COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING &

TECHNOLOGY

Department: Basic and Applied Sciences

Coordinators: Dr. Mohamed Anwar
Course: advanced physics
Course Code: EBA 1106

Lecture 3
Heat and Internal Energy
Specific Heat Capacity, Latent Heat, Q-T Diagram.
Thermodynamics – Historical Background
Thermodynamics and mechanics were considered to be distinct branches of
physics.
▪ Until about 1850
▪ Experiments by James Joule and others showed a connection between
them.
A connection was found between the transfer of energy by heat in thermal
processes and the transfer of energy by work in mechanical processes.
The concept of energy was generalized to include internal energy.
The principle of conservation of energy emerged as a universal law of nature.

Introduction
Internal Energy

Internal energy is all the energy of a system that is associated with its
microscopic components.
▪ These components are its atoms and molecules.
▪ The system is viewed from a reference frame at rest with respect to the
center of mass of the system.

Section 20.1
Internal Energy and Other Energies
The kinetic energy due to its motion through space is not included.
Internal energy include kinetic energies due to:
▪ Random translational motion
▪ Rotational motion
▪ Vibrational motion
Internal energy also includes potential energy between molecules.

Section 20.1
Heat

Heat is defined as the transfer of energy across the boundary of a system due to
a temperature difference between the system and its surroundings.
The term heat will also be used to represent the amount of energy transferred by
this method.
Heat, internal energy, and temperature are all different quantities.
▪ Be sure to use the correct definition of heat.
▪ You cannot talk about the “heat of a system,” you can refer to heat only
when energy has been transferred as a result of a temperature difference.

Section 20.1
Units of Heat

Historically, the calorie was the unit used for heat.

▪ One calorie is the amount of energy transfer necessary to raise the
temperature of 1 g of water from 14.5oC to 15.5oC.
▪ The “Calorie” used for food is actually 1 kilocalorie.
In the US Customary system, the unit is a BTU (British Thermal Unit).
▪ One BTU is the amount of energy transfer necessary to raise the
temperature of 1 lb of water from 63oF to 64oF.
The standard in the text is to use Joules.

Section 20.1
James Prescott Joule

1818 – 1889
British physicist
Largely self-educated
▪ Some formal education from John
Dalton
Research led to establishment of the
principle of conservation of energy
Determined the amount of work needed
to produce one unit of energy

Section 20.1
Mechanical Equivalent of Heat

Joule established the equivalence

between mechanical energy and
internal energy.
His experimental setup is shown at
right.
The decrease in potential energy
associated of the system as the blocks
fall equals the work done by the paddle
wheel on the water.

Section 20.1
Mechanical Equivalent of Heat, cont

Joule found that it took approximately 4.18 J of mechanical energy to raise the
water 1oC.
Later, more precise, measurements determined the amount of mechanical
energy needed to raise the temperature of water from 14.5oC to 15.5oC.
1 cal = 4.186 J
▪ This is known as the mechanical equivalent of heat.
▪ A more proper name would be the equivalence between mechanical energy and
internal energy, but the historical name is well entrenched.

Section 20.1
Heat Capacity

The heat capacity, C, of a particular sample is defined as

the amount of energy needed to raise the temperature of that sample by 1oC.
If energy Q produces a change of temperature of DT, then
Q = C DT.

Section 20.2
Specific Heat

Specific heat, c, is the heat capacity per unit mass.

If energy Q transfers to a sample of a substance of mass m and the temperature
changes by DT, then the specific heat is
Q
c
m DT

The specific heat is essentially a measure of how thermally insensitive a

substance is to the addition of energy.
▪ The greater the substance’s specific heat, the more energy that must be
added to a given mass to cause a particular temperature change.
The equation is often written in terms of Q : Q = m c DT

Section 20.2
Some Specific Heat Values

Section 20.2
Internal Energy Revisited

The change in internal energy of a system can be identified with m c Δ t.

▪ If we ignore any thermal expansion or contraction of the system.
Then ΔEint = Q
The internal energy of a system can be changed by transferring energy into the
system by any mechanism.
▪ This also indicates temperature is related to the energy of the molecules of a
system.

Section 20.2
Specific Heat Varies With Temperature
Technically, the specific heat varies with temperature.
Tf
The corrected equation is Q = m T c dT.
i

However, if the temperature intervals are not too large, the variation can be
ignored and c can be treated as a constant.
▪ For example, for water there is only about a 1% variation between 0o and
100oC.
▪ These variations will be neglected unless otherwise stated.

Section 20.2
Specific Heat of Water

Water has the highest specific heat of common materials.

This is in part responsible for many weather phenomena:
▪ Moderate climates near large bodies of water
▪ Global wind systems
▪ Land and sea breezes

Section 20.2
example

2-The temperature of a silver bar rises by 10.0°C when it absorbs 1.23 kJ of

energy by heat. The mass of the bar is 525 g. Determine the specific heat of
silver from these data.
M=525 ×10 −3
Q=1.23×1000
∆T=10
𝑄 1.23×1000
C=𝑀×∆𝑇=
525 ×10−3 × 10
=234.28
Calorimetry

One technique for measuring specific heat involves heating a material, adding it
to a sample of water, and recording the final temperature.
This technique is known as calorimetry.
▪ A calorimeter is
a device in which this energy transfer takes place.
The system of the sample and the water is isolated.
Conservation of energy requires that the amount of energy that leaves the
sample equals the amount of energy that enters the water.
▪ Conservation of Energy gives a mathematical expression of this:
Qcold= -Qhot

Section 20.2
Sign Conventions

If the temperature increases:

▪ Q and DT are positive
▪ Energy transfers into the system
If the temperature decreases:
▪ Q and DT are negative
▪ Energy transfers out of the system
The negative sign in the calorimetry equation is critical for consistency with the
sign convention.

Section 20.2
Calorimetry, final

Tf is the final temperature after the

system comes to equilibrium.
The subscript w represent values for
water and x represents the values for
the sample whose spcific heat is to be
determined.
Since each Q = mcDT, the calorimetry
equation can be expressed as
mw cw (Tf − Tw ) = −mx c x (Tf − Tx )
▪ This can be solved for the
unknown specific heat.
▪ Technically, the mass of the
container should be included, but if
mw >>mcontainer it can be neglected.
Section 20.2
Calorimetry, Example

An ingot of metal is heated and then dropped into a beaker of water. The
equilibrium temperature is measured:

mw cw (Tf − Tw )
cx =
mx (Tx − Tf )
(0.400kg)(4186 J/kg  o C)(22.4 o C − 20.0 C)
=
(0.0500kg)(200.0 C − 22.4 C )
= 453 J/kg  C

Section 20.2
Phase Changes

A phase change is when a substance changes from one form to another.

▪ Two common phase changes are
▪ Solid to liquid (melting)
▪ Liquid to gas (boiling)
During a phase change, there is no change in temperature of the substance.
▪ For example, in boiling the increase in internal energy is represented by the
breaking of the bonds between molecules, giving the molecules of the gas a
higher intermolecular potential energy.

Section 20.3
Latent Heat
Different substances react differently to the energy added or removed during a
phase change.
▪ Due to their different internal molecular arrangements
The amount of energy also depends on the mass of the sample.
▪ The higher-phase material is the material existing at the higher temperature.
▪ Example, water is the higher-phase material in an ice-water mixture
▪ The initial amount of the higher-phase material in a system is mi .
If an amount of energy Q is required to change the phase of a sample is
L ≡ Q /Δm
▪ Δm = mf – mi is the change in mass of the higher-phase material

Section 20.3
Latent Heat, cont.

The quantity L is called the latent heat of the material.

▪ Latent means “hidden”.
▪ The value of L depends on the substance as well as the actual phase
change.
The energy required to change the phase is Q = L Δm.
▪ Δ m refers to the higher-phase material.
▪ If the entire amount of the lower-phase material undergoes a phase change,
the change in mass of the higher-phase material is equal to initial mass of
the lower-phase material

Section 20.3
Latent Heat, final
The latent heat of fusion is used when the phase change is from solid to liquid.
The latent heat of vaporization is used when the phase change is from liquid to
gas.
If energy is enters the system:
▪ This will result in melting or vaporization
▪ The amount of the higher-phase material will increase
▪ Δ m and Q are positive
If energy is extracted from the system:
▪ This will result in freezing or condensation
▪ The amount of the higher-phase material will decrease
▪ Δ m and Q are negative

Section 20.3
Sample Latent Heat Values
Graph of Ice to Steam
Warming Ice, Graph Part A

Start with one gram of ice at –30.0ºC.

During phase A, the temperature of the
ice changes from –30.0ºC to 0ºC.
Use Q = mi ci ΔT
▪ In this case, 62.7 J of energy are
added.

Section 20.3
Melting Ice, Graph Part B

Once at 0ºC, the phase change (melting)

starts.
The temperature stays the same although
energy is still being added.
Use Q = Lf Δmw = Lf mi
▪ The energy required is 333 J.
▪ On the graph, the values move from
62.7 J to 396 J.

Section 20.3
Warming Water, Graph Part C

Between 0ºC and 100ºC, the material is

liquid and no phase changes take
place.
Energy added increases the
temperature.
Use Q = mwcw ΔT
▪ 419 J are added
▪ The total is now 815 J

Section 20.3
Boiling Water, Graph Part D

At 100ºC, a phase change occurs

(boiling).
Temperature does not change.
Use Q = Lv Δms = Lv mw
▪ This requires 2260 J
▪ The total is now 3070 J

Section 20.3
Heating Steam, Graph Part E

After all the water is converted to

steam, the steam will heat up.
No phase change occurs.
The added energy goes to increasing
the temperature.
Use Q = mscs ΔT
▪ In this case, 40.2 J are needed.
▪ The temperature is increasing from
100o C to 120o C.
▪ The total is now 3110 J.

Section 20.3
examples