energies

Article
Evaluation of the Optional Wideband Accuracy of Inductive
Current Transformers in Accordance with the Standard IEC
61869-1 Ed.2
Ernest Stano * , Piotr Kaczmarek and Michal Kaczmarek

Institute of Mechatronics and Information Systems, Lodz University of Technology, 90-537 Lodz, Poland;
piotr.kaczmarek@dokt.p.lodz.pl (P.K.); michal.kaczmarek@p.lodz.pl (M.K.)
* Correspondence: ernest.stano@p.lodz.pl

Abstract: This paper presents the evaluation of tested inductive CTs’ accuracy for distorted current
harmonics in accordance with the optional accuracy class WB1 introduced by the new edition of the
standard IEC 61869-1 published in the year 2023. The tests were performed in compliance with the
interpretation sheet IEC 61869-2:2012/ISH1:2022. Therefore, the resistive and the resistive–inductive
loads of the secondary winding of tested inductive CTs were used, as this was required for the given
test conditions. The results indicate that the units designed for the transformation of a sinusoidal
current of a frequency of 50 Hz ensure the high wideband transformation accuracy of the distorted
current harmonics, as demanded by the power quality monitoring and distorted electrical power
and energy requirements. The key to this is proper design using modern magnetic material(s) for the
magnetic core and its oversizing in relation to the requirements for a given accuracy class defined
for the transformation of sinusoidal currents with a rated frequency. Both tested inductive CTs with
a rated primary current RMS value equal to 300 A, class 0.2 and 0.5, ensured compliance with the
requirements of the WB1 wideband accuracy class.

Keywords: current transformer; IEC 61869; wideband accuracy; WB class; transformation accuracy;
distorted current; higher harmonics; current error; phase displacement

Citation: Stano, E.; Kaczmarek, P.;

Kaczmarek, M. Evaluation of the
1. Introduction
Optional Wideband Accuracy of
Inductive Current Transformers in
Power quality is a critical aspect of modern power systems and determines safe
Accordance with the Standard IEC and efficient operation of the connected electrical equipment and apparatus [1–5]. This
61869-1 Ed.2. Energies 2023, 16, 7206. involves RMS value fluctuation, three-phase asymmetry, frequency variation and distortion
https://doi.org/10.3390/en16207206 of voltage and current. Inductive instrument transformers play a fundamental role in
monitoring power network current and voltage. Inductive current transformers (CTs)
Academic Editor: Ahmed Abu-Siada
are used in power systems to adjust large currents to an appropriate level for measuring,
Received: 6 September 2023 protection and control equipment [6–8]. However, their use for the transformation of
Revised: 7 October 2023 distorted currents requires additional tests over a wide frequency range, particularly
Accepted: 11 October 2023 concerning the specification of their accuracy for harmonics [5,9–16]. This ensures proper
Published: 23 October 2023 power measurement and its quality monitoring in the condition of a distorted current
and voltage. The standard IEC 61869-1 in the new version from the year 2023 provides
requirements and guidelines for the evaluation of the optional wideband accuracy classes
for inductive CTs [17]. These requirements are similar to those previously defined in the
Copyright: © 2023 by the authors.
standard IEC 61869-6 for low-power instrument transformers [18]. There are five extensions
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
of the accuracy classes concerning higher harmonics:
This article is an open access article
distributed under the terms and • WB0—covering harmonics up to and including the 13th harmonic.
conditions of the Creative Commons • WB1—encompassing harmonic frequencies up to and including 3 kHz.
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// • WB2—including harmonic frequencies up to 20 kHz.
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ • WB3—spanning harmonic frequencies up to 150 kHz.
4.0/). • WB4—applicable for wide-bandwidth applications up to 500 kHz.

Energies 2023, 16, 7206. https://doi.org/10.3390/en16207206 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/energies

Energies 2023, 16, 7206 2 of 11

Consequently, the accuracy class of the instrument transformer may be defined, for
example, as 0.5-WB1.
This paper presents the evaluation of the tested inductive CTs’ accuracy for harmonics
of a distorted current in accordance with the optional accuracy class WB1 introduced by
the new edition of the standard IEC 61869-1 [17]. It has been shown that it is not necessary
to use error compensation techniques to obtain high wideband transformation accuracy
for the transformation of a sinusoidal current with a frequency of 50 Hz into low-voltage
inductive CTs manufactured by an international company [12,19–21]. The evaluation of
wideband transformation accuracy was performed for a distorted current composed of a
fundamental component with a frequency of 50 Hz and a series of higher harmonics with
frequencies ranging from 100 Hz to 3 kHz. Furthermore, no significant self-distortion of
the secondary current related to the generation of the low-order higher harmonics resulting
from the nonlinearity of the magnetic core’s magnetization characteristic was detected in
the case of either tested unit [19,22]. Moreover, the tests were performed in accordance
with the interpretation sheet IEC 61869-2:2012/ISH1:2022 [23]. Therefore, the resistive and
the resistive–inductive (with a power factor equal to 0.8) loads of the secondary winding of
the tested inductive CTs were used, as required by the standard IEC 61869-2 due to their
rated apparent power. The main conclusion of this paper is that the inductive CTs designed
for the transformation of sinusoidal currents of 50 Hz frequency ensure the high wideband
transformation accuracy of distorted current harmonics, as demanded by the power quality
monitoring and distorted electrical power and energy requirements [3,4,24–31].

2. Measuring Circuits and Tested CTs

The transformation accuracy of the distorted primary current produced by the tested
window-type inductive CTs was determined with the utilization of the ampere-turn method.
Therefore, an additional primary winding with a number of turns equal to the rated current
ratio was made [32]. In this case, its rated primary current was equal to the rated primary
current of the secondary winding. This method eliminates the necessity of using a high-
current power supply system.
The value of the current error for the hk harmonic could be determined using the
following equation:
I − I1Ahk
∆Ihk = 2hk ·100% (1)
I1Ahk
where I2hk is the RMS value of the secondary current hk harmonic of the TCT and I1hk is
the RMS value of the current hk harmonic in the additional primary winding of the TCT.
The values of phase displacement for the hk harmonic were determined as the phase
angle between same-order hk harmonics of the distorted currents in the additional primary
winding and in the secondary winding of the TCT. The values of phase displacement were
determined using the following equation:

δϕhk = ϕ2hk − ϕ1hk (2)

where ϕ1hk is the phase angle of the hk harmonics of the distorted current in the addi-
tional primary winding in relation to the reference voltage and ϕ2hk is the phase angle
of the hk harmonics of the distorted current in the secondary winding in relation to the
reference voltage.
The utilization of the digital power meter (DPM) enabled Fast Fourier Transform (FFT)
to be performed for the measured currents, which allowed the RMS values and phase
angles of their harmonics to be determined. In Figure 1, the measuring circuit used to
determine the values of the current error and phase displacement for the transformation of
distorted current harmonics using the tested CTs is presented.
 Energies2023,
Energies 16,x7206
2023,16, FOR PEER REVIEW 3 3of of
11 11

(a)

(b)
Figure 1. The measuring circuit used for the evaluation of the wideband transformation accuracy of
Figure 1. The measuring circuit used for the evaluation of the wideband transformation accuracy of
the TCTs for distorted current harmonics: (a) block diagram, (b) photo. DPM—digital power meter,
the TCTs for distorted
TCT—tested inductivecurrent
currentharmonics: (a)IT—insulation
transformer, block diagram,transformer,
(b) photo. DPM—digital power
AWG—arbitrary meter,
waveform
TCT—tested
generator, inductive current
PA—power transformer,
amplifier, IT—insulation
ZL—impedance of the transformer,
load in the AWG—arbitrary waveform
secondary winding of TCT,
generator, PA—power
P1/P2—terminals of theamplifier,
additionalZprimary
L —impedance of the
winding, load in the secondary
S1/S2—terminals winding winding.
of the secondary of TCT,
P1/P2—terminals of the additional primary winding, S1/S2—terminals of the secondary winding.
The TCTs were supplied with a distorted current composed of a fundamental com-
The TCTs were supplied with a distorted current composed of a fundamental com-
ponent with a frequency of 50 Hz and a series of higher harmonics with a frequency rang-
ponent with a frequency of 50 Hz and a series of higher harmonics with a frequency
ing from 100 Hz to 3 kHz. The percentage value of each higher harmonic was equal to 5%.
ranging from 100 Hz to 3 kHz. The percentage value of each higher harmonic was equal
The accuracy tests were performed for 100% and 25% of the rated load of the TCT’s sec-
to 5%. The accuracy tests were performed for 100% and 25% of the rated load of the
ondary winding. In
TCT’s secondary the caseIn
winding. ofthe
thecase
CT with a rated
of the CT with load equal load
a rated to 2.5equal
VA, the lowest
to 2.5 value
VA, the
of the load was equal to 1 VA, in accordance with the interpretation
lowest value of the load was equal to 1 VA, in accordance with the interpretation sheet sheet IEC 61869-
2:2012/ISH1:2022
IEC 61869-2:2012/ISH1:2022 [23]. if
[23]. Moreover, the load if
Moreover, of the
the load
secondary
of the winding
secondary was lower than
winding was 5
VA, the tests were conducted for a power factor equal to 1. The accuracy
lower than 5 VA, the tests were conducted for a power factor equal to 1. The accuracy was evaluated
for
wastwo manufactured
evaluated inductive CTs inductive
for two manufactured and 5%, 20%,
CTs and100% 5%,and 120%
20%, 100%of and
their120%
ratedofprimary
their
current. The first
rated primary unit was
current. The characterized
first unit was a rated current
bycharacterized by ratio equal
a rated to 300
current A/5equal
ratio A, and
the rated
to 300 A/5 apparent
A, and theloadrated
of the secondary
apparent loadwinding was equalwinding
of the secondary to 5 VA.was
Moreover,
equal toits accu-
5 VA.
racy class, as
Moreover, its defined
accuracyfor the as
class, transformation
defined for theoftransformation
a sinusoidal current with a frequency
of a sinusoidal current with of 50
a frequency of 50 Hz, was 0.5. The second one was specified as 300
Hz, was 0.5. The second one was specified as 300 A/1 A, 2.5 VA, accuracy class 0.2.A/1 A, 2.5 VA, accuracy
class 0.2.
Energies 2023, 16, 7206 4 of 11

3. Wideband Accuracy of the TCTs

3.1. Results for TCT 300 A/5 A Class 0.5
In accordance with the standard IEC 61869-2, the first step of the laboratory studies was
to perform the transformation accuracy tests for a sinusoidal current of a rated frequency
equal to 50 Hz [33]. The determined values of the current error and phase displacement for
the TCT 300 A/5 A class 0.5 and their limits in accordance with the standard IEC 61869-2
are presented in Table 1.

Table 1. The values of the current error and phase displacement determined for transformation of
50 Hz sinusoidal current using the TCT 300 A/5 A class 0.5.

Limit Rated Load 25% of Load

Percentage of the Rated Current
∆I [%] δϕ [◦ ] ∆I [%] δϕ [◦ ] ∆I [%] δϕ [◦ ]
5 ±1.5 ±1.5 −1.13 −0.09 −0.17 0.27
20 ±0.75 ±0.75 −0.74 −0.07 0.01 0.23
100 ±0.5 ±0.5 −0.49 0.00 0.16 0.15
120 ±0.5 ±0.5 −0.40 0.02 0.18 0.13

The TCT 300 A/5 A meets the requirements of class 0.5 as defined by the standard
IEC 61869-2 [33]. Moreover, the positive values of the current error indicate that the TCT
was corrected. Therefore, the number of turns of the secondary winding was reduced
in relation to the rated current ratio. The second step was to determine the values of
the current error and phase displacement at harmonics during the transformation of the
distorted primary current.
The results for the secondary winding with a rated apparent load power equal to 5 VA
and a power factor equal to 0.8 ind. are presented in Figure 2. Moreover, close-ups on
the results for harmonics from the 1st to 10th order are presented for evaluation of the
self-generation phenomenon of the tested inductive CT. The maximum permissible values
of the current error and phase displacement defined by the optional accuracy class WB1 in
accordance with the standard IEC 61869-1 ed.2 are also provided [17].
The reactance of the load of the secondary winding caused deterioration of the accu-
racy with increasing frequency of the transformed higher harmonic. This resulted from
the increased RMS value of the secondary voltage with the increased order of the trans-
formed higher harmonic and thus increased apparent power of the secondary winding
load [10,11,20]. Nevertheless, the measured values of the current error and phase displace-
ment in the entire frequency range considered did not exceeded the limits defined for the
optional accuracy class WB1 in the standard IEC 61869-1 ed.2 [17].
The problem of the additional secondary current distortion by the inductive CT is
caused by the nonlinearity of the magnetization characteristic of its magnetic core. This
results in self-generation of low-order higher harmonics. Their level depends mainly
on the RMS value of the main component and third higher harmonic as well as their
mutual phase angle. Moreover, the intensification of this phenomenon is associated with
increased values of the secondary current load and its inductive power factor, which cause
an increase in the magnetic flux density in the inductive CT’s magnetic core and thus results
in movement of its operating point on the magnetization characteristic towards saturation.
The self-generation phenomenon is also reflected in the values of the current error and
phase displacement of the transformed low-order higher harmonics. This means that if
the phase angle of the transformed higher harmonic is properly adjusted relatively to the
main component, the most negative and the most positive values of the current error and
phase displacement will be determined [5]. Therefore, wideband accuracy tests for the
transformation of the low-order higher harmonic were performed for its various phase
angles in relation to the fundamental component of the distorted current from 0◦ to 360◦ ,
adjusted in at most 10◦ steps.
 was corrected. Therefore, the number of turns of the secondary winding was red
relation to the rated current ratio. The second step was to determine the values
current error and phase displacement at harmonics during the transformation of t
torted primary current.
Energies 2023, 16, 7206 The results for the secondary winding with a rated apparent load 5 of power
11 equ
VA and a power factor equal to 0.8 ind. are presented in Figure 2. Moreover, close-
the results for harmonics from the 1st to 10th order are presented for evaluation
self-generation
The values phenomenon
of the current of thedisplacement
error and phase tested inductive CT. The maximum
at harmonics permissible
for the trans-
formation of of
thethe currentprimary
distorted error and phase
current displacement
using defined
the TCT 300 A/5 Aby the0.5
class optional accuracy cla
determined
in accordance
with 25% of the with
rated load are the standard
presented IEC3.61869-1 ed.2 are also provided [17].
in Figure

Energies 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW

(a)

(b)
Figure 2. The accuracy
Figure 2. The transformation transformation accuracy
of harmonics of harmonics
according according
to the TCT 300 A/5toAthe TCT
class 0.5300 A/5
with a A class 0
rated load of therated load ofwinding
secondary the secondary winding
being equal being
to 5 VA: (a)equal to error,
current 5 VA:(b)
(a)phase
current error, (b) phase displ
displacement.

The reactance of the load of the secondary winding caused deterioration of t

racy with increasing frequency of the transformed higher harmonic. This result
the increased RMS value of the secondary voltage with the increased order of th
formed higher harmonic and thus increased apparent power of the secondary
load [10,11,20]. Nevertheless, the measured values of the current error and phase d
ment in the entire frequency range considered did not exceeded the limits define
optional accuracy class WB1 in the standard IEC 61869-1 ed.2 [17].
 Energies 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW
Energies 2023, 16, 7206 6 of 11

(a)

(b)
Figure 3. The Figure 3. The transformation
transformation accuracy as
accuracy of harmonics of harmonics
determinedasusing
determined
the TCTusing the TCT
300 A/5 A 300 A/
class 0.5 with 25% of the rated load of the secondary winding equal to 1.25 VA: (a) current error, error,
0.5 with 25% of the rated load of the secondary winding equal to 1.25 VA: (a) current
displacement.
(b) phase displacement.

Twenty-five
Twenty-five percent of the percent
rated load of of
thethe
rated
TCTload
wasof the TCT
equal was
to 1.25 VA. equal to 1.25inVA. Ther
Therefore,
accordance
accordance with with the sheet
the interpretation interpretation sheet IEC 61869-2:2012/ISH1:2022,
IEC 61869-2:2012/ISH1:2022, the power factorthe of power
the load used was equalused
the load to 1 was
[23].equal
In thistocase, theIn
1 [23]. increase in the
this case, thevalues
increaseof the current
in the valueserror
of the curre
and phase displacement
and phasewith the order of
displacement transformed
with the orderhigher harmonic was
of transformed not harmonic
higher detectable.was not
The requirements of the WB1 optional accuracy class were also fulfilled
ble. The requirements of the WB1 optional accuracy class were also with a greater
fulfilled with a
reserve. Taking into consideration the results presented in Figures 2 and 4, the a
class of the TCT was determined to be 0.5-WB1.
Energies 2023, 16, 7206 7 of 11

Energies 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW

reserve. Taking into consideration the results presented in Figures 2 and 4, the accuracy
class of the TCT was determined to be 0.5-WB1.

(a)

(b)
Figure 4. The transformation
Figure 4. The transformation accuracy
accuracy of harmonics of harmonics
according according
to a TCT 300 A/5toA aclass
TCT0.2
300 A/5aA class 0
with
rated load of the secondary winding equal to 2.5 VA: (a) current error, (b)
rated load of the secondary winding equal to 2.5 VA: (a) current error, (b) phase displacement.phase displacem

3.2. Results for TCT 300 A/5 A Class 0.2

The rated load apparent power of the second tested inductive CT was equa
VA. Therefore, during the evaluation of its transformation accuracy, the resistan
had to be applied to the secondary winding. The values obtained for the current er
phase displacement for the transformation of a sinusoidal current with a 50 Hz fre
using the TCT 300 A/5 A class 0.2 are presented in Table 2.
Energies 2023, 16, 7206 8 of 11

3.2. Results for TCT 300 A/5 A Class 0.2

The rated load apparent power of the second tested inductive CT was equal to 2.5 VA.
Therefore, during the evaluation of its transformation accuracy, the resistance load had to
be applied to the secondary winding. The values obtained for the current error and phase
displacement for the transformation of a sinusoidal current with a 50 Hz frequency using
Energies 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 11
the TCT 300 A/5 A class 0.2 are presented in Table 2.

Table 2. The values of the current error and phase displacement for transformation of sinusoidal
current with Table 2. frequency
a 50 Hz The valuesusing
of thethe
current
TCT error andAphase
300 A/5 classdisplacement
0.2. for transformation of sinusoidal
current with a 50 Hz frequency using the TCT 300 A/5 A class 0.2.
Limit Rated Load
Limit Rated Load 25% of Load
25% of Load
Percentage of the Rated Current Percentage of the
∆I [%] δϕ [◦ ] ∆I [%] δϕ [◦ ] ∆I [%] δϕ [◦ ]
Rated Current ΔI [%] δφ [°] ΔI [%] δφ [°] ΔI [%] δφ [°]
5 ±0.75 5 ±0.5 ±0.750.05 ±0.5 0.15 0.05 0.12
0.15 0.11
0.12 0.11
20 ±0.35 ±0.25 0.06 0.08 0.12 0.06
20 ±0.35 ±0.25 0.06 0.08 0.12 0.06
100 ±0.2 ±0.17 0.10 0.05 0.15 0.04
120 ±0.2 100 ±0.17 ±0.20.10 ±0.17 0.05 0.10 0.05
0.15 0.15
0.04 0.04
120 ±0.2 ±0.17 0.10 0.05 0.15 0.04

The TCT 300 TheA/5

TCTA’s300accuracy class, 0.2,class,
A/5 A’s accuracy as declared by its manufacturer,
0.2, as declared was con-
by its manufacturer, was con-
firmed by the results
firmed by presented in Table 2 in
the results presented and is in2 and
Table compliance with thewith
is in compliance limits
thedefined by
limits defined by
the standard IEC
the 61869-2
standard [33].
IEC Moreover,
61869-2 the positive
[33]. Moreover, the values
positiveofvalues
the current error indicate
of the current error indicate
that turn correction
that turnwas applied
correction wasto applied
the secondary winding winding
to the secondary of this CT.of this CT.
The values The
of the current
values error
of the and phase
current displacement
error and at harmonics
phase displacement for the transfor-
at harmonics for the trans-
mation of a formation of a distorted
distorted primary currentprimary current
according according
to the TCT 300toA/5 the TCT 3000.2
A class A/5determined
A class 0.2 deter-
mined
with the rated loadwith
are the rated load
presented are presented
in Figure 4. in Figure 4.
The TCT 300 A/5 A class 0.2 meets
The TCT 300 A/5 A class 0.2 meets the requirements the requirements of the standard
of the standard IEC 61869-1
IEC 61869-1 for for
the optional accuracy class WB1 [17]. In this case, the level of
the optional accuracy class WB1 [17]. In this case, the level of the self-generated higher the self-generated higher
harmonics
harmonics was reduced was reduced compared
compared with the previous
with the previous tested inductive
tested inductive CT. ThisCT. wasThis
duewas
to due to
the decreased load
the decreased load apparent power. apparent power.
The values The values
of the current current
of theerror anderror and displacement
phase phase displacement for thefortransformation
the transformation of of dis-
torted primary current harmonics according to the tested inductive
distorted primary current harmonics according to the tested inductive CT 300 A/5 A class CT 300 A/5 A class 0.2
0.2 determined for the apparent power of a secondary winding load equal to 1 VA areare pre-
determined for the apparent power of a secondary winding load equal to 1 VA
sented in Figure 5.
presented in Figure 5.

(a)

Figure 5. Cont.
 Energies 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW
Energies 2023, 16, 7206 9 of 11 9 of 11

(b)

Figure 5. The Figure 5. The transformation

transformation accuracy of according
accuracy of harmonics harmonics toaccording
a TCT 300to aA/5
TCTA300 A/50.2
class A class
with 0.2
a with a
secondary winding load equal to 1 VA: (a) current error, (b) phase
secondary winding load equal to 1 VA: (a) current error, (b) phase displacement. displacement.

Taking into Taking into consideration

consideration thepresented
the results results presented in Figure
in Figure 5, the 5,accuracy
the accuracy
classclass
of of the
the tested inductive CT, in accordance with the standard IEC 612869 parts 1 and 2, waswas 0.2-
tested inductive CT, in accordance with the standard IEC 612869 parts 1 and 2,
WB1 [17,33].
0.2-WB1 [17,33].
4. Conclusions
4. Conclusions
The manufactured
The manufactured low-voltage low-voltage
inductive inductive current transformers
current transformers class 0.5class
and 0.5 0.2and
de- 0.2 de-
signed for a 50 Hz frequency sinusoidal current ensure a higher
signed for a 50 Hz frequency sinusoidal current ensure a higher harmonics transformation harmonics transformation
accuracy up accuracy up to and including a frequency equal to 3 kHz, in accordance with the optional
to and including a frequency equal to 3 kHz, in accordance with the optional
wideband accuracy class WB1 defined by the second edition of the IEC standard 61869-1
wideband accuracy class WB1 defined by the second edition of the IEC standard 61869-1
published in 2023 [17]. The inductive load of the secondary winding causes a significant
published in 2023 [17]. The inductive load of the secondary winding causes a significant
increase in the values of the current error and phase displacement with an increase in the
increase in the values of the current error and phase displacement with an increase in the
frequency of the transformed higher harmonic. Therefore, the resistive load of the induc-
frequency of the transformed higher harmonic. Therefore, the resistive load of the inductive
tive current transformer secondary winding ensures higher wideband transformation ac-
current transformer
curacy of secondary
the distortedwinding ensures
current. higher wideband
The compensation transformation
techniques proposed accuracy
in scientific arti-
of the distorted current. The compensation techniques proposed
cles for improvement of the inductive current transformer performance in scientific articles
over afor wide fre-
improvement of the inductive current transformer performance over a wide
quency range are only necessary for poor-quality units strictly designed for a single ratedfrequency
range are only necessary
operation for poor-quality
frequency. units the
Additionally, strictly designed
application of for
thesea single rated
methods willoperation
always be asso-
frequency. Additionally,
ciated with anthe application
increase of these methods
in the complexity and cost will always
of the finalbe associated
device due to withthe required
an increase in the complexity
implementation of and cost ofelectronic
additional the final device
circuits.due
Theto the required
appropriate implemen-
solution is the proper
tation of additional
design ofelectronic
the inductivecircuits.
currentThe appropriate
transformer, solution
taking is the properthe
into consideration design
use ofofmodern
the inductivemagnetic
current materials
transformer, taking
for the into core
magnetic consideration the useinofrelation
and its oversizing modern to magnetic
the requirements
materials forfor
theamagnetic core and
given accuracy its oversizing
class defined forinthe relation to the requirements
transformation of sinusoidalforcurrents
a given with a
accuracy class defined of
frequency for50the transformation
Hz/60 of sinusoidal
Hz. The phenomenon of thecurrents with a of
self-distortion frequency
the secondary of 50 current
Hz/60 Hz. The of the inductive current
phenomenon of the transformer
self-distortion resulting from the nonlinearity
of the secondary of its
current of the magnetic core’s
inductive
magnetization
current transformer resultingcharacteristics should be taken
from the nonlinearity into
of its account in
magnetic the design
core’s procedure. In the
magnetization
case
characteristics of the be
should tested
takeninductive currentintransformers,
into account the self-generated
the design procedure. In thethird,
case of fifth
theand sev-
enthcurrent
tested inductive secondary current harmonics
transformers, had no significant
the self-generated impact
third, fifth andon their wideband
seventh secondary transfor-
mationhad
current harmonics accuracy. In the case
no significant of theontested
impact theirlow-voltage inductive current
wideband transformation transformers,
accuracy. In the
requirements
the case of the defined inductive
tested low-voltage for the transformation of higherthe
current transformers, harmonics in thedefined
requirements standard IEC
for the transformation of higher harmonics in the standard IEC 61869:2023 for the optional
accuracy class WB1 were satisfied easily with a large margin to the limiting values of
current error and phase displacement [17]. Therefore, these inductive current transformers
Energies 2023, 16, 7206 10 of 11

ensure high transformation accuracy as demanded by the power quality monitoring and
distorted electrical power and energy requirements.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, E.S. and M.K.; methodology, E.S. and M.K.; validation,
E.S. and M.K. formal analysis, E.S. and M.K.; investigation, E.S., P.K. and M.K.; resources, E.S. and
M.K.; data curation, E.S., P.K. and M.K.; writing—original draft preparation, E.S. and M.K.; writing—
review and editing, E.S. and M.K.; visualization, E.S.; supervision, M.K. All authors have read and
agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Data Availability Statement: Not applicable.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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