. SET OF REAL NUMBERS

Theorem 1.6
The following are properties of absolute value: Let x, y ∈ R we have :

1. |x| ≥ 0 (The absolute value is always positive).

2. | − x| = |x|.

3. |x| = max(−x, x).

4. |x| = 0 equivalent x = 0.

5. Let a ≥ 0 then : |x| ≤ a equivalent −a ≤ x ≤ a.

6. |xy| = |x|.|y|.
|x|
7. x
y
= |y|
if y ̸= 0.

8. |x + y| ≤ |x| + |y|.

9. ||x| − |y|| ≤ |x − y|.

1.2.9 Characterization of supremum and infimum

Theorem 1.7 (Characterization of supremum)

Let A ⊆ R be bounded above and s ∈ R. Then we have

(1) ∀x ∈ A : x ≤ s




s = sup(A) ⇔ and

(2) ∀ϵ > 0, ∃ x ∈ A : s − ϵ < x



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W. Ghecham CHAPTER 1. SET OF REAL NUMBERS

Theorem 1.8 (Characterization of Infimum)

Let A ⊆ R be bounded below and b ∈ R. Then we have

(1) ∀x ∈ A : b ≤ x




b = inf (A) ⇔  and
(2) ∀ϵ > 0, ∃ x ∈ A : x < b + ϵ



1.2.10 Intervals of R
Definition 9
Let I ⊆ R, I is an interval of R if

∀x, y ∈ I, ∃z ∈ R : x ≤ z ≤ y ⇒ z ∈ I

Remark 6
1. By definition I = ∅ is an interval.

2. I = R is an interval.

The table below describes all the intervals in R. Let a, b two real numbers such that

Description Definition Notation

closed interval {x ∈ R, a ≤ x ≤ b} [a, b]
right half-open {x ∈ R, a ≤ x < b} [a, b[
left half-open {x ∈ R, a < x ≤ b} ]a, b]
open interval {x ∈ R, a < x < b} ]a, b[
right unbounded closed {x ∈ R, a ≤ x} [a, +∞[
right unbounded open {x ∈ R, a < x} ]a, +∞[
left unbounded closed {x ∈ R, x ≤ b} ] − ∞, b]
left unbounded open {x ∈ R, x < b} ] − ∞, b[
the real number line R ] − ∞, +∞[

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