UNIT- IV: Industrial Electrical Systems – I: HT connection, industrial substation, Transformer selection,

Industrial loads, motors, starting of motors, SLD, Cable and Switchgear selection, Lightning Protection, Earthing
design, Power factor correction – kVAR calculations, type of compensation, Introduction to PCC, MCC panels.
Specifications of LT Breakers, MCB and other LT panel components.

Sub-Station
The assembly of apparatus used to change some characteristic (e.g. voltage, AC to DC, frequency, p.f. etc.) of
electric supply is called a sub-station.

Sub-stations are important part of power system. The continuity of supply depends to a consid¬erable extent
upon the successful operation of sub-stations. It is therefore, essential to exercise utmost care while designing
and building a sub-station. The following are the important points which must be kept in view while laying out a
sub-station

i. It should be located at a proper site. As far as possible, it should be located at the centre of gravity of load.
ii. It should provide safe and reliable arrangement. For safety, consideration must be given to the
maintenance of regulation clearances, facilities for carrying out repairs and maintenance, abnormal
occurrences such as possibility of explosion or fire etc. For reliability, consider¬ation must be given for
good design and construction, the provision of suitable protective gear etc.
iii. It should be easily operated and maintained.
iv. It should involve minimum capital cost.

Classification of Sub-Stations
There are several ways of classifying sub-stations. However, the two most important ways of classifying them
are according to (1) service requirement and (2) constructional features.

According to service requirement: A sub-station may be called upon to change voltage level or improve power
factor or convert AC power into DC power etc. According to the service requirement sub-stations may be
classified into:

1. Transformer sub-stations. Those sub-stations which change the voltage level of electric supply are called
transformer sub-stations. These sub-stations receive power at some voltage and deliver it at some other
voltage. Obviously, transformer will be the main component in such sub¬stations. Most of the sub-stations
in the power system are of this type.
2. Switching sub-stations. These sub-stations do not change the voltage level i.e. incoming and outgoing lines
have the same voltage. However, they simply perform the switching operations of power lines.
3. Power factor correction sub-stations. Those sub-stations which improve the power factor of the system are
called power factor correction sub-stations. Such sub-stations are generally located at the receiving end of
transmission lines. These sub-stations generally use synchronous condensers as the power factor
improvement equipment.
4. Frequency changer sub-stations. Those sub-stations which change the supply frequency are known as
frequency changer sub-stations. Such a frequency change may be required for indus¬trial utilisation.
5. Converting sub-stations. Those sub-stations which change AC power into DC power are called converting
sub-station. These sub-stations receive AC power and convert it into DC power with suitable apparatus to
supply for such purposes as traction, electroplating, electric welding etc.
6. Industrial sub-stations. Those sub-stations which supply power to individual industrial concerns are known
as industrial sub-stations_

According to constructional features: A sub-station has many components (e.g. circuit breakers. switches, fuses,
instruments etc.) which must be housed properly to ensure continuous and reliable service. According to
constructional features, the sub-stations are classified as
1. Indoor sub-station
2. Outdoor sub-station
3. Underground sub-station
4. Pole-mounted sub-station
Indoor sub-stations: For voltages up to 11 kV the equipment of the sub-station is installed indoor because of
economic considerations. However, when the atmosphere is contaminated with impurities, these sub-stations
can be erected for voltages up to 66 kV.

Outdoor sub-stations: For voltages beyond 66 kV equipment is invariably installed out¬door. It is because for
such voltages, the clearances between conductors and the space required for switches, circuit breakers and
other equipment becomes so great that it is not economical to install the equipment indoor.

Underground sub-stations: In thickly populated areas, the space available for equipment and building is limited
and the cost of land is high. Under such situations, the sub-station is created underground.

Pole-mounted sub-stations: This is an outdoor sub-station with equipment installed over¬head on H-pole or 4-
pole structure. It is the cheapest form of sub-station for voltages not exceeding 11 kV (or 33 kV in some cases).
Electric power is almost distributed in localities through such sub¬stations.

Single Line Diagram of 11 kV/400 V Indoor Sub-Station

A typical 11 kV/400 V indoor sub-station is shown. The key diagram of this sub-station can be explained as
under
i. The 3-phase, 3-wire 11 kV line is tapped and brought to the gang operating switch in. stalled near the sub-
station. The G.O. switch consists of isolators connected in each phase of the 3-phase line.
ii. From the G.O. switch, the 11 kV line is brought to the indoor sub-station as underground cable. It is fed to
the H.T. side of the transformer (11 kV/400 V) via the 11 kV O.C.B. The transformer steps down the
voltage to 400 V, 3-phase, 4-wire.
iii. The secondary of transformer supplies to the bus-bars via the main O.C.B. From the bus-bars, 400V, 3-
phase. 4-wire supply is given to the various consumers via 400 V O.C.B. The voltage between any two
phases is 400 V and between any phase and neutral it is 230 V The single phase residential load is
connected between any one phase and neutral whereas 3-phase, 400V motor load is connected across 3-
phase lines directly.
iv. The CTs are located at suitable places in the sub-station circuit and supply for the metering and indicating
instruments and relay circuits.

Transformer Selection
This specification covers design, engineering, manufacture, assembly, stage testing, inspection and testing
before supply and delivery at site of oil immersed, naturally cooled 3-phase 11 kV/433 - 250 V and 33 kV/433-
250 V distribution transformers for outdoor use.

The standard ratings shall be 16, 25, 63, 100,160, 200, 250, 315, 400, 500, 630, 1000, 1250, 1600, 2000 and
2500 kVA for 11 kV distribution transformers and 100, 160, 200, 315, 400, 500, 630, 1000, 1250, 1600,2000,
2500 kVA for 33 kV distribution transformers.

Specific parameters
11 kV Distribution 33 kV Distribution
Sl.No. Item
Transformers Transformers
1 System voltage (Max.) 12 kV 36 kV
2 Rated Voltage (HV) 11 kV 33 kV
3 Rated Voltage (LV) 433 - 250 V* 433 - 250 V*
4 Frequency 50 Hz +/- 5%* 50 Hz +/- 5%
5 No. of Phases Three Three
6 Connection HV Delta Delta
7 Connection LV Star (Neutral brought out) Star (Neutral brought out)
8 Vector group Dyn-11 Dyn-11
 9 Type of cooling ONAN ONAN

Core Material
The core shall be stack / wound type of high grade Cold Rolled Grain Oriented or Amorphous Core annealed
steel lamination having low loss and good grain properties, coated with hot oil proof insulation, bolted together
and to the frames firmly to prevent vibration or noise. The core shall be stress relieved by annealing under inert
atmosphere if required. The complete design of core must ensure permanency of the core loss with continuous
working of the transformers. The value of the maximum flux density allowed in the design and grade of
lamination used shall be clearly stated in the offer.

Windings
 HV and LV windings shall be wound from Super Enamel covered /Double Paper covered Aluminum
 / Electrolytic Copper conductor.
 LV winding shall be such that neutral formation will be at top.
 The winding construction of single HV coil wound over LV coil is preferable.
 Inter layer insulation shall be Nomex /Epoxy dotted Kraft Paper.
 Proper bonding of inter layer insulation with the conductor shall be ensured.
 The core/coil assembly shall be securely held in position to avoid any movement under short circuit
conditions.
 Joints in the winding shall be avoided. However, if jointing is necessary the joints shall be properly
brazed and the resistance of the joints shall be less than that of parent conductor. In case of foil
windings, welding of leads to foil can be done within the winding.

Tappings
 No tapping shall be provided for distribution transformers up to 100 kVA rating.
 For ratings above 100 kVA and up to 500 kVA, tappings shall be provided, if required by the purchaser,
on the higher voltage winding for variation of HV voltage within range of (+) 5.0 % to (-) 10% in steps of
2.5%.
 For ratings greater than 500 kVA, tapping shall be provided on the higher voltage winding for variation
of HV voltage within range of (+) 2.5% to (-) 5.0 % in steps of 2.5%.
 Tap changing shall be carried out by means of an externally operated self-position switch and when the
transformer is in de-energised condition. Switch position No.1 shall correspond to the maximum plus
tapping. Each tap change shall result in variation of 2.5% in voltage. Arrangement for pad locking shall
be provided. Suitable aluminium anodized plate shall be fixed for tap changing switch to know the
position number of tap.

Industrial Loads
The three different types of industrial loads under which electric motors are required to work are as under:
1. continuous load
2. intermittent load and
3. Variable or fluctuating load

The size of the motor depends on two factors. Firstly, on the temperature rise which in turn, will depend on
whether the motor is to operate on continuous, intermittent or variable load. Secondly, it will depend on the
maximum torque to be developed by the motor. Keeping in mind the load torque requirements, the rating of the
motor will be decided by the load conditions as described below.

(i) Continuous Load. In such cases, the calculation of motor size is simpler because the loads like pumps and
fans require a constant power input to keep them operating. However, it is essential to calculate the KW rating
of the motor correctly. If the KW rating of the motor is less than what is required, the motor will overheat and
consequently burn out. If, on the other hand, KW rating is more than what is needed by the load, the motor will
remain cool but will operate at lower efficiency and power.

(ii) Intermittent Loads. Such loads can be of the following two types:
(a) In this type of load, motor is loaded for a short time and then shut off for a sufficient by long time, allowing
the motor to cool down to room temperature as shown in fig a. In such cases, a motor with a short time rating is
used as in a kitchen mixie.

(b) In this type of load, motor is loaded for a short time and then it is shut off for a short time. The shut off time is
so short that the motor cannot cool down to the room temperature as shown in fig b. In such cases, a suitable
continuous or short-time rated motor is chosen which, when operating on a given load cycle, will not exceed the
specified temperature limit.

(iii) Variable Loads. In the case of such loads, the most accurate method of selecting a suitable motor is to draw
the heating and cooling curves as per the load fluctuations for a number of motors. The smallest size motor
which does not exceed the permitted temperature rise when operating on the particular load cycle should be
chosen for the purpose.

However, a simpler but sufficiently accurate method of selection of a suitable rating of a motor is to assume that
heating is proportional to the square of the current and hence the square of the load. The suitable continuous
rating of the motor would equal the RMS value of the load current.

Motors
AC motors aree of two main types, namely, induction motors and synchronous motors. Most of the industrial
drives used these days are three phase induction motors. Single phase induction motors are used in house-hold
applications, like washing machines, ceiling fans, water coolers, refrigerators etc. Three-phase induction motors
used as industrial drives are of two types, namely, squirrel cage motors and slip-ring motors.

The squirrel cage induction motor is the most widely used AC motor because of its simple construction, low
initial cost, robustness, reliability in operation and easy maintenance. For constant speed service where the
starting duty is comparatively light and infrequent, this type of motor is best suited.

Starting performance of a cage motor varies considerably with its design. A typical squirrel cage induction motor
would have 130 percent starting torque with 600 percent starting current when direct-on-line started. A high
starting current cause heavy drop in the line voltage and adversely affects the operation of other motors
connected on the line. For this reason it may be required to restrict the starting current of motors.
Situations where the starting current must be restricted, and high starting torques are not required, instead of
direct-on-line starling, star-delta starting may be employed. In star-delta starting, the motor is started with the
stator winding star connected. When the motor comes up to near rated speed, the stator winding is connected in
delta by a switching mechanism. This has the effect of reducing the phase voltage to about 58% (1/(3)1/2) of its
normal value during starting, thus reducing both starting current and starting torque to approximately 1/3 of the
direct-on-line value (as torque is proportional to square of the applied voltage).
An alternative to star-delta starting is the auto-transformer starting. This method of starting is often used for
large motors. The motor is started at a reduced voltage available from auto-transformer tappings and switched
on to full line voltage when running up at full speed. Auto-transformer starter is more expensive than the star-
delta starter but has the advantage of greater flexibility as variable starting torque can be obtained by changing
the auto-transformer tappings.

Certain types of loads require a higher starting torque than is obtainable from squirrel cage motors. In addition,
variation of speed over a large range is a requirement in certain applications. To meet these requirements,
wound rotor induction motors, also called slip-ring induction motors are used. In a slip-ring induction motor, the
rotor carries a winding similar to that of the stator. The ends of each rotor phase winding are taken out via slip-
rings, mounted on the motor shaft, to be connected to three variable resistors outside. Addition of extra
resistance in the rotor circuit during starting develops develop high starling torque. By varying external
resistance simultaneously and in each step the speed of the motor can also be varied. But this method of speed
control is not widely used in practice because of higher losses.

Starting
Three-phase cage-type induction motors may be started by the following methods:
1. Direct-on-line starting.
2. Auto-transformer starting.
3. Star-delta starting.
Direct-on-Line (DOL) Starting
Switching on the motor directly across full line voltage is the most economical method of starting. Direct-on-line
starting is sometimes referred to as "Full Voltage Starting." Most modern motors are designed not only to
withstand full voltage starting, but arc also designed with low starting current to enable them to be used on
distribution lines without producing objectionable voltage drops.

Star-Delta (Y/D) Starting

This method of starting requires both the ends of each stator phase
winding (i.e. six leads in all) to be brought out, to enable, by external
switching, connecting the winding in star at starting and in delta when
the motor has run up to rated speed. The starting connection is-always
star so that the voltage across each phase winding is 1/(3)1/2 or 57.7%
of that which appears across each stator phase when connected in
delta. Thus reduced voltage is applied at starting. Automatic star-delta
switching is obtained by the use of pushbuttons, contactors, time delay
relays, etc. and will be discussed later.
In this method, obtaining reduced voltage at starting has the limitation
that the starting Voltage is fixed at 57.7% of the line voltage. Should it
be necessary to have higher torque at starting, this method of starting
is not applicable. Recourse is then taken to auto-transformer starting.

Auto-transformer Starting
In auto-transformer starting, low voltage is applied across the motor terminals by using a three-phase auto-
transformer. The voltage to be applied can be chosen by selecting appropriate tappings in the auto-transformer
in the running position the motor is connected directly to the supply and the auto-transformer is cut out of the
circuit.

This type of starter is more

expensive than the star-delta
starter, but can be used with any
motor whether star or delta
connected. The provision of several
taps on the transformer allows a
range of adjustments to suit
starting torque and current
requirement. As in the star-delta case, the starting torque and therefore the initial current taken from the supply
is reduced. However, the advantage of auto-transformer starting is that current reduction can be adjusted to the
required value by choosing the correct tapping on the auto-transformer, unlike the previous method where the
current reduction is fixed at 1/3 of its normal value.

Starting wound rotor motors

High staring torque can be obtained by
connecting extra resistance in series with
the rotor circuit at starting. This extra
resistance is gradually cut out of the
circuit. Under running condition the
speed of the motor can also be varied by
varying the rotor circuit resistance in
steps. Three phase supply is given to the
stator windings with full extra resistance
on the rotor using contactors. The rotor
resistance gets cut out in steps as the motor picks up speed. The variation of rotor resistance for starting as well
as speed control may be achieved by different ways.

Single Line Diagram (SLD) An effective single-line diagram will clearly show how the main components of the
electrical system are connected, including redundant equipment and available spares. It shows a correct power
distribution path from the incoming power source to each downstream load – including the ratings and sizes of
each piece of electrical equipment, their circuit conductors, and their protective devices.

HT Cables
Cables which carry 1.1 kV to 6.6 kV are covered by PVC insulation. Paper insulated cables are manufactured
for used on 11, 22 and 33 kV. The range of sizes for paper insulated cables for 11 kV is
1. Single core cable 16 to 1000 sq. mm.
2. Three core cable 16 to 500 sq. mm.

Paper insulated power cables can be classified as follows:

1. Belted type
2. Screened or H-type
3. SL type
HT Cable Selection: Selection of the correct type of HT power cable depends on certain factors

System voltage: The system voltage needs to be stated, and specify whether it is an earthed or unearthed
system. The HT cable is almost invariably used on three phase system.

Current carrying capacity: The cable is laid progressively deeper under the ground the heat dissipation becomes
correspondingly more difficult. Hence, as the death of laying increases, the current carrying capacity decreases.
Standard depth of laying for cables laid directly in the ground for 11 kV is 90 cms.

Mode of installation: Paper-insulated lead covered (PILC) cables are generally installed as
1. Directly in the ground
2. In a duct or pipe
3. In air

In addition there are special installations such as vertical suspensions, river crossings, under the sea, inside the
mines etc. while specifying the type of cables this information should be taken into consideration.

Permissible voltage drop: The selection of size of HT cables should be such that the voltage variation in the
cable should be within the permissible limits of +6% and -9% of the declared voltage.

VD – Voltage drop per unit length

A – Full load current, Ampere
L – One way circuit length, feet
R – Resistance (Ohms/ kilofeet)

Short circuit rating: For determining the values of the short circuit ratings of copper and aluminium conductor
cables for a period of one second.

Short Circuit Rating are based on the assumption that duration of the short circuit is too small and apparently
that there is no transmission of heat, produced during short circuit, through the insulation and the whole of it is
absorbed by the conductor. With a high increase in KVA, capacity in power distribution system, cables are
expected to carry short circuit to carry short circuit current of high magnitude. Normally rated at 70 0 C, the PVC
insulation material permit a short circuit temperature of1600 C.

Short Circuit rating of any cable can be calculated as under:

T: Duration of Short Circuit in seconds.

A: Area of Conductor in Sq.mm.
K: Constant, For Copper with general purpose PVC Insulation- 0.115, For Copper with Heat Resisting
PVC Insulation- 0.104, For Copper with XLPE Insulation- 0.143

Switchgear Selection
A device that is used to switch, control and protect the circuits as well as devices. They switch as well as
interrupt currents under different operating conditions like normal or abnormal. In an electric power system, it is
an arrangement of electrical disconnect switches, circuit breakers, fuses which are used to protect, control &
separate electrical device.
It is connected directly to the supply system by placing in the low & high voltage planes of the power
transformer. This device de-energizes for clearing the fault, testing & maintaining. They play an essential role in
the power system to protect the equipment from the heavy current. Otherwise, the device may get damaged &
the service gets interrupted. They are essential to protect the equipment from the damage like a transformer,
generators, lines, etc.
It includes switches, fuses, lightning arrestors, Sectionalisers, Auto Reclosures, isolator/disconnect switch, CBS
(circuit breakers).
Switchgear should have the following features
 Manual control provision
 Fast operation
 Discrimination
 Reliable

Low Voltage Switchgear (LV): The power system which deals up to 1KV is called as LV or low voltage
switchgear. They include switches, LV circuit breakers, HRC fuses, earth leakage (EL) circuit breakers; offload
electrical isolators, MCBs (miniature circuit breakers) and MCCBs (molded case circuit breakers), etc.

Medium voltage switchgear (MV) deals up to 36 kV. They are available in different types like without metal
enclosure outdoor type, metal-enclosed indoor & outdoor type, etc. This kind of equipment includes substation
devices like minimum oil CBs, bulk oil CBs, SF6 gas-insulated, air magnetic, gas-insulated, vacuum, etc.

The disruption medium of this type of switchgear can be vacuum, SF & oil. The main condition of this type of
power network is to break off current throughout faulty conditions that may occur in the system. They are
capable of ON/OFF operation, interruption of short circuit current, capacitive current switching, inductive current
switching and used in some special applications.

Lightning arresters
They are used to protect power system from high voltage surges. The function of the surge arrester is to allow
the discharge of any dangerous over-voltage before it can do damage and then to restore the line to normal
operation after the discharge.

The most commonly used lightning arrester types are as under:

1. Rod gap arrester
2. Expulsion type lightning arrester
3. Valve type lightning arrester
4. Metal oxide varistor lightning arrester

Principle
When a voltage surge traveling along the conductor reaches the point at which a lightning arrester is installed it
breaks down the insulation of the arrester momentarily, allowing the voltage surge to discharge to ground.

As soon as the system voltage drops below the predetermined value, insulation between the conductor and
ground is restored and further current flow to ground stops.

To perform this protective function satisfactorily, arresters must:

 Not allow current to flow to the ground as long as the system voltage remains normal.
 Provide a path to ground, when the system voltage rises to a predetermined valve above normal, to
dissipate the energy from the surge without raising the voltage at which the circuit is operating.
 Stop the flow of current to ground, as soon as the system voltage drops below the predetermined value,
and restore the insulating qualities between the conductor and ground.
 Not be damaged by the discharge and be capable of automatically repeating discharging process
frequently when required.
The performance of any arrester is dependent on a good connection to ground. Arresters will not function
without a proper ground; they are totally useless. The arrester should be placed as close as possible to the
equipment, that is to be protected and leads connecting arresters to ground should be kept as short as possible.

Rod gap Lightning Arrester

It is the simplest type of lighting arrester. It consist two-rod electrodes,
one of which is connected to the line and other to earth. The rods may
be in the form of horn also. These are generally used to protect the
transformers.

Under normal operating conditions, the gap remains non-conducting.

When a high voltage surge occurs, the gap sparks over and surge
current is drained to earth. Such arresters suffer from the following
disadvantages:

 The operation is affected by climatic conditions.

 After the surge is over, due to ionization of air, the arc in the
gap is maintained even at the normal supply voltage.
 Increased possibility of bird faults.

Due to the above disadvantages, the rod gap arresters are used only as a ‗back-up‘ protection with main
arrestors.

Expulsion Type Lightning Arrester

It consists of an arc extinguishing chamber in series with an air gap. The arc extinguishing chamber is in the
form of fiber tube which interrupts the arc after discharging the surge by the generation of gasses.

When a voltage surge occurs that is sufficient to spark over the series
gap and the gap in the fiber tube, discharge current flows to ground.
The arc in the tube attacks some of the fiber of tube walls, releasing a
large amount of a relatively cool, non-conducting gas.

The gas produced in fiber tube acts not only to extinguish the arc but
also builds up high pressure and expelled through the lower electrode
which is hollow. As the gas leaves the tube violently, it wipes out the
ionized air around the arc. Due to this strong deionization effect, arc
goes out at current zero instant and will not be re-established.

An expulsion type lightning arrester has a current rating in addition to

the voltage rating. The maximum current rating must be equal to the
short-circuit current available at the point of installation. These are
generally used on towers for the protection of transmission lines.

Valve Type Lightning Arrester

It consists of an outer ceramic body containing a set of resistances
(valves) and spark gaps in series. The resistances are made of a
special silicon carbide ceramic.

It possesses the characteristic of being substantially an insulator at one voltage and then changing to an
excellent conductor at a higher voltage; the transition is due to voltage changes only, not to heat as in other
valve materials. High-voltage surges spark across the air gap and discharge current flows through the valve to
ground.
Since the valve has a low resistance under high voltage and a high resistance at a normal voltage so as soon
as system voltage becomes normal current flow stops. The arc gets extinguished and the arrester regains its
original state.

The valve type arrestors are extensively used for the protection of generating stations, sub-stations, overhead
lines, cables and rotating machinery.

They are rated for voltage only and are designated as 70%, 80%, and 100% arresters. The 80% arresters are
suitable for solidly grounded systems. Whereas, 100% arresters are used on systems with isolated neutrals or
those earthed through impedances.

The valve type arresters have been classified into the four types as under:

 Secondary Type
 Distribution Type
 Line Type
 Station Type

Secondary type lighting arresters are used with medium voltage apparatus, where the equipment is installed in
farms and other lightning-prone areas.

Distribution type arresters are used on lines and substations up to 22 kV.

Line type arresters are normally used for voltages up to 66 kV though they can be used for higher voltages also.

Station type arresters provide the highest degree of protection and should be used where the cost of the
protected equipment or the importance of service continuity justifies the extra investment on their account.

Metal Oxide Lightning Arrester

A metal oxide varistor (MOV) lightning arrester consists a series of metal oxide varistor blocks. These MOV
blocks acts like a voltage-controlled switch.

When the applied voltage across the arrester increases above the rated voltage of the arrester, the MOV starts
conducting and excessive energy is drained to the ground. This process continues until the system attains the
normal voltage. As soon as the system voltage becomes normal the conduction stops.

The MOV arrester is the one of the most commonly used arrester for the protection of modern power system.
They don‘t have gaps. This ―gap-less‖ design eliminates the generation of excessive heat during the operation
of the arrester.
They give best performance as the surge voltage conduction starts and stops very quickly at a precise voltage
level. This reduces the failure of the arrester and improves system reliability and protection.

When a metal oxide arrester is disconnected from an energized line, it may have a small amount of static
charge. Therefore, as a safety precaution, it should be discharged properly by connecting to a ground for a
while.

Earthing Design
Three pits are provided with earthed electrodes. One of the two earth
electrodes on either side of the double-pole structure is connected to
the lighting arrestor. The other one is connected to the neutral of the
transformer on LT side. The third earth electrode is connected to the
transformer body, to the handle of the 11 kV gang operated switch
and to the body of the LT switches. All the three pits are
interconnected.

Noncurrent carrying parts with conducting surface such as the

switchboards, tank of the transformer, and framework of OCBs, CT
and PT cases, lighting arrestors, cable armouring and other steel
structures should be effectively earthed for the protection of
equipment and operation personnel. The earth conductor should have sufficient current carrying capacity. The
lighting arrestors should be earthed separately.

For one transformer, two separate and distinct earth electrodes are provided for neutral earthing. For earthing
the body of the transformer, HV and MV panels etc., the earth conductor is to be connected to a common earth
bus run between another two separate and distinct earth electrodes. Thus for a single transformer substation
total number of earth electrodes shall be 4. Similarly for a two transformer substation, the total number of earth
electrodes shall be 6.

Power factor
It is the ratio of working power to apparent power. It measures how effectively electrical power is being used. A
high power factor signals efficient utilization of electrical power, while a low power factor indicates poor
utilization of electrical power. To determine power factor (PF), divide working power (kW) by apparent power
(kVA). In a linear or sinusoidal system, the result is also referred to as the cosine θ.

Low power factor means you‘re not fully utilizing the electrical power one would be paying for.

Consider a motor drawing a current of 10 Amps and a power factor of 0.75. The useful current is 7.5 A. The
useful power from the motor is 230 × 7.5 = 1.725kW but the total power that has to be supplied is 230 × 10 =2.3
kVA. Without power factor correction, to achieve the required output of 1.725 kW (7.5 A) a power of 2.3 kVA (10
A) has to be supplied. A current of 10 A is flowing but only 7.5 A of that current is producing useful output.

Power capacitors act as reactive current generators. By providing the reactive current, they reduce the total
amount of current the system must draw from the utility.
Power capacitors provide the following benefits:
 Reduced electric utility bills
 Increased system capacity
 Improved voltage
 Reduced losses

Typical Low Power Factor Industries

Industry Uncorrected Power Factor

Saw mills 45%–60%
Plastic (especially extruders) 55%–70%
Machine tools, stamping 60%–70%
Plating, textiles, chemicals, breweries 65%–75%
Hospitals, granaries, foundries 70%–80%

Q.: A three-phase motor has 100kW real power load at operating at 0.7pf, we need to improve the power factor
to 0.96. Let we calculate the required reactive power in kVAR or capacitor bank to be connected across the
motor?
A: Here, CosФ1 = 0.7, CosФ2 = 0.96

[ ( ) ( )]

Hence you can connect three 25kVAR capacitor bank across the panel for improving the power factor from 0.7
to 0.96

Types of compensation Compensation in power systems can be either shunt or series.

Shunt Reactive Power: Since most loads are inductive and consume lagging reactive power, the compensation
required is usually supplied by leading reactive power. Shunt compensation of reactive power can be employed
either at load level, substation level, or at transmission level. It can be capacitive (leading) or inductive (lagging)
reactive power, although in most cases compensation is capacitive. The most common form of leading reactive
power compensation is by connecting shunt capacitors to the line.

Shunt capacitors are employed at substation level for the following reasons:

Voltage regulation: The main reason that shunt capacitors are installed at substations is to control the voltage
within required levels. Load varies over the day, with very low load from midnight to early morning and peak
values occurring in the evening between 4 PM and 7 PM. Shape of the load curve also varies from weekday to
weekend, with weekend load typically low. As the load varies, voltage at the substation bus and at the load bus
varies. Since the load power factor is always lagging, a shunt connected capacitor bank at the substation can
raise voltage when the load is high. The shunt capacitor banks can be permanently connected to the bus (fixed
capacitor bank) or can be switched as needed. Switching can be based on times if load variation is predictable,
or can be based on voltage, power factor, or line current.

Reducing power losses: Compensating the load lagging power factor with the bus connected shunt capacitor
bank improves the power factor and reduces current flow through the transmission lines, transformers,
generators, etc. This will reduce power losses (I2R losses) in this equipment.

Increased utilization of equipment: Shunt compensation with capacitor banks reduces kVA loading of lines,
transformers, and generators, which means with compensation they can be used for delivering more power
without overloading the equipment. Reactive power compensation in a power system is of two types—shunt and
series. Shunt compensation can be installed near the load, in a distribution substation, along the distribution
feeder, or in a transmission substation. Each application has different purposes. Shunt re-active compensation
can be inductive or capacitive. At load level, at the distribution substation, and along the distribution feeder,
compensation is usually capacitive. In a transmission substation, both inductive and capacitive re-active
compensation are installed.

Power Control Centre (PCC)

They are used for the main distribution of power in large plants, industries and buildings, etc. The feeders
comprise of breakers and/ or fused switches. The Single Line Diagram (SLD) of a typical Power Control Centre
(PPC) is shown. Normally, the two incoming breakers are connected to the LV sides of two transformers being
fed from different sources. The connected 'loads' on each bus bar should be in proportion to the rating of the
incoming feeder connected to it.

A possible arrangement of these feeders in a PCC is shown in figure, this drawing is called the 'front view', The
salient features of most PCC are listed below.

a. Breakers with high current ratings are mounted in 'single-tier' (i.e., only one per cubicle/ panel) whereas
the lower rated breakers are mounted in 'multi-tier' formations.
b. The PCC is fully compartmentalized, i.e., all equipment of a certain feeder is accommodated in one self-
contained compartment. Thus, every feeder is isolated and separated from the others. The advantage
of this arrangement is that minor maintenance, like replacement of Rises, etc., on any feeder can be
carried out safely with other feeders in the ON condition.
c. In each panel, there are two sets of TP or TPN bus bars, the main bus running horizontally at the top
.and the auxiliary bus running vertically and connected in the main one. The main bus rating should be
equal or higher than that of the incoming feeder. The auxiliary bus rating should be sufficient to supply
the maximum power required by all the connected feeders at any time. However, many models do not
have the auxiliary bus, whereby all feeders are connected independently to the main bus.
d. The switchboard is flashed al the front but not necessarily so at the rear because the breaker feeders
are deeper than those for the switch fuse units (SFU'S).
e. The cable-entry is from bottom while the access for cable terminations is from the rear. The panels have
covers or doors in the rear for this. However, there are situations wherein the cable entry is from top (for
bottom bus bars) and cable access is from front because the switchboard rear is touching the wall).
f. The breakers and switches can be operated without opening the corresponding compartments doors as
the handles or the electrical control switches are accessible from the front.
g. An interlock, electrical or mechanical, is provided in each feeder such that the breaker switch can't be
made ON unless the compartment door is firmly closed and the door can't be opened unless the
switch/breaker is made OFF. This is called door interlock' and it is a. very important feature for
personnel safety.
h. Facility can be provided to padlock the switch or breaker in the OFF posi6on (termed switch-padlock) to
avoid an unauthorized person switching the feeder ON.
i. The incoming and bus-coupler breakers in this board are generally in withdrawable execution. This
considerably reduces the downtime for these feeders during the normal maintenance or minor repairs.
j. Some compartments are left empty for use in the future.
k. Herein, the protection scheme is normally simple. Hence the control and protection equipment can be
accommodated on the door of respective feeder compartment itself; separate control equipment
chamber is not required for most feeders.
Motor Control Centres (MCC)
These switchboards art used to distribute power to various motors inside an industrial installation which has
many (numbering in hundreds and thousands) motors spread all over. Using a MCC to supply power to a group
of motors located in a particular area or motors associated with a particular process is the best way of power
utilization. Thus, a MCC contains many feeders of various ratings; figure shows the SLD of a typical MCC.
There can be many variations in the design of this MCC depending on the features desired. Some of the more
popular executions are as below.

LT panel components
All the panels shall be metal clad, totally enclosed, rigid, floor mounted, air - insulated, cubical type suitable for
operation on three phase / single phase, 415 / 230 volts, 50 Hz.

The PCC's / MCC's shall be designed to withstand the and heaviest condition at site, with minimum expected
ambient temperature of 45 degree Celsius, 80 % humidity and dusty weather.

Powder Coating: All sheet steel material shall undergo seven-tank process after all the necessary shearing and
other mechanical works are completed. After the seven-tank process powder coating treatment shall be adopted
using powder of reputed make. After the powder coating is complete welding in the panel or any sort of
shearing, bending or cutting activity shall not be done. The colour shall be Siemens Grey 631.

Circuit Compartment: Each circuit breaker and switch fuse units shall be housed in separate compartments and
shall be enclosed an all sides. Sheet steel hinged lockable door shall be duly interlocked with the breaker /
switch fuse units in ON and OFF position. Safety interlocks shall be provided for non-opening of the door when
the breaker is in ON position.

The door shall not form integral part of the draw out position of the circuit breaker. All instruments and indicating
lamp shall be mounted on the compartment door. Sheet steel barriers shall be provided between the tires in a
vertical section.

Instrument Compartment: Separate and adequate compartment shall provide for accommodating instruments,
indicating lamp, control contactors, relays and control fuses etc. These components shall be accessible for
testing and maintenance without any danger of accidental contact with live parts of the circuit breaker, switch
fuse units, bus bars and connections.

Busbars: The busbar shall be air insulated and made high quality, high conductivity, high strength copper and
as per relevant IS code. The busbar shall be for three phases and neutral system with separate neutral and
earth bar. The busbar and interconnection between busbar and various components shall be of high
conductivity, hard drawn, electrolytic copper. The busbar shall be of rectangular cross section designed to
withstand full load current for phase busbar and full rated current for neutral busbar and shall be extensible type
on either side. The busbar shall be rated for the frame size of the main incoming breaker. The busbar shall have
uniform cross section throughout the length. Ratio of 1 sqmm = 1.2 A shall be adopted for tinned copper bus
bars. The busbar and interconnection shall be insulated with heat shrinkable PVC sleeves and be colour coded
in red, Yellow, Blue and Black to identify the three phases and neutral of the system. The busbar shall be
supported on unbreakable, non-hygroscopic DMC insulated supports at sufficiently close interval to prevent
busbar sag and shall effectively withstand electromagnetic stresses in the event of short circuit capacity of
50 KA RMS symmetrical for one second and a peak short circuit withstand of 105 KA minimum.

The busbar shall be housed in a separate compartment. The busbar shall be isolated with 3 mm thick FRC
sheet to avoid any accidental contact. The busbar shall be arranged such that minimum clearances between the
busbar are maintained as per below.

Between phases : 27 mm min.

Between phases and neutral : 25 mm min.
Between phases and earth : 25 mm min.
Between neutral and earth : 23 mm min.

All busbar connection shall be done by drilling holes in busbars and connecting by chromium plated bolt and
nuts. Additional cross section of busbar shall be provided in all PCCs / MCCs / PDBs to cover-up the holes
drilled in the busbars. Spring and flat washers shall be used for tightening the bolts.

All connection between busbar and circuit breaker / switches and between circuit breaker/ switches and cable
terminals shall be through solid copper strips of proper size to carry full rated current. These strips shall be
insulated with insulating strips.

Wireways : A horizontal PVC wire way with screwed covers shall be provided at the top to take interconnecting
control wiring between different vertical sections.

Cable Compartment: Cable compartment of adequate size shall be provided in the PCCs, MCCs, and PDBS for
easy termination of all incoming and outgoing cables entering from top. Adequate support shall be provided in
the cable compartment.

Earthing: Copper earth busbar of minimum 25 mm x 6 mm size shall be provided in the PCCs, MCCs, PDBS for
the entire length if panel. As per the rating of the main busbars the size of earthing busbar shall be decided. The
framework of the PCCs, MCCs, PDBs shall be connected to this earth busbar. Provisions shall be made for
connection from earth busbar to the main earthing bar coming from the earth pit on both sides of the PCCs,
MCCs, PDBs.

The earth continuity conductor of each incoming and outgoing feeder shall be connected to this earth bar. The
armour shall be properly connected with earthing clamp and the clamp shall be ultimately bounded with the
earth bar.
Labels: Engraved Aluminium sheet labels shall be provided on all incoming and outgoing feeders. Single line
circuit diagram showing the arrangements of circuit inside the distribution board shall be pasted on inside of the
panel door and covered with transparent laminated plastic sheet.

Switchgears:
The type, size, and rating of the components shall be as indicated on the relevant single line diagrams.

Miniature Circuit Breaker (MCB): Miniature circuit breakers shall be quick make and break and break type
conform to standards. The housing of MCBs shall be heat resistant and having high impact strength. The fault
current of MCBs shall not be less than 10000 amps, at 230 volts. The MCBs shall be flush mounted and shall be
provided with trip free manual operating mechanism with mechanical "ON" and "OFF" indications.

The circuit breaker dollies shall be of trip free pattern to prevent closing the breaker on a faulty current. The
MCB contact shall be silver nickel and silver graphite alloy and tip coated with silver. Proper arc chutes shall be
provided to quench the arc immediately. MCB's shall be provided with magnetic fluid plunger relay for over
current and short circuit protection. The over load or short circuit devices shall have a common trip bar in the
case of DP and TPN miniature circuit breakers. All the MCB's shall be tested and certified as per Indian
Standard, prior to Installation.

Fuse: Fuses shall be of high rupturing capacity (HRC) fuse links and shall be in accordance with standards and
having rupturing capacity of not less than 35 MVA at 415 Volts.

Air Circuit Breaker: The ACB shall meet the standards. Each pole of the ACB's shall be equipped with and over
current, earth fault and short circuit release. The ACB's shall be equipped with under voltage trip only on those
used as main incomer of all sources, bus coupler and inter connector. The trip devices shall be direct acting.
Disconnecting devices of approved type shall be provided to facilitate the removal of the circuit breakers from
the housing for test and maintenance purpose.

The ACB's shall have an arc-quenching device on each pole. The ACB's shall have auxiliary contacts for
signaling, interlocking etc. The ACB's shall have slow close facilities for checking contact operation and contact
gap adjustment.

All contacts subject to arcing shall be tipped with arc resisting material. Main contacts shall be silver plated,
multi-finger and spring-loaded type. Facilities shall be provided to isolate the circuit breaker for inspection
purpose.

Interlocks shall be provided to:

 Prevent the breaker from being isolated unless it is in the "OFF" position.
 Prevent the breaker from being racked in to the service position unless it is in the "OFF" position.
 Prevent the breaker from being accidentally pulled completely "OFF" the guide rail. Safety shutters of
insulating material shall be provided to prevent access to all live contacts, when the breaker is in the
inspection position or completely withdrawn. Facilities shall be provided for earthing the circuit breaker.

Air circuit breaker shall be capable of clearing the maximum fault current, which can occur.

The breaker plates shall have an ON-OFF indicators, spring charge indicators, provision to padlock manual
handle and provision to lock draw-out mechanism. Electrically operated breaker shall have provision for
emergency manual closing by inserting a tool through the fuse plate. A control isolating switch shall be provided
on the fuse plate to isolate the supply to the charging motor.

Moulded Case Circuit Breaker: The MCCB shall be air break type and having quick make quick break with trip
free operating mechanism.

Housing of the MCCB shall be of heat resistant and flame retardant insulating material. Operating handle of the
MCCB shall be in front and clearly indicate ON / OFF / TRIP positions.
The electrical contact of the circuit breaker shall be of high conducting non-deteriorating silver alloy contacts.

The MCCB shall be provided with microprocessor based trip units. All the releases shall operate on common trip
busbar so that in case of operation of any one of the releases in any of the three phases, it will cut off all the
three phases and thereby single phasing of the system is avoided.

The MCCB whenever called for in the drawings shall provide an earth fault relay. The MCCB shall provide two
sets of extra auxiliary contacts with connections for additional controls at future date.

Contactors: The contactor shall meet with the standards. The contactors shall have minimum making and
breaking capacity in accordance with utilization category AC 3 and shall be suitable for minimum class II
intermittent duty.
If the contactor forms part of a distribution board then a separate enclosure is not required, but the installation of
the contactor shall be such that it is not possible to make an accidental contact with live parts.

Trivectometer: Flush mount 96 x 96 x 80 mm load manager type

Enercon EM 6400 or equivalent meter of accuracy class 1 as per IS
13779 shall be provided. The meter shall be accurate on distorted
waveforms; simultaneous sampling of voltage and amperes shall be
done. It shall have low burden on PT and CT shall have bright
display, shall view 3 parameters together shall have auto scaling
from kilo to mega to giga units, shall have programmable CT, PT
ratios with built in phase analyser.

Auto scrolling shall be programmable as per user choice and

communication with PC; PLC DCS shall be possible through RS 485
serial port. It shall be dust proof, tamper proof with data import export
option and 10 years back up of integrated data.

Parameters to be monitored shall be Frequency, Line to line and average and line to neutral and average
voltage, phase wise and average current, phase wise and total KVA, KW and P.F. reading and KWH monitoring.

User programmable facility for delta 2e and star 3e measurement, C.T. and P.T. ratios, sliding window auto
sync. And auto scrolling of parameters shall be available.

Sensing shall be 3 phase, 4 wire measuring True RMS with voltage input range of 110 to 415 V nominal and
current input of 5 amps or 1 amps as per field configuration. Current range shall be from 50 mA to 7.5 A and
burden on PT or CT shall be app 0.2 VA.

Accuracy for kW / kWh shall be as per IS 1377 / CBIP88 and for all other parameters shall be +/- 0.5% of full
scale + 0.5% of reading + 1 digit. Digital readout shall be of 3 rows of 4 digits each (12.5 mm size) with 7
segments bright red LED. Input frequency shall be 50Hz / 60Hz +/- 5%. Power factor range shall be 0.5 lag –
unit – 0.8 lead.

Resolution for power parameters shall be for 4 digits and energy parameters shall be 8 digits. Display update
shall be at every 15 seconds for demand parameters and 1 sec for other parameters. Display sequence shall be
parameter followed by value.

Temperature range shall be 0-500C and humidity <95% non-condensing.

Current Transformer: Where called for, CT's shall provide for current measuring. Each phase shall be provided
with separate CT of class I accuracy and VA burden as shown in SLD for operation of associated metering and
controls. Current transformer shall be in accordance with standards as amended up to date.

Push Button: The push button unit shall comprise of the contact element, a fixing holder, and push button
actuator. The push button shall be momentary contact type. The contacts shall be of silver alloy and rated at 10
Amps. Continuous current rating. The actuator shall be of stranded type and colour as per its usage for ON,
OFF and Trip.

Indicating Lamp: The push button unit shall comprise of the contact element, a fixing holder, and push button
actuator. The push button shall be momentary contact type. The contacts shall be of silver alloy and rated at 10
Amps. Continuous current rating. The actuator shall be of stranded type and colour as per its usage for ON,
OFF and Trip. Push button shall be of self-glowing type with LED lamp.

Indicating Lamp shall be LED type and shall supplied complete with translucent covers to diffuse the lamp light.
Indicating lamps shall be part of push buttons.
Colour shade for the indicating lamps shall be as below:
 ON indicating lamp: Green
 OFF indicating lamp: Red
 TRIP indicating lamp: Amber
 PHASE indicating lamp: Red, Yellow, and Blue.