Calorimetry & Thermal Expansion

CALORIMETRY AND THERMAL EXPANSION

1. HEAT
The energy that is being transferred between two bodies or between adjacent parts of a body as a
result of temperature difference is called heat. Thus, heat is a form of energy. It is energy in transit
whenever temperature differences exist. Once it is transferred, it becomes the internal energy of the
receiving body. It should be clearly understood that the word "heat" is meaningful only as long as the
energy is being transferred. Thus, expressions like "heat in a body" or "heat of a body" are
meaningless. Heat transfer from a body at high temperature to low temperature as shown in figure 1.
T1 > T2 T2

A Heat B

When we say that a body is heated it means that its molecules begin to move with greater kinetic
energy. So, it is energy of molecular motions.
S.. unit of heat energy is joule (J). Another practical unit of heat energy is calorie (cal).
1 calorie = 4.18 joules.
1 calorie : The amount of heat needed to increase the temperature of 1 gm of water from 14.5 to
15.5 ºC at one atmospheric pressure is 1 calorie.

1.1 Mechanical Equivalent of Heat

In early days heat was not recognised as a form of energy. Heat was supposed to be something
needed to raise the temperature of a body or to change its phase. Calorie was defined as the unit of
heat. A number of experiments were performed to show that the temperature may also be increased by
doing mechanical work on the system. These experiments established that heat is equivalent to
mechanical energy and measured how much mechanical energy is equivalent to a calorie. If
mechanical work W produces the same temperature change as heat H, we write,
W = JH
where J is called mechanical equivalent of heat. J is expressed in joule/calorie. The value of J gives
how many joules of mechanical work is needed to raise the temperature of 1 g of water by 1°C. It is
conversion factor and not a physical quantity.

Example 1. What is the change in potential energy (in calories) of a 10 kg mass when it falls through 10 m?
Solution : Change in potential energy
U = mgh = 10 × 10 × 10 = 1000 J
1000
= cal Ans.
4.186

2. SPECIFIC HEAT
Specific heat of substance is equal to heat gained or released by that substance to raise or fall its
temperature by 1ºC for a unit mass of substance.
When a body is heated, it gains heat. On the other hand, heat is lost when the body is cooled. The gain
or loss of heat is directly proportional to:
(a) the mass of the body Q  m
(b) rise or fall of temperature of the body Q   T
Q  m  T or Q = m s  T
or dQ = m s d T or Q=m  s d T.
Q
where s is a constant and is known as the specific heat of the body s = . S.. unit of s is
mT
joule/kg-kelvin and C.G.S. unit is cal./gm °C.
Specific heat of water : S = 4200 J/kgºC = 1000 cal/kgºC = 1 Kcal/kgºC = 1 cal/gmºC
Specific heat of steam = half of specific heat of water = specific heat of ice

NEET_XI_PHYSICS (HEAT AND THERMODYNAMICS) # 60

 Calorimetry & Thermal Expansion

Example 2. Calculate the heat required to increases the temperate of 1 kg water by 20ºC
Solution : Heat required = Q = ms
   S = 1 cal/gmºC = 1 Kcal/kgºC
= 1 × 20 = 20 Kcal.

2.1 Heat capacity or Thermal capacity :
Heat capacity of a body is defined as the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of
that body by 1°. If 'm' is the mass and 's' the specific heat of the body, then
Heat capacity = m s.
Units of heat capacity in: CGS system is, cal ºC1; SI unit is, JK1

2.2 Important Points:

Q
(a) We know, s = , if the substance undergoes the change of state which occurs at
mT
constant temperature (Isothermal T = 0) , then s = Q/0 = . Thus the specific heat of a
substance when it melts or boils at constant temperature is infinite.
(b) If the temperature of the substance changes without the transfer of heat adiabatic
Q
(Q = 0) then s = = 0. Thus when liquid in the thermos flask is shaken, its
mT
temperature increases without the transfer of heat and hence the specific heat of liquid
in the thermos flask is zero.
(c) To raise the temperature of saturated water vapours, heat (Q) is withdrawn. Hence,
specific heat of saturated water vapours is negative. (This is for your information only
and not in the course)
(d) The slight variation of specific heat of water with temperature is shown of figure 2 in the
graph at 1 atmosphere pressure. Its variation is less than 1% over the interval form 0 to
100ºC.

Figure : 2

2.3 Relation between Specific heat and Water equivalent:

It is the amount of water which requires the same amount of heat for the same temperature rise
as that of the object
ms
ms T = mW SW T  mW =
sW
In calorie sW = 1
  mW = ms
mw is also represent by W
So, W = ms.
2.4 Phase change:
Heat required for the change of phase or state,
Q = mL, L = latent heat.
Latent heat (L): The heat supplied to a substance which changes its state at constant
temperature is called latent heat of the body.

NEET_XI_PHYSICS (HEAT AND THERMODYNAMICS) # 61

 Calorimetry & Thermal Expansion

Latent heat of Fusion (Lf ) : The heat supplied to a substance which changes it from solid to
liquid state at its melting point and 1 atm. pressure is called latent heat of fusion. Latent heat of
fusion of ice is 80 kcal/kg
Latent heat of vaporisation (Lv): The heat supplied to a substance which changes it from
liquid to vapour state at its boiling point and 1 atm. pressure is called latent heat of
vaporization. Latent heat of vaporization of water is 540 kcal kg1.
If in question latent heat of ice or steam are not mentioned and to solve the problem, it required
to assume them, we should consider following values.
Latent heat of ice : L = 80 cal/gm = 80 Kcal/kg = 4200 × 80 J/kg
Latent heat of steam : L = 540 cal/gm = 540 Kcal/kg = 4200 × 540 J/kg
The given figure 3, the behaviour of a solid substance when it is continuously heated is shown.
Various parts show.
OA  solid state , AB  solid + liquid state (Phase change)
BC  liquid state , CD  liquid + vapour state (Phase change)
DE  vapour state

Figure : 3
When these is no change of state e.g. OA, BC, DE
T 1 T 1
Slope, =  
Q ms Q s
The mass (m) of substance is constant. So, slope of T – Q graph is inversely proportional to
specific heat. In the given diagram.
(slope) OA > (slope) DE
then (s)OA < (s)DE
when there is change of state e.g. AB and CD
  Q = mL
If (length of AB) > (length of CD)
then (latent heat of AB) > (latent heat of CD)

Example 3. Find amount of heat releases when 1 kg steam at 200ºC is converted into –20ºC ice.
Solution : Heat required Q = heat release to convert steam at 200 ºC into 100ºC steam + heat release to
convert 100º C steam into 100ºC water + heat release to convert 100º water into 0ºC water
+ heat release to convert 0 ºC water into 0ºC ice + 0ºC ice converted to – 20ºC ice.
1 1
Q = 1 × × 100 + 540 × 1 + 1 × 1 × 100 + 1 × 80 + 1 × = 780 (Kcal).
2 2

3. CALORIMETRY
The branch of thermodynamics which deals with the measurement of heat is called calorimetry.
A simple calorimeter is a vessel generally made of copper with a stirrer of the same material. The
vessel is kept in a wooden box to isolate it thermally from the surrounding. A thermometer is used to
measure the temperature of the contents of the calorimeter. Object at different temperatures are made
to come in contact with each other in the calorimeter. As a result, heat is exchanged between the object
as well as with the calorimeter. Neglecting any heat exchange with the surrounding, the total h neat is
conserved i.e. heat given by one is equals to taken by the other.

NEET_XI_PHYSICS (HEAT AND THERMODYNAMICS) # 62

 Calorimetry & Thermal Expansion

3.1 Law of Mixture:

When two substances at different temperatures are mixed together, then exchange of heat continues to
take place till their temperatures become equal. This temperature is then called final temperature of
mixture. Here, Heat taken by one substance = Heat given by another substance. Referring to
figure 4.
 m1 s1 (T1  Tm) = m2 s2 (Tm  T2)

Figure : 4

Example 4. An iron block of mass 2 kg, falls from a height 10 m. After colliding with the ground it loses
25% energy to surroundings. Then find the temperature rise of the block. (Take sp. heat of iron
470 J/kg ºC)
1 10  10
Solution : ms = mgh  =
4 4  470

Note : If specific heat is given is calorie / kgºC, it is to be corverted to J/kgºC by multiplying with 4.18


Zeroth law of thermodynamics :
If objects A and B are separately in thermal equilibrium with a third object C , then objects A and B are
also in thermal equilibrium with each other.

Example 5. The temperature of equal masses of three different liquids A, B, and C are 10ºC 15ºC and 20ºC
respectively. The temperature when A and B are mixed is 13ºC and when B and C are mixed, it
is 16ºC. What will be the temperature when A and C are mixed?
Solution : when A and B are mixed
ms1 × (13 – 10) = m × s2 × (15 – 13)
3s1 = 2s2 .....(1)
when B and C are mixed
ss × 1 = ss × 4 ......(2)
when C and A are mixed
s1( – 10) = s3 × (20 – ) ....(3)

by using equation (1), (2) and (3)

140
we get  = ºC
11
Example 6. If three different liquid of different masses specific heats and temperature are mixed with each
other and then what is the temperature mixture at thermal equilibrium.
m1, s1, T1  specification for liquid 1
m2, s2, T2  specification for liquid. 2
m3, s3, T3  specification for liquid. 3

NEET_XI_PHYSICS (HEAT AND THERMODYNAMICS) # 63

 Calorimetry & Thermal Expansion

Solution : Total heat lost or gained by all substance is equal to zero

Q = 0
m1s1(T – T1) + m2s2(T – T2) + m3s3 (T – T3) = 0
m1s1T1  m2 s2 T2  m3 s3 T3
So, T=
m1s1  m2 s2  m3 s3

Example 7. In following equation calculate value of H 1 kg ice at –20ºC = H + 1 Kg water at 100ºC, here H
means heat required to change the state of substance.
Solution : Heat required to convert 1 kg ice at – 20ºC into 1 kg water at 100ºC
Q (Kcal) = 1 kg ice at – 20ºC to 1 kg ice at 0ºC ice + 1 kg water
at 0ºC + 1 kg water at 0ºC to 1 kg water at 100ºC
1
=1× × 20 + 1 × 80 + 1 × 100 = 190 Kcal.
2
So H = – 190 Kcal
Negative sign indicate that 190 Kcal heat is with drawn from 1 kg water at 100ºC to convert it
into 1 kg ice at – 20ºC

Example 8. 1 kg ice at –20ºC is mixed with 1 kg steam at 200ºC. Then find equilibrium temperature and
mixture content.
Solution : Let equilibrium temperature is 100 ºC heat required to convert 1 kg ice at –20ºC to 1 kg water
at 100ºC is equal to
1
H1 = 1 × × 20 + 1 × 80 + 1 × 1 × 100 = 190 Kcal
2
Heat released by steam to convert 1 kg steam at 200ºC to 1 kg water at 100ºC is equal to
1
H2 = 1 × × 100 + 1 × 540 = 590 Kcal
2
1 kg ice at – 20ºC = H1 + 1kg water at 100ºC ......(1)
1 kg steam at 200ºC = H2 + 1kg water at 100ºC .......(2)
by adding equation (1) and (2)
1 kg ice at –20ºC + 1 kg steam at 200ºC = H1 + H2 + 2 kg water at 100ºC.
Here heat required to ice is less than heat supplied by steam so mixture equilibrium
temperature is 100ºC then steam is not completely converted into water.
So mixture has water and steam which is possible only at 100ºC
mass of steam which converted into water is equal to
1
190  1  100
2 7
m= = kg
540 27
so mixture content
7 20
mass of steam = 1 – = kg
27 27
7 34
mass of water = 1 + = kg
27 27

4. THERMAL EXPANSION
Most materials expand when their temperature is increased. Railway roads tracks, bridges all have
some means of compensating for thermal expansion. When a homogeneous object expands, the
distance between any two points on the object increases. Figure 5 shows a block of metal with a hole in
it. The expanded object is like a photographic enlargement. That in the hole expands in the same
proportion as the metal, it does not get smaller

NEET_XI_PHYSICS (HEAT AND THERMODYNAMICS) # 64

 Calorimetry & Thermal Expansion

Potential
energy

r0 r1
r2
r
E2
E1

Thermal expansion arises because the well is

not symmetrical about the equilibrium position r0.
As the temperature rise the energy of the atom increases.
The average position when the energy is E 2 is not
the same as that when the energy is E1.

Figure : 5 Figure : 6

At the atomic level, thermal expansion may be understood by considering how the potential energy of
the atoms varies with distance. The equilibrium position of an atom will be at the minimum of the
potential energy well if the well is symmetric. At a given temperature each atom vibrates about its
equilibrium position and its average remains at the minimum point. If the shape of the well is not
symmetrical the average position of an atom will not be at the minimum point. When the temperature is
raised the amplitude of the vibrations increases and the average position is located at a greater
interatomic separation. This increased separation is manifested as expansion of the material as shown
in figure 6.
Almost all solids and liquids expand as their temperature increases. Gases also expand as shown in
figure 6. If allowed. Solids can change in length, area or volume, while liquids change in their volumes.

Example 9. A rectangular plate has a circular cavity as shown in the figure. If we increase its temperature
then which dimension will increase in following figure.

Solution : Distance between any two point on an object increases with increase in temperature.
So, all dimension a, b, c and d will increase
Example 10. In the given figure, when temperature is increased then which of the following increases

(1) R1 (2) R2 (3) R2 – R1 (4) None of these

Solution : All of the above
- - - - - represents expanded Boundary
--------- represents original Boundary

As the intermolecular distance between atoms increases on heating hence the inner and outer
perimeter increases. Also if the atomic arrangement in radial direction is observed then we can
say that it also increases hence all A,B,C are true.

NEET_XI_PHYSICS (HEAT AND THERMODYNAMICS) # 65

 Calorimetry & Thermal Expansion


5. LINEAR EXPANSION
When the rod is heated, its increase in length L is proportional to its original length L 0 and change in
temperature T where T is in ºC or K. Referring figure 7.

Figure : 7
dL = L0 dT  L =  L0  T If  T << 1
L
= where  is called the coefficient of linear expansion whose unit is ºC 1 or K1.
L0  T
L = L0 (1 +  T). Where L is the length after heating the rod.
Variation of a with temperature and distance
(a) If  varies with distance,  = ax + b.
Then total expansion =  (ax + b) T dx.

(b) If  varies with temperature,  = f (T). Then L =  L0 dT


Note : Actually thermal expansion is always 3-D expansion. When other two dimensions of object are
negligible with respect to one, then observations are significant only in one dimension and it is
known as linear expansion.

Example 11. What is the percentage change in length of 1m iron rod if its temperature changes by 100ºC.
 for iron is 2 × 10–5/ºC.
Solution : percentage change in length due to temperature change

% = × 100 =  × 100 = 2 × 10–5 × 100 × 100 = 0.2% Ans.


5.1 Thermal stress of a material:
If a rod is free to expand then there will be no stress and strain. Stress and strain is produced
only when an object is restricted to expand or contract according to change in temperature.
When the temperature of the rod is decreased or increased under constrained condition ,
compressive or tensile stresses are developed in the rod. These stresses are known as
thermal stresses.
L final length – original length
Strain = = = T ,
L0 original length


Note : Original and final length should be at same temperature.

Consider a rod of length 0 which is fixed between to rigid supports separated at a distance 0 now if
the temperature of the rod is increased by  then the strain produced in the rod will be (see figure 8):
//////////////////////////////
//////////////////////////////

F F

0

Figure : 8

NEET_XI_PHYSICS (HEAT AND THERMODYNAMICS) # 66

 Calorimetry & Thermal Expansion

length of the rod at new temperature- natural length of the rod at new temperature
strain 
natural length of the rod at new temperature
0  0 (1 
)  0 
= =
0 (1  ) 0 (1  )
  is very small. So,  << 1
strain = –  (negative sign in the answer represents that the length of the rod is less than the natural
length that means is compressed at the ends.)

Example 12. In the given figure a rod is free at one end and other end is fixed. When we change the
temperature of rod by , then strain produced in the rod will be

1
(1)  
(2)
2
(3) zero (4) information incomplete
Solution : Here rod is free to expand from one side by so by changing temperature no strain will be
produced in the rod. Hence ans. is (3 )
Example 13. An iron ring measuring 15.00 cm in diameter is to be shrunk on a pulley which is 15.05 cm in
diameter. All measurements refer to the room temperature 20°C. To what minimum
temperature should the ring be heated to make the job possible? Calculate the strain
developed in the ring when it comes to the room temperature. Coefficient of linear expansion of
iron = 12 × 10–6/°C.
Solution : The ring should be heated to increase its diameter from 15.00 cm to 15.05 cm.
(  1)
Using 2 = 1 (1 +  ),   = 2
1

0.05 cm
= = 278°C
15.00 cm  12  10 6 /º C
The temperature = 20°C + 278°C = 298°C.
 1
The strain developed = 2 = 3.33 × 10–3
1

Example 14. A steel rod of length 1m rests on a smooth horizontal base. If it is heated from 0°C to 100°C,
what is the longitudinal strain developed?
Solution : in absence of external force no strain or stress will be created hear rod is free to move.

Example 15. A steel rod is clamped at its two ends and rests on a fixed horizontal base. The rod is in natural
length at 20°C. Find the longitudinal strain developed in the rod if the temperature rises to
50°C. Coefficient of linear expansion of steel = 1.2 × 10–5/°C.
Solution : as we known that strain
change in length 
strain = =
original length 0
 Strain = 
= 1.2 × 10–5 × (50 – 20) = 3.6 × 10–4
here strain is compressive strain because final length is smaller than initial length.

Example 16. A steel wire of cross-sectional area 0.5 mm 2 is held between two fixed supports. If the wire is
just taut at 20°C, determine the tension when the temperature falls to 0°C. Coefficient of linear
expansion of steel is 1.2 × 10–5/°C and its Young’s modulus is 2.0 × 1011 N/m2.
Solution : here final length is more than original length so that strain is tensile and tensile force is given by
F = AY  t = 0.5 × 10–6 × 2 × 1011 × 1.2 × 10–5 × 20 = 24 N

NEET_XI_PHYSICS (HEAT AND THERMODYNAMICS) # 67

 Calorimetry & Thermal Expansion


5.2 Variation of time period of pendulum clocks:
The time represented by the clock hands of a pendulum clock depends on the number of
oscillation performed by pendulum every time it reaches to its extreme position the second
hand of the clock advances by one second that means second hand moves by two seconds
when one oscillation in complete
L0 L
Let T = 2  at temperature 0 and T = 2  at temperature .
g g

T L L 1     1
= = = 1+ (Binomial approximation is used)
T L L 2
Therefore change (loss or gain) in time per unit time lapsed is
T´T 1
= 
T 2
gain or loss in time in duration of 't' in
1
 t =  t , if T is the correct time then 
2
  (a)  < 0 , T < T clock becomes fast and gains time
 (b)  > 0 , T > T clock becomes slow and looses time


Example 17. A pendulum clock consists of an iron rod connected to a small, heavy bob. If it is designed to
keep correct time at 20°C, how fast or slow will it go in 24 hours at 40°C? Coefficient of linear
expansion of iron = 1.2 × 10–6 /°C.
Solution : The time difference occurred in 24 hours (86400 seconds) is given by
1
  t =   t
2
1
= × 1.2 × 10–6 × 20 × 86400 = 1.04 sec. Ans.
2
This is loss of time as  is greater than 0 . As the temperature increases, the time period also
increases. Thus, the clock goes slow.

5.3 Measurement of length by metallic scale:
Case (i)
When object is expands only (figure 9a)
2 = 1 {1 + 0(2 – 1)
1 = actual length of object at 1ºC = measure length of object at 1ºC.
2 = actual length of object at 2ºC = measure length of object at 2ºC.
0 = linear expansion coefficient of object.
1
1

2
2

0 2 3
Figure : 9a

NEET_XI_PHYSICS (HEAT AND THERMODYNAMICS) # 68

Calorimetry & Thermal Expansion

Case (ii)
When only measuring instrument is expanded actual length of object will not change but
measured value (MV) decreases (figure 9b).
MV = 1 { 1 – S (2 – 1)}
S = linear expansion coefficient of measuring instrument.
at 1 C MV = 3
at 1 C MV = 2.2
1

1ºC
0 1 2 3 4

2ºC 2
0 1 3
Figure : 9b
Case (iii)
If both expanded simultaneously (figure 9c).
MV = {1 + (0 – s) (2 – 1)
(i) If 0 > s, then measured value is more then actual value at 1ºC
(ii) If 0 < s, then measured value is less then actual value at 1ºC
1
1ºC
2
2ºC

1ºC
0 1 2 3 4 5

2ºC
0 1 2 3 4
Figure : 9c
at 1ºC MV = 3.4
2ºC MV = 4.1
Measured value = calibrated value × {1 + }
where  = 0 – s
o = coefficient of linear expansion of object material, s = coefficient of linear expansion of
scale material.
= C
  = temperature at the time of measurement C = temperature at the time of calibration.
For scale, true measurement = scale reading [1 +  (0)]
If   > 0 true measurement > scale reading
 < 0 true measurement < scale reading

NEET_XI_PHYSICS (HEAT AND THERMODYNAMICS) # 69

 Calorimetry & Thermal Expansion

Example 18. A bar measured with a vernier caliper is found to be 180mm long. The temperature during the
measurement is 10ºC. The measurement error will be if the scale of the vernier caliper has
been graduated at a temperature of 20ºC : ( = 1.1 × 10-5 °C-1. Assume that the length of the
bar does not change.)
(1) 1.98 × 10–1 mm (2*) 1.98 × 10–2 mm (3) 1.98 × 10–3 mm (4) 1.98 × 10–4 mm
Solution : True measurement = scale reading [1 +  (0)]
= 180 × {1+ (10 – 20) × (–1.1 × 10–5) }
measurement error = true measurment – scale reading
= 180 × {1+ (10 – 20) × (–1.1 × 10–5) } – 180
= 1.98 × 10–2 mm

6. SUPERFICIAL OR AREAL EXPANSION
When a solid is heated and its area increases, then the thermal expansion is called superficial or areal
expansion. Consider a solid plate of area A0. When it is heated, the change in area of the plate is
directly proportional to the original area A0 and the change in temperature T.
dA = A0 dT or A =  A0  T ;  is called real expansion
A
= Unit of  is ºC1 or K1.
A0  T
A = A0 (1 +  T)
L0
size of object
L0 L
L
 at 1 < 2

L size of object

at 2

Figure : 10
Where, A is area of the plate after heating.
From figure 9, it follows that  = 2.

Example 19. A plane lamina has area 2m 2 at 10ºC then what is its area at 110ºC t’s superficial
expansion is 2 × 10–5/C
Solution : A = A0 ( 1 + ) = 2 {1 + 2 × 105 × (110 – 10)}
= 2 × {1 + 2 × 10–3} m2 Ans.

7. VOLUME OR CUBICAL EXPANSION
When a solid is heated and its volume increases, then the expansion is called volume expansion or
cubical expansion. Let us consider a solid or liquid whose original volume is V 0. When it is heated to a
new volume, then the change V
dV = V0 dT or V =  V0  T
V
= Unit of  is ºC1 or K1.
V0  T
V = V0 (1 +   T)
where V is the volume of the body after heating.
It can be shown easily that  = 3 for isotropic solids.

NEET_XI_PHYSICS (HEAT AND THERMODYNAMICS) # 70

 Calorimetry & Thermal Expansion

Example 20. The volume of glass vessel is 1000 cc at 20°C. What volume of mercury should be poured into
it at this temperature so that the volume of the remaining space does not change with
temperature? Coefficient of cubical expansion of mercury and glass are 1.8 × 10 –4/°C and
9.0 × 10–6/°C respectively.
Solution : Let volume of glass vessel at 20ºC is Vg and volume of mercury at 20ºC is Vm
so volume of remaining space is = Vg – Vm
It is given constant so that
Vg – Vm = Vg’ – V’m
where Vo' and Vm' are final volumes.
Vg – Vm = Vg {1 + g } – Vm{1 + Hg }  Vg g = Vm Hg
100  9  10 6
 Vm = Vm = 50 cc.
1.8  10 4

8. RELATION BETWEEN ,  AND 
  
(i) For isotropic solids:  :  :  = 1 : 2 : 3 or
= =
1 2 3
(ii) For non-isotropic solid  = 1 + 2 and  = 1 + 2 + 3. Here 1, 2 and 3 are coefficient of linear
expansion in X, Y and Z direction.

Example 21. If percentage change in length is 1% with change in temperature of a cuboid object
( × 2 × 3) then what ispercentage change in its area and volume.
Solution : percentage change in length with change in temperature = % 

×100 = × 100 = 1

A
change in area % A = × 100 = × 100
A
2 (× 100) % A = 2 % Ans.
Change in volume
V
%V= × 100 = V × 100 = 3 (× 100) % V = 3 % Ans.
V

9. VARIATION OF DENSITY WITH TEMPERATURE
As we known that mass = volume × density .
Mass of substance does not change with change in temperature so with increase of temperature,
volume increases so density decreases and vice-versa.
d0
d= .
(1  T)
For solids values of  are generally small so we can write d = d0 (1 T) (using binomial expansion).


Note : (i)  for liquids is of the order of 103 .
(ii) Anamolous expansion of water :
For water density increases from 0 ºC to 4 ºC so  is negative and for 4 ºC to higher
temperature  is positive. At 4 ºC density is maximum as shown in figure 10. This anamolous
behaviour of water is due to presence of three types of molecules i.e. H 2O, (H2O)2 and (H2O)3
having different volume/mass at different temperatures.

NEET_XI_PHYSICS (HEAT AND THERMODYNAMICS) # 71

 Calorimetry & Thermal Expansion

Figure : 11
This anomalous behaviour of water causes ice to form first at the surface of a lake in cold weather. As
winter approaches, the water temperature decreases initially at the surface. The water there sinks
because of its increased density. Consequently, the surface reaches 00C first and the lake becomes
covered with ice. Aquatic life is able to survive the cold winter as the lake bottom remains unfrozen at a
temperature of about 40C.

Example 22. The densities of wood and benzene at 0°C are 880 kg/m 3 and 900 kg/m 3 respectively. The
coefficients of volume expansion are 1.2 × 10–3/°C for wood and 1.5 × 10–3/°C for benzene. At
what temperature will a piece of wood just sink in benzene?
Solution : At just sink gravitation force = upthrust force
 mg = FB 
   V1g = V2g
 1 = 2
880 900
 3
=
1  1.2  10  1  1.5  103 
  = 83º C


10. APPARENT EXPANSION OF A LIQUID IN A CONTAINER
Initially container was full . When temperature increases by T,
volume of liquid VL = V0 (1 + L  T)
volume of container VC = V0 (1 + C  T)

Figure : 12 (a)
So overflow volume of liquid relative to container
 V = VL  VC V = V0 (L  C) T
So, coefficient of apparent expansion of liquid w.r.t.
Container 
  apparent = L C .
In case of expansion of liquid + container system:
if L > C  level of liquid rise
if L < C  level of liquid fall
Increase in height of liquid level in tube when bulb was initially completely filled as shown in figure 11.

NEET_XI_PHYSICS (HEAT AND THERMODYNAMICS) # 72

 Calorimetry & Thermal Expansion

Figure : 12 (b)
volume of liquid V0 (1  L T)
h= = = h0 { 1 + ( L – 2S) T}
area of tube A 0 (1  2S T)
h = h0 { 1 + ( L – 2S) T}
where h0 = original height of liquid in container
 S = linear coefficient of expansion of container.

Example 23. A glass vessel of volume 100 cm 3 is filled with mercury and is heated from 25°C to 75°C. What
volume of mercury will overflow? Coefficient of linear expansion of glass = 1.8 × 10 –6/°C and
coefficient of volume expansion of mercury is 1.8 × 10–4/°C.
Solution : V = V0(L – C) T = 100 × {1.8 × 10–4 – 3 × 1.8 × 10–6 } × 50
V = 0.87 cm3 Ans.

11. VARIATION OF FORCE OF BUOYANCY WITH TEMPERATURE
If body is submerged completely inside the liquid
For solid, Buoyancy force FB = V 0 d L g
V0 = Volume of the solid inside liquid,
dL = density of liquid
Volume of body after increase its temperature V = V0 [1 + S ] ,
dL
Density of body after increase its temperature dL = .
1   L   
FB 1   S   
Buoyancy force of body after increase its temperature, FB = V dL g  =  ,
FB 1  L  
If S < L then FB < FB
(Buoyant force decreases) or apparent weight of body in liquid gets increased
[W  FB > W  FB].

Example 24. A body is floating on the liquid if we increases temperature then what changes occur in
buoyancy force. (Assume body is always in floating condition)

Figure : 13
Solution : Body is in equilibrium (see figure 13)
So, mg = B (Boyant Force)
The gravitational force does not change with change in temperature. So buoyancy force
remains constant.
By increasing temperature density of liquid decreases so volume of body inside the liquid
increases to kept the Buoyance force constant and equal to gravitational force)

NEET_XI_PHYSICS (HEAT AND THERMODYNAMICS) # 73

 Calorimetry & Thermal Expansion

Example 25. In previous question discuss the case when body move downward, upwards and remains at
same position when we increases temperature.
Solution : Let f = fraction of volume of body submerged in liquid.
volume of body submerged in liquid
f=
total volume of body
v1 v2
f1 = at 1ºC f2 = at 2ºC
v0 v 0 (1  3S )
for equilibrium mg = B = v1d1g = v2d2g.
vd d1 v1(1  L )
so v2 = 1 1  d2 = = v1(1 + L )  f2 =
d2 1  L  v 0 (1  3 s )
where  = 2 – 1
Case I : Body move downward if f2 > f1
means L > 3S
Case II : Body move upwards if f2 < f1
means L < 3S
Case III : Body remains at same position
if f2 = f1
means L = 3S


12. BIMETALLIC STRIP
It two strip of different metals are welded together to form a bimetallic strip, when heated uniformly it
bends in form of an arc, the metal with greater coefficient of linear expansion lies on convex side. The
radius of arc thus formed by bimetal is (see figure 14) :

a2
0
t
d

2> 1
a1
Lower temperature (at 1ºC)
On 250C
Figure : 14 (a)
d
1   2  R
 d  d 2
0 (1 +1) =  R     0 (1 +2) =  R     =
 2  2 1  1 d
R
2

Bimetallic strrip

Higher temperature (at 2ºC) (Off) 300C

Figure : 14 (b)
d
 R   = change in temperature = 2 – 1
(  2  1 )

NEET_XI_PHYSICS (HEAT AND THERMODYNAMICS) # 74

 Calorimetry & Thermal Expansion

(i) (ii)
Figure : 14 (c)
A bimetallic strip, consisting of a strip of brass and a strip of steel welded together as shown in figure
14 (c). At temperature T0 in figure 14(c) (i) and figure 14 (c) (ii). The strip bends as shown at
temperatures above the reference temperature. Below the reference temperature the strip bends the
other way. Many thermostats operate on this principle, making and breaking an electrical constant as
the temperature rises and falls as shown in figure 14 (b).
13. APPLICATIONS OF THERMAL EXPANSION
(a) A small gap is left between two iron rails of the railway.
(b) Iron rings are slipped on the wooden wheels by heating the iron rings
(c) Stopper of a glass bottle jammed in its neck can be taken out by heating the neck.
(d) The pendulum of a clock is made of invar [an alloy of zinc and copper].
14. TEMPERATURE
Temperature may be defined as the degree of hotness or coldness of a body. Heat energy flows from
a body at higher temperature to that at lower temperature until their temperatures become equal. At this
stage, the bodies are said to be in thermal equilibrium.
14.1 Measurement of Temperature
The branch of thermodynamics which deals with the measurement of temperature is called
thermometry. A thermometer is a device used to measure the temperature of a body. The substances
like liquids and gases which are used in the thermometer are called thermometric substances.
Supoose a physical quantity X varies linealy with temperature then
X  X0
Xt = X0(1 + t)  t t
X0 
 is constant and X0 is value of X at reference temperature set at 0º. In case of absolute scale
XT T X X
  T  T0 T = 273.16 T K
X0 T0 X0 X0
14.2 Different Scales of Temperature
A thermometer can be graduated into following scales.
(a) The Centigrade or Celsius scale (ºC) (b) The Fahrenheit scale (ºF)
(c) The Reaumer scale (ºR) (d) Kelvin scale of temperature (K)
14.3 Comparison Between Different Temperature Scales
K C F
Water boils 373.15 100 212
body temp. 310.2 37.0 98.6
Room temp. 300 27 80.6
Triple point of water 273.16 0.01
Water freezes 273.15 0 32

Solid CO2 195 - 78 - 109

Hydrogen boils 20.7 -252.5 - 422.5

Absolute zero 0 -273.15 - 489.67
Figure : 15
The formula for the conversion between different temperature scales is:
K  273 C F  32 R
= = =
100 100 180 80
General formula for the conversion of temperature from one scale to another:
Temp on one scale(S1 )-Lower fixed point (S1 )
Upper fixed point (S2 )  Lower fixed point (S1 )
Temp. on other scale(S2 )-Lower fixed point (S2 )
=
Upper fixed point (S2 )  Lower fixed point (S2 )

NEET_XI_PHYSICS (HEAT AND THERMODYNAMICS) # 75

Calorimetry & Thermal Expansion

14.4 Thermometers
Thermometers are device that are used to measure temperatures. All thermometers are based
on the principle that some physical property of a system changes as the system temperature
changes.
Required properties of good thermometric substance.
(1) Non-sticky (absence of adhesive force)
(2) Low melting point (in comparison with room temperature)
(3) High boiling temperature
(4) Coefficient of volumetric expansion should be high (to increase accuracy in
measurement).
(5) Heat capacity should be low.
(6) Conductivity should be high
Mercury (Hg) suitably exhibits above properties.
14.5 Types of Thermometers
Type of
Thermometric
thermometer and Advantages Disadvantages Particular Uses
property
its range
(i) Every laboratory use where high accuracy
Length of column of (i) Quick and easy to (i) Fragile is not required.
Mercury-in-glass
mercury in capillary (direct reading) (ii) Small size limits (ii) Can be calibrated against constant-
– 39ºC to 450ºC
tube (ii) Easily portable (iii) Limited range volume gas thermometer for more
accurate work
(i) Very accurate (i) Very large volume of bulb (i) Standard against which others calibrated
Constant-volume Pressure of a fixed
(ii) Very sensitive (ii) Slow to use and (ii) He, H2 or N2 used depending on range
gas thermometer – mass of gas at
(iii) Wide range inconvenient (iii) can be corrected to the ideal gas scale
270º to 1500ºC constant volume
(iv) Easily reproducible (iv) Used as standard below-183ºC
(i) Best thermometer for small steady
Platinum Not suitable for varying
Electrical resistance (i) Accurate temperature differences
resistance –180º temperature (i.e., is slow to
of a platinum coil (ii) Wide range (ii) Used as standard between 183ºC and
to 1150ºC respond to changes)
630ºC.
(i) Fast response
Emf produced Accuracy is lost if emf is (i) Best thermometer for small steady
because of low heat
between junctions of measured using a moving- temperature differences
capacity.
Thermocouple dissimilar metals at coil voltmeter (as may be (ii) Can be made direct reading by calibrating
(ii) wide range
–250ºC to 1150ºC different necessary for rapid changes galvanometer
(iii) can be employed for
temperatures for when potentiometer is (iii) Used as standard between 630ºC and
remote readings using
measurement of emfs unsuitable) 1063ºC
long leads.
Radiation Does not come into (i) Cumbersome (i) Only thermometer possible for very high
Colour of radiation
pyrometer above contact when (ii) Not direct reading (needs temperatures
emitted by a hot body
1000ºC temperature is measured a trained observer) (ii) Used as standard above 1063ºC.

14.6 The constant-volume gas thermometer

The standard thermometer, against which all other thermometers are calibrated, is based on
the pressure of a gas in a fixed volume. Figure shows such a constant volume gas
thermometer; it consists of a gas-filled bulb connected by a tube to a mercury monometer.

Figure : 16
 p 
T = (273.16 K)  lim 
gas0 p
 3 
P = Pressure at the temperature being measured,
P3 = pressure when bulb in a triple point cell.

NEET_XI_PHYSICS (HEAT AND THERMODYNAMICS) # 76

 Calorimetry & Thermal Expansion

Example 26. The readings of a thermometer at 0ºC and 100ºC are 50 cm and 75 cm of mercury column
respectively. Find the temperature at which its reading is 80 cm of mercury column?
Solution : By using formula
80  50 T0
=  T = 120ºC
75  50 100  0

Problem 1. A bullet of mass 10 gm in moving with speed 400m/s. Find its kinetic energy in calories ?
1 10
Solution : k = × × 400 × 400 = 800
2 1000
800
= 191.11 Cal.
4.2
Problem 2. Calculate amount of heat required to convert 1 kg steam from 100ºC to 200ºC steam
1
Solution : Heat req. = 1 × × 100 = 50 kcal
2
Problem 3. Calculate heat required to raise the temperature of 1 g of water through 1ºC ?
Solution : heat req. = 1 × 10–3 × 1 × 1 = 1 × 10–3 kcal
Problem 4. 420 J of energy supplied to 10 g of water will raise its temperature by
420  10 3
Solution : = 10 × 10–3 × 1 × t = 10º C
4.20
Problem 5. The ratio of the densities of the two bodies is 3 : 4 and the ratio of specific heats is 4 : 3 . Find
the ratio of their thermal capacities for unit volume ?
1 3 s 4 ms 1 s 
Solution : = , 1 =  =  = 1 × 1 = 1 : 1.
2 4 s2 3 m/ 2 s2 2
Problem 6. Heat releases by 1 kg steam at 150ºC if it convert into 1 kg water at 50ºC.
1
Solution : H=1× × 50 + 1 × 540 + 1 × 1 × 50
2
= 540 + 75 = 615 Kcal
Heat release = 615 Kcal.
Problem 7. 200 gm water is filled in a calorimetry of negligible heat capacity. It is heated till its temperature
is increase by 20ºC. Find the heat supplied to the water.
Solution : H = 200 × 10–3 × 1 × 20 = 4 Kcal.
Heat supplied = 4000 cal = 4 Kcal
Problem 8. A bullet of mass 5 gm is moving with speed 400 m/s. strike a target and energy. Then calculate
rise of temperature of bullet. Assuming all the lose in kinetic energy is converted into heat
energy of bullet if its specific heat is. 500J/kgºC.
1
Solution : Kinetic energy = × 5 × 10–3 × 400 × 400 = 5 × 10–3 × 500 × T
2
T = 160º C
Rise in temperature is 160 ºC
Problem 9. 1 kg ice at –10ºC is mixed with 1 kg water at 100ºC. Then find equilibrium temperature and
mixture content.
1
Solution : Heat gained by 1 kg ice at – 10ºC to convert into 0ºC ice = 1 × × 10 = 5 Kcal = 5000 cal
2
In the thermal equilibrium
5 + 1 × 80 + 1 × T = 1 × (100 – T)
85 = 100 – 2T  2T = 15
15
= = 7.5 ºC, water, entire ice melts.
2

NEET_XI_PHYSICS (HEAT AND THERMODYNAMICS) # 77

 Calorimetry & Thermal Expansion

Problem 10. 1 kg ice at –10º is mixed with 1kg water at 50ºC. Then find equilibrium temperature and mixture
content.
Solution : Heat required by ice at –10ºC to convert it into 0ºC water
1
1× × 10 + 1 × 50 = 55 Kcal
2
Heat released by 1 kg water to reduce it temperature from
50ºC to 0ºC = 1 × 1 × 50 = 50 kcal
Heat required > Heat released so, ice will not complete melt. Let m g ice melt then for
equilibrium.
1 45
1× × 10 + 80 m = 50 m  80 m = 45  m=
2 80
  45  
 water  1  80  kg
   
Content of mixture   and temperature is 0ºC
 ice  45  
 1  kg
  80  
Problem 11. A small ring having small gap is shown in figure on heating what will happen to size of gap ?

Solution : Gap will also increase. The reason is same as in above example.
Problem 12. A concrete slab has a length of 10 m in a winter night when the temperature is 0°C. Find the
length of the slab on a summer day when the temperature is 35°C. The coefficient of linear
expansion of concrete is 1.0 × 10–5 /°C.
Solution : t = 10(1 + 1 × 10–5 × 35) = 10.0035 m
Problem 13. A steel rod is clamped at its two ends and rests on a fixed horizontal base. The rod is
unstrained at 20°C. Find the longitudinal strain developed in the rod if the temperature rises to
50°C. Coefficient of linear expansion of steel = 1.2 × 10–5/°C.
 t
Solution :  0 = – 3.6 × 10–4
0
Problem 14. If rod is initially compressed by  length then what is the strain on the rod when the
temperature
(a) is increased by  (b) is decreased by .
 
Solution: (a) Strain = +  (b) Strain =  

Problem 15. A pendulum clock having copper rod keeps correct time at 20°C. It gains 15 seconds per day if
cooled to 0°C. Calculate the coefficient of linear expansion of copper.
15 1 1
Solution : =  × 20  = = 1.7 × 10–5/°C
24  60  60 2 16  3600
Problem 16. A meter scale made of steel is calibrated at 20°C to give correct reading. Find the distance
between 50 cm mark and 51 cm mark if the scale is used at 10°C. Coefficient of linear
expansion of steel is 1.1 × 10–5/°C.
Solution : t = 1 (1 – 1.1 × 10–5 × 10) = 0.99989 cm
Problem 17. A uniform solid brass sphere is rotating with angular speed 0 about a diameter. If its
temperature is now increased by 100ºC. What will be its new angular speed.
(Given B = 2.0 × 10–5 perºC)
0 0 0 0
(1) (2) (3*) (4)
1  0.002 1  0.002 1  0.004 1  0.004

Solution : 0 0 = t t  Mr02 0 = Mr02 (1 + 2T)t  t = 0
.
1  0.004

NEET_XI_PHYSICS (HEAT AND THERMODYNAMICS) # 78

 Calorimetry & Thermal Expansion

Problem 18. The volume occupied by a thin - wall brass vessel and the volume of a solid brass sphere are
the same and equal to 1,000 cm 3 at 0ºC. How much will the volume of the vessel and that of
the sphere change upon heating to 20ºC? The coefficient of linear expansion of brass is
 = 1.9 × 10-5.
Solution : V = V0 (1 + 3 T) = 1.14 cm3  1.14 cm3 for both
Problem 19. A thin copper wire of length L increases in length by 1%, when heated from temperature T 1 to
T2. What is the percentage change in area when a thin copper plate having dimensions 2L × L
is heated from T1 to T2 ?
(1) 1% (2) 3% (3) 4% (4*) 2%
Lf
Solution : f = L (1 + t ) = × 100 = (1 + t) × 100 = 1%
L
Af
A = 2L × L (1 + 2 t) = × 100 = (1 + 2 t) × 100 = 2%
2L  L
Problem 20. The density of water at 0°C is 0.998 g/cm 3 and at 4°C is 1.000 g/cm 3. Calculate the average
coefficient of volume expansion of water in the temperature range 0 to 4°C.
d0 0.998
Solution : dt =  1= = – 5 × 10–4 / 0C
1  t 1   4
Problem 21. A glass vessel measures exactly 10 cm × 10 cm × 10 cm at 0°C. it is filled completely with
mercury at this temperature. When the temperature is raised to 10°C, 1.6 cm 3 of mercury
overflows. Calculate the coefficient of volume expansion of mercury. Coefficient of linear
expansion of glass = 6.5 × 10–6/°C
Solution : V = VHg – VV
1.6 = 103 ( × 10 – 103 × 3 × 6.5 × 10–6 × 10
L = (1.6 + 0.195) × 10–4 = 1.795 × 10–4 /0C
Problem 22. A metal ball immersed in alcohol weighs W 1 at 00C and W 2 at 500C. The coefficient of cubical
expansion of the metal is less than alcohol. Assuming that density of the metal is large
compared to that of the alcohol, find which of W 1 and W 2 is greater?
F´B [1   S ]
Solution : M <  so, = F´  F
FB [1   ] B B
so Apprent weight increased so, W 2 > W 1
Problem 23. In figure which strip brass or steel have higher coefficient of linear expansion.

Solution : Brass Strip ; strip of higher  is on convex side.

Problem 24. The upper and lower fixed points of a faulty thermometer are 5ºC and 105º C. f the
thermometer reads 25º C , what is the actual temperature ?
25  5 C – 0
Solution :   C = 20º C
100 100
Problem 25. At what temperature is the Fahrenheit scale reading equal to twice of Celsius ?
F  32 C0 2x  32 x0
Solution : =  = 1x – 160 = 9x  x = 160º C
180 100 180 100
Problem 26. Temperature of a patient is 40º C. Find the temperature on Fahrenheit scale ?
F  32 40  0
Solution : =  F = 104º F
180 100

NEET_XI_PHYSICS (HEAT AND THERMODYNAMICS) # 79