United States Telecommunications Training Institute

Radio Frequency Spectrum Management

Introduction to Spectrum Engineering

September 23, 2019
Presentation
by

Mohammed A. Shamma
mshamma@ntia.doc.gov

U.S. Department of Commerce · National Telecommunications and Information Administration

1
 OUTLINE

• The Communications System Blocks

• The Spectrum Chart and Designations
• Abbreviations , and Spectrum Management
Units
• Basics of Modulation
• Analog vs. Digital Systems
• Multiple Access Concepts
• Fundamentals of Propagation
• Antennas
• Applications and Examples
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2
THE COMMUNICATIONS SYSTEM
BLOCKS

3
 COMMUNICATIONS SYSTEM
TRANSMITTER
Information
Modulator RR Amplifier Antenna
RF Carrier

Transmission
Path and
propagation

RECEIVER
Re Output
Antenna Selectivity Amplifier Demodulator
Transducer

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4
THE SPECTRUM CHART AND
DESIGNATIONS

5
The Spectrum Chart
 Frequency Band Designations
VLF ………3-30 kHz……………Submarine Communications
LF ………30-300 kHz……….Submarine/Navigation
MF ………300-3000 kHz……Navigation/Time Signals/AM
HF ………..3-30 MHz………….Shortwave/Amateur
VHF ………30-300 MHz….....Police/Fire/LMR, FM
UHF ………300-3000 MHz….Police/Fire/LMR, HDTV
SHF ……….3-30 GHz …………Radar/Satellite/Telemetry
EHF ……….30-300 GHz………Radar/Sat/Microwaves
Source: ITU
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7
 LETTER BAND ABBREVIATIONS
• L ……………………… 1000-2000 MHz
• S ……………………… 2000-4000 MHz
• C ………………………. 4000-8000 MHz
• X ……………………….. 8000-12,000 MHz
• Ku ……………………… 12-18 GHz
• K ……………………….. 18-27 GHz
• Ka ………………………. 27-40 GHz
• V ………………………... 40-75 GHz
• W ……………………….. 75-110 GHz
Source: IEEE Standard 521-2002
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8
ABBREVIATIONS , AND SPECTRUM
MANAGEMENT UNITS

9
BASIC SPECTRUM MANAGEMENT UNITS
Watts (W) – Power
Milliwatts (mW)
Kilowatts (KW)
Megawatts (MW)

Volts (V) – Potential

Microvolts (µvolts)
Millivolts (mV)

Hertz (Hz) – Frequency

Kilohertz (kHz)
Megahertz (MHz)
Gigahertz (GHz)
Terahertz (THz)
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10
 SPECTRUM MANAGEMENT PREFIXES

Prefix Symbol Value Prefix Symbol Value

pico- P 10-12 tera- T 1012
nano- n 10-9 giga- G 109
micro- µ 10-6 mega- M 106
milli- m 10-3 kilo- k 103

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11
 What is a Decibel (dB)?
• Very important
• Language of spectrum managers and engineers
• Origin – telephone audio circuits
• “Bell” is named after Alexander Graham Bell
• A logarithmic ratio term, base 10
• Dimensionless, but often used as a dimension
• A ratio term, always used in comparison to
standard units, such as watts, milliwatts, etc.
• Easy to use logarithmic form – values can be easily
added or subtracted rather than multiplied

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12
 dB TERMS

• Voltage Ratio dB = 20 log (V2/V1)

• Power Ratio dB = 10 log (P2/P1)

• Voltage Level dBμV = 20 log (V/1μV)

• Power Level dBm = 10 log (P/1mW)

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13
 MOST USED dB TERMS
• dBm number of dB compared to 1 milliwatt (mW)

• dBW number of dB compared to 1 watt

• dBi is an antenna gain term, meaning the “directivity”,

“intensity” or “gain” of an antenna compared to an
isotropic radiator

• dBd is an antenna gain term, compared to a dipole antenna

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14
 dBm CALCULATION EXAMPLE
Converting watts to dBm
𝐏𝐏 (𝐰𝐰𝐰𝐰𝐰𝐰𝐰𝐰𝐰𝐰)
𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏 𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝 = 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 𝑳𝑳𝑳𝑳𝑳𝑳𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏
𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏−𝟑𝟑 (𝐰𝐰𝐰𝐰𝐰𝐰𝐰𝐰𝐰𝐰)

𝐏𝐏 (𝐰𝐰𝐰𝐰𝐰𝐰𝐰𝐰𝐰𝐰)
𝐏𝐏𝐨𝐨𝐨𝐨𝐨𝐨𝐨𝐨 𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝 = 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 𝑳𝑳𝑳𝑳𝑳𝑳𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏
𝟎𝟎.𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝐰𝐰𝐰𝐰𝐰𝐰𝐰𝐰𝐰𝐰

Example: 150 watts

𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 𝐰𝐰𝐰𝐰𝐰𝐰𝐰𝐰𝐰𝐰
𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏 𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝 = 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 𝑳𝑳𝑳𝑳𝑳𝑳𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏
𝟎𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝐰𝐰𝐰𝐰𝐰𝐰𝐰𝐰𝐰𝐰

𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏 𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝 = 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 𝑳𝑳𝑳𝑳𝑳𝑳𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 150,000

𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏 𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝 = 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 (5.18) = 51.8

Results: 150 watts = 51.8 dBm

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15
 dBm Calculation Examples
1) 25mW max. allowed radiated power in the EU
Short Range Devices (SRD) band
Converting to dBm:
dBm = 10 log (25mW/1mW) = 10 log 25
= 10 (1.397) = 13.97 = 14 dBm
2) Receiver sensitivity is typically 1 microvolt (1μV)
Converting to dBm ( 50 ohm input impedance)
Using web-based calculator = -107 dBm
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16
MODULATION

17
 Pulse Modulation

-The Carrier is a pulse

train
-One of Amplitude, Pulse
Duration, or position
varied based on samples
of input message (which
may be coded samples
for digital)

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 SIGNAL CHARACTERISTICS • some characteristic of the radio signal
The complete, time-
varying radio signal
Natural Frequency
of the signal
must be altered (I.e., ‘modulated’) to
represent the information

S (t) = A cos [ ωc t + ϕ ] • The main purpose of

telecommunications is to send
Amplitude (strength)
information from one location to
Phase of the signal
of the signal another
• The sender and receiver have common
Compare these Signals: understanding of how to send and
receive.
Different
Amplitudes
• Three commonly-used RF signal
characteristics which can be varied for
information transmission:
Different – Amplitude
Frequencies
– Frequency
– Phase
Different
Phases

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 WHAT IS BANDWIDTH?
Many Definitions of
BW exist, Some are
-3dB, others -20 dB,
others are based
on power total.
Always check which
definition is to
being used

• Morse-code telegraphy is 300-400 Hz;

• Voice communications over a single-sideband (SSB) radio is 2.7 kHz; and
• Music over AM radio broadcasting is about 10,000 Hz or 10 kHz
• VoIP 200 kHz, compared to 3 kHz over telephone
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20
Analog Modulation • The bandwidth occupied by a signal
Time-Domain Frequency-Domain depends on:
(as viewed on an (as viewed on a – input information bandwidth
Oscilloscope) Spectrum Analyzer) – modulation method
Voltage Voltage • Information to be transmitted, called
“input” or “baseband”
– bandwidth usually is small, much
Time 0 Frequency lower than frequency of carrier
• Unmodulated carrier
– the carrier itself has Zero
bandwidth!!
Lower
fc
Upper
• AM-modulated carrier
Sideband Sideband – Notice the upper & lower sidebands
– total bandwidth = 2 x baseband BW
fc
• FM-modulated carrier
– Many sidebands! bandwidth is a
fc
complex Bessel function
– Carson’s Rule approximate 2(F+D)
• PM-modulated carrier
fc – Many sidebands! bandwidth is a
complex Bessel function
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 Digital Modulation
The continuos inputs are quantized, restricting them to
digital values, this will produce digital modulation.

Voltage Continuous signals are first made into

digital by representing them with two
1
Time
0 1 0 levels only such as the one shown
left.Then modulated…

 Steady Carrier without modulation

1 0 1 0  Amplitude Shift Keying
ASK applications: digital microwave
 Frequency Shift Keying
1 0 1 0 FSK applications: control messages in
AMPS cellular; TDMA cellular
 Phase Shift Keying

1 0 1 0
PSK applications: TDMA cellular,
GSM & PCS-1900

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 A simplified block diagram of digital
complex modulations

cos(ωt)

Serial Digital
to Digital I/Q signals I/Q signals
Input Bit Modulation (unfiltered)
Filter (filtered) Modulated
parall See plots (I/Q See plots time signal
Stream Constellation Mapping
(or symbol el channels) See plots
stream in
some
Modulation
cases)
See plots sin(ωt)
ω: carrier frequency

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 Example of Plot/Results
Input_seq_plot

Example input bit width of 0.25 microsec random sequence

Zoom in shows 0.25 microsec period

0.25ms

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 Example of Plot/Results options
filtered_input_seq_IQ_plot (without filter case)

Zoom in, shows every 8bits match

to an I/Q symbol (8 for M-arry
256)

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 Example of Plot/Results
filtered_input_seq_IQ_plot (with filter case)

Zoom in, shows every 8bits match

to an I/Q symbol (8 for M-arry
256) and the effects of Filtering on
I/Q

Effects of filtering on the I/Q

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 Example of Plot/Results
I/Q scatter plots (filtered and unfiltered)
Examples I/Q scatter plots (without Examples I/Q scatter plots (with filtering and
filtering…hence no transitions trajectories …) shows transitions trajectories …)
Rectang. QAM 256
Mil188stdqam 64 QPSK with offset and filtering

Multitude other
Multitude other examples based
examples based on Mod type
on Mod type and its
and its specifications
When not enough random bits are fed specifications
in, some of the I/Q symbols may not be
matched. Only way to have all show up
properly is to increase bits stream size
Digital Broadcast DVB S2/S2X with
PAM 8 MSK 32 M 64 and filter
Zoom in to show
trajectory points
around one of
the symbols
 Example of Plot/Results
Spectrum_plot_(linear) with/without filtering

BW specificat.

Filter Characteristics

Unfiltered

Filtered
 Example of Plot/Results
Modulated_signal_plot
Examples of time modulated signals for
“passband” and “baseband”

Zoom in (blue unfiltered, red

Zoom in to see Bit width 0.25msec. Return to Zero half way
filtered..hence delayed)

More Zoom in to show Carrier Freq.

(100Mhz set by user)

Baseband not using any carrier and follow Line Code outputs…
ANALOG VS. DIGITAL

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 Theory of Digital Modulation: Sampling
m(t) n Voice and other analog signals first must
be converted to digital form (“sampled”)
before they can be transmitted digitally
n The sampling theorem gives the
Sampling requirements for successful sampling
p(t)
• The signal must be sampled at least
twice during each cycle of fM , its
highest frequency. 2 x fM is called
the Nyquist Rate.
m(t) • to prevent “aliasing”, the analog
Recovery signal is low-pass filtered so it
contains no frequencies above fM
n Required Bandwidth for Samples, p(t)
• If each sample p(t) is expressed as
The Sampling Theorem: Two Parts an n-bit binary number, the
•If the signal contains no frequency higher bandwidth required to convey p(t) as
than fM Hz., it is completely described by a digital signal is at least N*2* fM
specifying its samples taken at instants of • this follows Shannon’s Theorem: at
time spaced 1/2 fM s. least one Hertz of bandwidth is
•The signal can be completely recovered required to convey one bit per
from its samples taken at the rate of 2 fM second of data
samples per second or higher. • Notice: lots of bandwidth required!

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 Benefits of Digital Communications

1) Less effected by noise and interference because of only two

possible levels (on / off).
2) Makes signal retransmission easier and more reliable.
3) Digital Circuits are reliable and can be produced with lower cost,
and more flexibility.
4) Time Division Multiplexing is simpler than Frequency division
multiplexing which is what is used in Analog Communications.
5) Computers are digital hence it is more natural to use digital
transmissions.
6) Better security via encryption coding.
7) More intelligent ways to recover signals via error correcting coding
techniques.
8) More Capacity within the allocated Bandwidths.

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 One of the Main benefits of
Digital Modulation is in
regenerating signals with noise.
transmission
The Two levels of representing
signals make it easier to
regenerate without errors.
demodulation-remodulation

transmission
Analog repeators on phone lines
are spaced a few Kilometers
apart.

demodulation-remodulation

transmission

demodulation-remodulation

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MULTIPLE ACCESS METHODS

34
 Multiple Access Technologies
• FDMA (example: AMPS) FDMA
Frequency Division Multiple Access
– each user has a private frequency (at least in Power

their own neighborhood)

• TDMA (examples: IS-54/136, GSM)
Time Division Multiple Access TDMA
– each user has a private time on a private
Power
frequency (at least in their own
neighborhood)
• CDMA (examples: IS-95, J-Std. 008)
Code Division Multiple Access CDMA
– users co-mingle in time and frequency but
Power
each user has a private code (at least in their
own neighborhood)

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RF PROPAGATION

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 Propagation Models for Space Waves
• Free Space
• Propagation over flat earth
Theoretically derived
• Diffraction single and
multiple knife Edge
• Effective Antenna Height
• Log distance path loss
• Egli Model
• Young
• Lee Empirically derived
• Okamura
• Hata-Okamura
• Cost 231-Hata
• Cost 231 Walfisch-Ikegami
• Micro-cell propagation Lee
• Irregular Terrain Model ITM
Database driven
• TIREM/SEM
• Microwave Link
• Multipath Fading

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 In Wireless systems main sources of
propagation losses:
Free Space
d
• Free space
A D – No reflections or obstructions
B • first Fresnel Zone clear
– Signal decays 20 dB/decade
Reflection
with partial cancellation
• Reflection (prop. Over flat Earth)
– Signal decays 30-40 dB/decade

Knife-edge
Diffraction
• Knife-edge diffraction
– Direct path is blocked by obstruction

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 Free Space Path Loss
𝐏𝐏𝐭𝐭 𝐆𝐆𝐭𝐭 𝐆𝐆𝐫𝐫 λ𝟐𝟐
𝐏𝐏𝐫𝐫 =
(𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒)𝟐𝟐 𝒅𝒅𝟐𝟐
𝐏𝐏𝐫𝐫 is the received power in watts;
𝐏𝐏𝐭𝐭 is the transmitter power in watts;
𝐆𝐆𝐭𝐭 and 𝐆𝐆𝐫𝐫 are the transmitter and receiver antenna gains respectively, in real
dimensionless terms; equal 1 to determine generic path loss;
λ is the wavelength in meters, where λ is related to frequency f by c/f, where f is in
Hertz, c is the speed of light in meters per second, (300,000,000); and
d is the distance in meters.
𝐏𝐏𝐫𝐫 λ𝟐𝟐
= Free Space Path Loss (FSPL) =
𝐏𝐏𝐭𝐭 (𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒)𝟐𝟐 𝒅𝒅𝟐𝟐

Free Space Loss (dB)= 36.5 +20*Log10(FMHZ)+20Log10(DistMILES )

Free Space Loss (dB) = 32.44+20*Log10(FMHZ) + 20Log10(DistKm )
20 db per decade of distance or frequency
Note Free space formulas work only when the Fresnel Zone is not
obstructed by any obstacles
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40
 Propagation Over flat Earth

In cases where there is Reflections we

Get about 40 db/decade of loss based on:

Path Loss [dB ]= 172 + 34 x Log (DMiles )

- 20 x Log (Base Ant. HtFeet)
- 10 x Log (Mobile Ant. HtFeet)

The decay rates are in real life are somewhere between 30 and 40 dB per
decade of distance, that is some where between free space, and Reflection
formulas above.

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 Diffraction
• A physical phenomena based on Huygens's Principle that make signal
propagate into the geometrical shadow of an object that is placed in
its path
• It is important to allow for signal to reach to receivers behind
buildings and other locations that are obstructed from the LOS to
transmitter (including mountains, or large objects)
• Modeling Diffraction is difficult, but it is simplified using knife Edge
model of object (i.e. assumes object is sharp)

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 d
1st Fresnel Zone
A D
B First Fresnel Zone =
{ any point x where Ax + xB - AB < λ/2 }
Fresnel Zone radius d = 1/2 (λD)^(1/2)
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U.S. Department of Commerce · National Telecommunications and Information Administration
 Multipath Fading
• In addition to the three main elements of propagation losses
mentioned in last slides, there is also, Multi Path Causes:
- The first is Slow Fading which occurs as the mobile node
moves around hundreds of wavelengths due to shadowing by
local obstructions

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•The second is Fast Fading occurs as signals received from many paths drift into and out of
phase
–the fades are about λ/2 apart in space: 7 inches apart at 800 MHz., 3 inches apart
at 1900 MHz
–fades appear in frequency and time domains
–Commonly 10-15 db deep,
–Rayleigh distribution is a good model for these fades and hence called
Rayleigh Fades

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The Multi Path Fading can Signal received
be reduced via space by Antenna 1
diversity..Using two
receiving antennas
Signal received
separated by 10-20λ
by Antenna 2
Which is 5-10 ft. For
the PCS 1900 MHz.
Combined
Signal

In addition to space diversity techniques, polarization diversity techniques also exist

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ANTENNA

48
 Why Antennas Are Important

• Antenna directivity may enhance spectrum sharing and

frequency reuse.
• Antenna radiation pattern knowledge is necessary for
spectrum analyses to prevent interference from
occurring.
• To achieve desired system performance in network
planning.

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49
 Antennas for Wireless Communications

OMNI

DISH

PLANE

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50
 IMPORTANT ANTENNA TERMS

Beamwidth
Mainlobe Backlobe

Sidelobe Gain Polarization

Reciprocity
Null

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51
 What Is Antenna Gain?

• ITU definition: 1.160 gain of an antenna: The ratio,

usually expressed in decibels, of the power required at
the input of a loss-free reference antenna to the power
supplied to the input of the given antenna to produce, in
a given direction, the same field strength or the same
power flux-density at the same distance.
• Reference antenna: isotropic (dBi) or dipole (dBd)
• dBi = dBd + 2.15
• dBd = dBi - 2.15

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53
 REFERENCES FOR GAIN OF ANTENNAS
• ISOTROPIC ANTENNA (dBi): Unity Gain
• DIPOLE (dBd) : Actual antenna (figure 8 pattern) gain =
1.64

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54
 TYPICAL ANTENNA PATTERN

Horizontal (Azimuth) Plane Top View

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55
 Using spherical Geometry and point sources, it
is possible to derive the formula for any
directional or isotropic antennas. The
Effective Radiated Power referenced to an
isotropic source (EIRP) is given by: (where Pt is
the transmitted power, and the Gt is the Gain
specified for the transmitting antenna)

EIRP = Pt Gt Watts

Gain of the antenna

is determined by
many factors but it
is mainly due to focusing
the radiation .. Like
a flash light. In general
smaller beam width give
higher gain.
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 EXAMPLE EIRP CALCULATION

Transmitter output power = 300 watts

Antenna gain = 15 dBi

Calculation:
Transmitter power = 54.8 dBm
EIRP = 54.8 dBm + 15 dBi = 69.8 dBm

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57
 SECOND EXAMPLE EIRP CALCULATION

FM Broadcasting Station Authorized 50 KW

Transmitter output power = 10 kilowatts (KW)

Antenna gain = 5 (linear units)

Calculation:
Transmitter power = 50
EIRP = 10 x 5 = 50 KW

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58
 Field Strength Power Density

𝐏𝐏𝐭𝐭 𝐆𝐆𝐭𝐭
𝐏𝐏𝐃𝐃 =
𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒 𝐑𝐑𝟐𝟐
Whee where:
PD is power density w/m2
Pt is transmitter power in watts
Gt is antenna gain in real terms
R is distance in meters

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59
APPLICATIONS AND EXAMPLES

60
 Satellite Communications is essential for relaying signals
over wide areas from one earth station to the other or for
Broadcasting to many ground terminals

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Example of satellite operation: A satellite transmits (or relays a signal) and an earth antenna
receives it). Given the following information:
EIRPsatellite= 44668.36 watts radiated satellite power, or 46.5 in dBW
Gr=31622.78 or 45 dB which is the receiver antenna specified gain from manufacturer spec sheet.
T=107.5 K which is the effective noise temperature as seen at the receiver.

d=40,000,000 meters (or 40000 Km) distance from a Geo Sat to surface of the earth
f=12,000,000 hz (or 12 Ghz) typical L band frequency

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The carrier to noise density ratio is an important performance measure in
communication systems. So for this satellite example it is found at the receiving
antenna:

2
 C   Gr   λ  1
  = EIRPsatellite    
 N 0  earth _ antenna  T  earth _ antenna  4πd  k

In the above used the fact that C is defined as the carrier or signal power at the
receiver end, also EIRP=Gt*Pt (radiated power from satellite), and N0=kT from
previous lecture, as the noise density at the receiver.

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Taking the 10log10 of both sides of the above so that to convert to db,
and substituting all the parameter values given, we get:

10 log10 EIRP = 46.5dBW

Gr
10 log10 ( ) = 24.7 dB / K
T
2
 4πd 
− 10 log10   = −206dB
 λ 
− 10 log10 k = 228.6dbW / K − Hz

10 log10 (C / N 0 ) = 93.8dB − Hz

Using the fact that C is the power and Eb=C/fb where fb is the bit rate in bits/sec then:

10 log10 (C / N 0 ) = 10 log10 ( Eb f b / N 0 ) = 10 log10 ( Eb / N 0 ) + 10 log10 ( f b )

Hence if given a data rate of fb =33.9 Mb/s or 75.3 dBHz, we get that 10log10(Eb/N0)=93.8-
75.3=18.5 dB

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• Wireless communications (Cellular/PCS) is
similar to Sat communications but with
some differences. One of which is the
propagation losses sources.
• In Wireless we have to worry more about:
– Objects that are bigger than a wavelength can reflect or
obstruct RF energy
– RF energy can enter into a building or vehicle if they
have openings a wavelength in size, or greater

Example
for PCS-1900: F = 1960 MHz
λ = 0.153 m = 6.0 inches

U.S. Department of Commerce · National Telecommunications and Information Administration

Typical outputs from Simulation tools such as
Planet used to design PCS systems

U.S. Department of Commerce · National Telecommunications and Information Administration

 Handoffs and C/I
 One purpose of handoff is to keep the
call from dropping as the mobile
moves out of range of individual cells
 Another purpose of handoff is to
ensure the mobile is using the cell
with the best signal strength and best
C/I at all times
 Notice in the signal graphs at lower B D
right how the mobile’s C/I is
maintained at a usable level as it A C
goes from cell to cell

Sites A B C D
Tech- Modulation Channel Quality
nology Type Bandwidth Indicator
AMPS Analog FM 30 kHz. C/I ≅ 17 dB -50
NAMPS Analog FM 10 kHz. C/I ≅ 17 dB
TDMA DPQSK 30 kHz. C/I ≅ 17 dB
RSSI,
dBm C/I
GSM GMSK 200 kHz. C/I ≅ 17 dB
CDMA QPSK/OQPSK 1,250 kHz. Eb/No ≅ 6dB -120

U.S. Department of Commerce · National Telecommunications and Information Administration