Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 207 (2025) 114952

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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/rser

MXene based composite phase change materials for thermal energy storage
applications: Featuring bio-mimic approaches
Md. Shahriar Mohtasim a , Barun K. Das b,*
a
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Rajshahi University of Engineering and Technology, Rajshahi, 6204, Bangladesh
b
School of Engineering, Edith Cowan University, Joondalup, WA, 6027, Australia

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Phase change materials (PCMs) are widely used in thermal energy storage systems, but their underlying draw­
MXene backs, such as poor heat conductivity and phase transition leakage, make them unsuitable for widespread use.
Bio-mimicry MXenes have received a lot of curiosity due to having extraordinary mechanical properties, high electrical
Phase change material
conductivity, and unique layered structure. Owing to the exquisite arrangements, numerous unique biomimetic
Photo-thermal conversion
Thermal energy storage
morphologies have drawn attention. Numerous investigations regarding bio-mimic MXene/PCM composites
Sustainable development goals (BMX-CPCMs) have found improvements in latent heat up to 106.50 % on average, along with excellent thermal
stability with no matrix leakage in 500 cycles and an upsurge in thermal conductivity of up to 708 % as well as
better electrical conductivity. These composites exhibit exceptional flame redundancy, a better evaporation rate
of 0.92 kg/m2 h, and photothermal conversion efficiency of up to 99.80 %. Certain BMX-CPCMs have superior
elasticity and compressibility, with the ability to rebound to nearly the initial stage even after enduring a sig­
nificant 80 % compression strain deformation. BMX-CPCMs showcase their diverse potential to promote socio-
economic and environmental well-being globally, helping to create an evenly distributed and sustainable
world by achieving several United Nations Sustainable Development Goals. This work provides a comprehensive
analysis of BMX-CPCM for advanced energy storage systems and conversion applications, which will inspire and
guide the scientific community in further advancing this field with the focus on developing new materials that
mimic nature with controlled structures and properties. These materials are crucial for clean, renewable energy
storage and conversion, which are necessary for sustainable societal progress.

Nomenclature (continued )
PI Polyimide SSPCC Shape stable phase
Abbreviations ​ DM D-mannitol change composite
BPC Bio-based polyporous PAM Polyacrylamide PMCKA C22/MXene/ MTMS Methyltrimethoxysilane
carbon cellulose
PCM Phase Change SSD Sodium sulfate nanocrystals/konjac
Material decahydrate glucomannan/Ag
PMPCM MXene/delignified SA Sodium alginate AFM Atomic force AG Aerogel
wood supported microscopy
form-stable PCM MA Mechanical property MB MXene incorporated
PA Phytic acid EUPCM Eutectic phase change analyzer bacterial-cellulose
materials XPS Photoelectron SM Spectrally modified
MEL Melamine LA Lauric Acid spectroscopy
IR Infra-red UV Ultra-violet FTIR Fourier transform PPF Pomelo Peel Foam
PVP Polyvinylpyrrolidone Vis Visible infrared spectroscopy
PVA Polyvinyl alcohol CNC Cellulose nanocrystal SEM Scanning electronic AgNWs Silver nanowires
fc-PCMs Flexible composite SSPCM Shape stable PCM microscope
PCMs (continued on next page)
(continued on next column)

* Corresponding author. School of Engineering, Edith Cowan University, Joondalup, 6027, Australia.
E-mail address: b.das@ecu.edu.au (B.K. Das).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2024.114952
Received 7 April 2024; Received in revised form 4 August 2024; Accepted 23 September 2024
Available online 1 October 2024
1364-0321/© 2024 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Md.S. Mohtasim and B.K. Das Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 207 (2025) 114952

(continued ) capacities [2]. Telkes and Raymond [3] conducted the initial research
EDS Energy dispersive X- NPCMEs Nano-sized phase on PCMs as energy storage materials in 1940. Later, during the
ray spectroscopy change material 1973–1974 energy crisis, PCMs were employed as energy retention for
emulsions thermal management [4]. The supplies for fossil fuels are now finite, and
POM Polarizing 2D Two-Dimensional
microscope
greenhouse gas emissions render it imperative to utilize energy wisely.
DSC Differential scanning NIR Near infrared PCM is commonly utilized in the fields of thermal confinement and
calorimetry energy storage, such as air conditioners, solar thermal storage, and
TGA Thermogravimetric BET Bacterial Endotoxins environmentally friendly residential development [5]. Phase conversion
analysis Test
enthalpies and phase transition temperatures can be influenced by ma­
TEM Transmission XRD X-ray diffraction
electron microscopy terials. Choosing the right PCM frequently depends on its stability and
TL Tensile testing CA Capric acid ideal thermal characteristics for a particular application [6].
StA Stearic acid PAA Palmitic acid
TES Thermal Energy PAN Polyacrylonitrile
Storage 1.1. Classification of PCMs
FCPCM Framework- 3D Three-Dimensional
supported composite PCM are classified as organic, inorganic, or eutectic according on
PCM
their chemical composition and structure. Phase separation, possible
MPPCCs MXene/PI@PEG SAL Stearyl alcohol
phase change thermal instability, and good phase transition enthalpy are all present in
composites inorganic PCM. They are mainly employed to recover surplus heat in
MXSs MXene-surfactants EMI Maximum large-temperature furnaces found in production plants. As a result, while
electromagnetic
the course of melting, every component of eutectic materials will turn
interference
UN United Nations SDGs Sustainable into a liquid, and a crystalline combination will form. For energy storage
Development Goals below 273 K, a eutectic aqueous salt solution is typically used [7].
Al Aluminum SE Shielding effect Paraffin and polyethylene glycol (PEG) are frequently utilized to create
SSA Specific surface area BMX-CPCM Bio-mimic MXene- composite PCM (CPCM) due to their superior thermal and cycle
based CPCM
endurance and significant heat transfer capability. An ideal method for
HNT Halloysite nanotubes Symbols ​
GA Graphene aero-gel T1 Initial temperature (OC) maintaining thermal energy is latent heat storage system that uses
TDA Tetradecylamine Tm Phase change organic/inorganic phase conversion material [8]. PCM can retain or
temperature (OC) release a significant quantity of latent heat in consequence of a phase
EG Expanded graphite T2 Final temperature (OC)
changeover whenever the phase transformation temperature is below a
mE Meso-Erythritol m Mass of PCM (kg)
2DHN Two-dimensional Cp,1 and Cp,2 Specific heat of PCM (J/
specific temperature range [9].
heterogeneous g OC) During the course of the daylight hours, the paraffin functions as a
nanohybrids solar thermal storage device. In order to recharge themselves, they store
GO Graphene oxide ΔHm Latent heat per unit energy, which they then release at night. Paraffins have a number of
mass (J/g)
benefits. In comparison to other materials, they are inexpensive, have
rGO reduced graphene G Irradiation intensity
oxide (W/m2 h) good thermal and chemical stability, a high storage density, are non-
BC Bacterial-cellulose t Time (s) toxic, and have a low liquid phase vapor pressure. It has low thermal
CPCM Composite Phase A Area (m2) conductivity (TC) (0.15 W/m K to 0.20 W/m K) [10], which drastically
Change Material
lowers energy-storing/releasing rates, may represent a drawback in
Gr Graphene V Output voltage (V)
BN Boron nitride I Output current (Amp)
solar and high electrical applications despite many advantages. These
BNNS BN nanosheets L Self-inductance (H) days, scientists employ different methods to improve the thermal char­
BNNT BN nanotubes λ Free path acteristics of PCM, including paraffin and other well-known and sig­
PEG Polyethylene glycol ν Wave velocity (m/s) nificant PCM. Understanding the energy storage and thermal conduction
PW Paraffin Wax Cv Heat capacity per unit
mechanisms of PCMs is crucial to overcoming their shortcomings and
volume
GNP Graphite nanosheets Lo Lorentz constant enhancing their performance. A commonly used approach for increasing
CNT Carbon nanotube σ Conductivity co- TC of PCM is to combine it with highly conductive nano-particles to
efficient increase the heat transfer rate. Graphene, in various forms such as
CMT Carbon microtube T Absolute temperature nanoparticles or extended filler, often improves the TC and heat capacity
(K)
PCE Photo-thermal ν Liquid velocity (m/s)
of PCM. Currently, a variety of nanomaterials, bio-derived particles are
conversion efficiency employed in place of heavy metal bits and powders as thermal
TC Thermal ρ Liquid density (kg/m3) enhancement elements in PCM [11].
conductivity
GF Graphene fiber M Molecular weight of
liquid 1.2. Mechanisms of thermal energy conversion
HF Hydrofluoric acid R General gas constant (J/
mole K)
Phase change energy storage can be described by first-order phase
transition, for instance, a liquid or solid phase is formed when the gas
1. Introduction phase condenses. The storage capacity of PCMs is calculated by Equa­
tion (1) [12], whereby T1 , T2 and Tm are the initial temperature, final
The energy and environmental issues confronting the entire world temperature, and phase temperature, respectively. Additionally, m is the
are possible to resolved via thermal energy storage (TES). Sensible, PCM mass, Cp,1 and Cp,2 are specific heat at different PCM phases, and
latent, thermochemical, or a mix of these methods can be used to store ΔHm refers to the enthalpy per unit mass.
energy as thermal energy. Phase change materials (PCMs), which are ∫Tm ∫T2
materials with latent heat storage properties, are able to be used to store
Q= mCp,1 dT + mΔHm + mCp,2 dT (1)
heat undergoing phase transition [1]. PCMs are better than sensible
T1 Tm
materials for storing thermal energy, as evidenced by their substantial
storage density, which is 5–10 times more than sensible heat storage Plentiful solar energy must be effectively converted and utilized to

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Md.S. Mohtasim and B.K. Das Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 207 (2025) 114952

meet the worldwide demand for perpetual power. It is vital to create Table 1
composite PCMs that can directly absorb solar radiation and convert Summary of thermal properties of 2D materials incorporating in various PCMs.
light into heat because standard PCMs are unable to absorb radiation in PCM/Additives Melting Thermal Latent Ref.
the visible light area. The solar-thermal conversion efficiency of PCMs temperature of conductivity, heat,
can be estimated using Equation (2) [13], where G is the solar irradi­ PCM (◦ C) PCM/CPCM (W/ PCM/
m K) CPCM (J/
ation, A is the sample area, and t time of the radiation.
g)
∫Tm ∫T2 mE/2DHN/EG 45.14 12.36/0.714 313.51/ [46]
mCp,1 dT + mΔHm + mCp,2 dT 232.17
T1 Tm
1-Octadecanol/GA/ 53.90 0.23/5.92 238.30/ [47]
ηSolar− thermal = (2) GNP 202.80
GAt 1-Octadecanol/Gr 66 0.38/0.91 249/210 [48]
Solar-thermal-electric conversion involves combining solar-thermal 1-Octadecanol/Gr 57.76 0.248/0.374 242.33/ [49]
235.97
and thermal-electric conversions. The solar-thermal-electric energy
n -Octadecane/GA 31.45 0.1505/1.636 205.40/ [50]
conversion efficiency of PCMs can be computed using Equation (3) 195.70
[14], where V and I are output voltage, and current, respectively. n -Octadecane/BN 26.40 0.084/0.10 205.40/ [51]
microcapsules 131.20
VI n-Eicosane/ 33.29 0.64/0.98 245.70/ [52]
ηSolar− thermal− electric = (3)
GA TiO2@Gr 160.30
microcapsules
Electrothermal conversion occurs when current flows through
Eicosane/rGO 37 0.18/0.36 155/121 [53]
conductive composite PCMs, causing electrons to interact with other nanosheet
molecules and generate joule heat. The PCMs absorb this heat and store Docosane/Gr 42.22 0.26/0.59 254.80/ [54]
it as latent heat. The electric-thermal energy conversion efficiency of sponge 256.30
PEG10000/GO/BN 40.90 0.33/2.36 168.10/ [55]
composite PCMs is computed using Equation (4) [14].
131.50
∫Tm ∫T2 PEG10000/BN/GO 64.50 0.33/1.89 197.70/ [56]
143.60
mCp,1 dT + mΔHm + mCp,2 dT PEG10000/BN/Gr 61.500 0.25/3 162.40/ [57]
T1 Tm 107.40
ηElectro− thermal = (4)
VIt PEG10000/BN/GO 40.60 0.30/2.40 168.10/ [55]
131.50
Magnetic materials like Fe3O4 generate significant heat because of PEG10000/ 38.60 0.33/4.76 204.20/ [58]
Néel or Brownian relaxation, resulting from periodic electron mobility Cellulose/BNNSs 136.80
in the alternating magnetic field. The magnetic-thermal energy con­ PEG10000/BN 43.40 0.30/2.20 176.10/ [59]
117
version efficiency of composite PCMs is computed using Equation (5)
PEG10000/GO/BN 44.30 0.32/1.84 169.40/ [60]
[14], where L is the coil self-inductance. 139.30
PEG1000/GO/BN 59.80 0.32/1.05 191.70/ [61]
∫Tm ∫T2
164.10
mCp,1 dT + mΔHm + mCp,2 dT PEG4000/BNNT/ 59 0.29/0.43 188.50/ [62]
T1 Tm rGOA 195.60
ηMagnetic− thermal = LI 2
(5) PEG4000/GA fibers 62 188.40/ [63]
2 –
124
Most PCMs are insulators, including paraffin wax and PEG6000. PEG4000/GO 57.90 – 182.80/ [64]
Phonon radiation transfers thermal energy from heated to cold surfaces 172.60
of substances having varying temperatures. This yields the TC of the PEG4000/GO 56.90 – 182.70/ [65]
107.20
insulator [15], whereby λ is the free path, Cv is the specific heat at PEG4000/BN 59.98 0.30/3.40 158.30/ [66]
constant volume, and ν is the wave velocity. 108.50
PEG6000/Gr 61.80 – 185.30/ [67]
1 nanosheets 166.10
TC, K = Cv λν (6)
3 PEG6000/GO/BN 34 0.30/0.79 176.90/ [68]
160.70
Some PCMs are conductors, including Ga and Bi-In alloys. The
PEG6000/ 66.10 0.31/2.78 189/ [69]
Wiedcmann-Franz law describes the relationship between electrical BN@chitosan 136.90
conductivity and TC of pure metals at room temperature or above [16], PEG6000/ 62.50 0.24/1.35 178.80/ [69]
where Lo refers to the Lorentz factor, σ is the conductivity coefficient, Cellulose/GA 156.10
and T is the absolute temperature. PEG8000/GO 67.50 0.338/0.478 170.70/ [70]
136
TC, K = Lo σT (7) PEG20000/Gr 66.90 – 110.50/ [71]
94.20
For liquid PCMs, the TC is proportional to the speed of sound. PW/GO aerogel 55.90 0.35/1.15 176.70/ [72]
Bridgman found that the speed of sound in a liquid correlates with its TC, 140.20
PW/h-BN porous 52.50 0.12/1.33 194/135 [73]
which is represented as [17], whereby R is the gas constant, v is the
scaffolds
speed of sound in the liquid, M is the liquid molecular weight, and ρ is PW/GF 53.30 0.27/2.28 157/ [74]
the density of the liquid. 151.10
PW/GF 61.80 0.31/0.62 203/200 [75]
2Rv PW/Anisotropic 55.80 0.28/1.62 162.10/ [76]
TC, K = ( )2 (8)
3
GO/BN aerogel 126.50
M PW/BNNS 52 0.29/3.47 147/80.17 [77]
ρ
PW/BN/TiO2 54.50 0.2036/0.4419 195.20/ [78]
microcapsules 121.50
PW/GA/GF/GNP 48.20 0.27/1.82 162/ [79]
1.3. Development of 2D nanomaterials 139.20
(continued on next page)
Graphene was first discovered in 1962 in a lab by Boehm and

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Md.S. Mohtasim and B.K. Das Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 207 (2025) 114952

Table 1 (continued ) considerably stronger. From a chemical standpoint, the M–X layer is far
PCM/Additives Melting Thermal Latent Ref. more passive than the A layers. Since MXene’s inception, the Ti3C2 and
temperature of conductivity, heat, Ti2C categories have been the most extensively utilized in a variety of
PCM (◦ C) PCM/CPCM (W/ PCM/ engineering applications. This opens up the option of using elements
m K) CPCM (J/ from the M and A groups in ways other than Ti and C to create innovative
g)
partnerships [10,29].
PW/Core–shell-like 57 0.207/0.274 201.50/ [80] In terms of their fundamental qualities, MXenes are advantageous
structured GA 202.20
due to their structural, optical, electrical, and occasionally even strong
PW/BN 58.70 0.28/0.53 200/177 [81]
PW/BN 52 0.28/0.51 187/86 [82] TES properties. These characteristics make them useful in a variety of
PW/GF 58.90 0.20/3.40 183/189 [83] contexts, the most important being the TES domain. Large SSA the
Paraffin/Gr 39.30 0.30/0.46 135.60/ [84] presence of hydrophilic functional groups, big atomic numbers, and
140.60 diamagnetic behaviors are just a few of the special qualities of MXene
Paraffin/ 50 0.35/8.87 182.20/ [85]
Anisotropic GA 179.80
[30,31]. The stiffness and flexibility of MXene’s surface are attributed to
Paraffin/CNT/Gr 46.20 0.39/0.82 224/203 [86] its functional groups, which is important for producing thinner films
Paraffin/ 53.30 0.272.28 157/ [74] that are used in bio-electronic systems [32]. The SSA of MXene nano­
Hierarchical GF 151.10 particles is high in comparison to other 2D materials. The properties and
Palmitic acid/GO 61.14 0.21/1.02 202/ [87]
potential of the hydrophilic functional group support large-scale solar
101.23
Palmitic acid/GNP 60.28 0.29/2.75 205.53/ [88] TESof MXene [33].
160.31
Lauric acid/Gr 43.80 0.215/0.489 – [89] 1.4. Research gap, novelty, and objective of the review
nanoplatelets
Lauric Acid/GA 44.60 0.27/1.04 213.90/ [90]
208.50
Perforated skeletons, fibers, or granules with strong heat conduc­
Lauric Acid/h-BN/ 46 0.30/0.79 176.90/ [91] tivity are typically combined with PCMs to produce CPCMs. As a result,
Gr 160.70 the current development of bio-inspired composite PCMs focuses on
Stearic acid/BN 52.90 0.261/0.453 191.60/ [92] developing porousness skeletons, fiber configurations, or particle forms
136.20
that are designed to mimic nature. Many distinct natural morphologies
Octadecanoic acid/ 65 0.16/0.69 186/174 [93]
CMT/Gr hybrid and structures have attracted a lot of curiosity due to their striking
Eutectic hydrate 30 0.70/1.10 189.10/ [94] configurations. Examples of these include biomass cellulose nano­
salt/GO 200.30 crystals, biomimetic aerogels with the centralized microstructure of the
Tetradecylamine/ 36.30 0.24/0.34 289.70/ [95] revered Texas lizard, multiscale aerogel (AG) with a feather-like
Gr sponge 293.10
morphology similar to that of a penguin, and bio-based pomelo peel
Octadecylamine/Gr 52 0.29/0.49 303/ [95]
sponge 303.40 foam, ice-structuring freeze-casting and so on.
Polyurethane/ 48.40 – 86.80/ [96] Fig. 1 presents an idea about the existing review articles available in
HNTs/GA 103.30 the Scopus and Google scholar database titled by the term ‘MXene based
Tetradecanol/E-GA 36.20 0.221/1.092 200.2/ [97]
composite phase change materials for thermal energy storage applica­
177.70
tions.’ To the best of the authors’ knowledge, no single work has been
published that discusses or features the MXene-based CPCM in relation
associates. Similarly, following a series of studies, Geim and Novoselov to bio-mimic techniques. To bridge this gap, the authors have compiled
successfully identified the thin layered 2D graphene in 2004 since these the most recent advancements in bio-mimic approaches to MXene-based
investigations piqued the interest of scientists studying 2D nano­ CPCM (BMX-CPCM) in a thorough manner. By initiating a consequential
materials [18]. Currently, the most common methods used to create 2D discussion about advancing MXene research from several angles, envi­
materials are mechanically force-assisted liquid exfoliation [19], sions the potential of MXene composites in thermal fields in real-time
particular etching-assisted liquid exfoliation [20], chemical vapor commercial applications and opportunities to meet the Sustainable
deposition, ion intercalation-assisted liquid exfoliation [21], Development Goals. An extensive overview of the property enhance­
wet-chemical syntheses [22], and oxidation-led liquid exfoliation [23]. ment of PCM following the addition of MXene and bio-mimic techniques
Currently, there are many 2D materials, like graphene and boron-nitride in comparison with five additional matrices and commonly used metal-
(BN), that offer great intrinsic qualities like light weight [24], high oxide nanoparticles with PCMs are also provided. This study offers
specific surface area (SSA) [25], suitable mechanical attributes [26], readers a deeper understanding of BMX-CPCM for cutting-edge energy
high TC [27], and exceptional chemical and thermal stability [28]. preservation and conversion applications. This will encourage and direct
These materials also offer great potential for increasing TC while the scientific community to advance this discipline by developing novel
retaining a stable shape to stop PCM liquid dripping. For the conve­ materials that mimic nature with controlled structures and properties
nience of the readers the improvements in thermos-physical property of for clean, green energy storage as well as conversion that will enable
PCMs after incorporating 2D nanomaterials are presented in Table 1. society as a whole to flourish sustainably.
Of all the 2D nanomaterials, MXene appeared as one of the most
recently developed materials. It performed exceptionally well in TES 2. MXene preparation and characteristics analysis
applications due to its unique features and superior chemical structures.
MXene was discovered in 2011 by a team of research collaborators from MXene, which implies "maxines," gets its name from the combination
the University of Drexel in Philadelphia. 2D layers made of titanium- of "MX" (max phase ceramic substances) and "ene" (micron-sized sheet
carbide (Ti3C2) were the first MXene to be developed. Nitrides and structure like graphene) [98]. The synthesis of 2D MXene is primarily
carbides of transition metals are used to produce MXenes. The three- carried out via the top-down method, which includes steps like pre­
dimensional (3D) predecessors of MXenes are called MAX phases, cursor, etching, and exfoliation. The MAX phase is changed into 2D
which are tetragonal carbides or nitrides with the general formula MXene throughout these procedures.
Mn+1 AXn . M is an acronym for metal of early transitions. A denotes the
element of the A-group, X can represent either nitrogen or carbon, and n
can be one, two, or three. Compared to M − A, the link between M− X is

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Md.S. Mohtasim and B.K. Das Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 207 (2025) 114952

Fig. 1. Existing review articles on MXene/PCM composites (Scopus and Google scholar database) [10,34–45].

2.1. Preparation methods of MXene 2.1.2. Etching

Hydroxyl, oxygen, or fluorine substitute the etched surfaces during
2.1.1. Precursor the MAX to MXene transition. Van der Waals forces hold the components
More than 130 distinct collections of families with MX6 octahedra’s that are left after etching adhere. The primary method for creating
interlayers of A layers are found in the MAX phases [99]. The number of MXene is selectively etched because the M − A bond is metallic, allow­
M layers between A layers, which are specifically identified to be 211, ing mechanical deformation of MXene impossible. The primary appli­
312, or 413 [100], is the primary distinction among those varieties. cation of alkaline solutions of anhydrous fluoride is the etching of the
There are known to be around thirty MXene, all of which are produced A− element layer from MAX phases to create MXene. Since hydrofluoric
by etching layers of aluminum (Al) using phases of Al that include MAX. acid (HF) is a commonly used etching agent, MXene is typically manu­
Parent phases determine the MXene structural orientation. In the 1960s, factured by etching it at room temperature to 55 ◦ C while adjusting the
it was found that over 50 of the MAX phases existed [101]. Both in 2014 HF concentration. Strong acid can remove a layer, producing Mn+1 Xn
and 2017, two chemically ordered MAX phases were constructed: the layers which can be segregated even more using ultrasonic therapy.
in-plane controlled phase known as i − MAX 211 and the out-of-plane MXene surfaces are frequently terminated with fluorine (–F), hydroxide
ordered phase known as o − MAX, 312 or 413 phases. (–OH), and oxygen) groups by this etching process due to their sub­
stantial etching potential. Consequently, Mn+1 Xn Tx is the conclusive

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Md.S. Mohtasim and B.K. Das Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 207 (2025) 114952

Fig. 2. The elements in the periodic table that correspond to MAX and its derivative MXenes and a typical schematic representation of how MXenes are formed from
various predecessors [119].

chemical formula of MXene, where Tx stands for the functional groups 2.2. Characteristics of MXene
(–F, –OH, –O) on the surface. Strong etching is also necessary due to the
increase in the atomic number of " M". For instance, a vigorous etching Due of its remarkable mechanical, electrical, and magnetic capabil­
was necessary to remove the massive M valence electrons from the ities, MXene has drawn the attention and get featured in several studies.
metallic M − Al bond [102]. The kind of MXene precursor utilized, the kind of etchant, and the kind
Only Al was thought to have been etched out of the MAX phase of sonication all affect the mechanical, optical, structural, electrical, and
during the deterioration. Ti3C2Tx was prepared by in-situ HF etching, transport features of MXene [109].
according to Alhabeb et al. [103]. When the HF with 5 wt%, 10 wt%,
and 30 wt% was administered at different times (5,18, and 24 h), 2.2.1. Chemical order and strength
Ti3C2Tx was the end outcome in every case. Conversely, in the in-situ According to the density functional model computations, it was
method, a longer etching period of almost 24 h was employed with assumed that the uniformity of 26 different MXene stages at 0 K origi­
HCl-LiF. Not only was the Ti3AlC2 the first MAX to be etched, but most of nates from o − MAX phases (Fig. 2). While simply the Al layer or both
the research was focused on it as well. Ti3AlC2 powder was initially the Al and the M components can be etched to accelerate the i − MAX
prepared by soaking it in 50 % HF [98]. Mo2CTx was the first MXene phase etching. Mo1.33CTz MXene is formed when Al and Sc are etched
created by etching gallium layers from Mo2Ga2C, hence MXene was from (Mo2/3Sc1/3)2AlC, much as in the present instance. According to
additionally manufactured by non-MAX-phase antecedents [104,105]. the principles of density operational theory and molecular dynamics
techniques [110], M2X MXene is more durable and rigid than M3X and
2.1.3. Exfoliation M4X. MXene has stronger, more flexible, and superior mechanical
Ultrasound approach is able to be utilized to remove etching the qualities. According to Fu et al. [111], MXene possesses better me­
byproducts whenever multiple layers are generated using an etchant chanical qualities than 2D substances, and its surface accumulating
apart from HCl/LiF. The primary method for achieving a high yield of property makes it a viable choice in terms of mechanical strength. More
colloids is fluid exfoliation through molecule incorporation. Since electrons that are utilized in Mn+1 Xn following A− layer etching, ac­
multilayers include organic and cationic molecules, it is essential to cording to Naguib et al. [112], leads to the demonstration of good me­
introduce the right molecules to exfoliate numerous layers into a single chanical properties. Kurtogolo et al. [113] noted that the modulus of
nanosheet. MXene can be exfoliated using the sonication or shaking MXene substantially less than that of graphene, as determined by
method [106,107]. Ti3AlC2 has been exfoliated using the polar chemical “first-principle” theory. According to Borysiuk et al. [114], MXene has a
compound dimethyl sulfoxide [108]. substantially higher bending resistance and bending strength than

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Md.S. Mohtasim and B.K. Das Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 207 (2025) 114952

Fig. 3. Application of 2D MXene in various fields [34,132].

graphene. Ti3C2Tx has an electrical conductivity of less than 1000 S/cm when
In addition, Lei et al. [115] reported that MXene exhibited improved manufactured using a cold-pressed disc synthesis technique from
flexibility and a decrease in interfacial modulus when contrasted with HF-etched powder [123]. For gentler etching and delaminated vacuum
graphene. Ti3C2Tx lightweight films have been used in studies to assess filter processes, the level of conductivity is 4600 S/cm and 6500 S/cm,
the optical characteristics of MXene [116]. According to the study, the respectively [122]. However, the nature of the M, X, and A layers de­
visible light transmittance increased to 80 % despite the MAX phase thin termines the electrical characteristics of MXene. It was discovered that
layer showing low permeability of up to 30 %. MXene is translucent MXene’s electrical characteristics might be changed by modifying the
when delicate and may capture light from the UV to near IR area, ac­ outer "M" layer. Ti3C2Tx, for instance, is metallic and exhibits semi­
cording to research [117]. By chemically and electrochemically inter­ conductor qualities due to the presence of molybdenum in MXene. The
calating cations, Ti3C2 is capable of transmitting 97 % of visible light per transportation characteristics of MXene can be modified by the
nano-meter thickness [118]. post-treatment processing that changed the surface terminations.
Ti2CO2 demonstrated semiconductor characteristics following thermal
2.2.2. Thermal stability annealing of Ti3C2Tx in the presence of hydrogen and argon at 1100 ◦ C.
Many of the most important parameters in figuring out MXene’s At this point, the data varied somewhat from the theoretical prediction
functionality is its thermal stability. Using thermogravimetric and mass but remained consistent overall [124].
spectrometry analysis, Seredych et al. [120] investigated the thermal
stability of Ti3C2Tx, Nb2CTx, and Mo2CTx MXene up to 1500 ◦ C. The 2.2.4. Surface properties
scientists came to the conclusion that the composition of MXene, which Since the majority of the characteristics of MXene are contingent
includes the type of transition metal and the etching procedure, signif­ upon its terminating group, the Al film in the MAX phase usually gets
icantly influences the surface chemistry, is what determines thermal substituted by a surface termination group such OH, oxygen, or fluorine
characteristics. The increase in water retention in Ti3C2Tx MXene layers [125]. The nature of the M and X elements, the amount of MX layers, and
was discovered by increasing the percentage of HF, and thermal stability the etching process all affect the type of termination group. In com­
was enhanced by employing a low concentration of etching agent. parison to HCl/LiF, Ti3C2Tx multilayers terminated by HF etching had
Compared to Nb2CTx and Mo2CTx MXene, Ti3C2Tx MXene had sub­ four times more fluorine, according to dynamic nuclear magnetic reso­
stantially greater thermal stability. nance spectroscopy. Both methods produced MXene with much less OH
Liu and Li [121] used polarized-laser power-dependent method and terminations.
temperature-dependent Raman spectroscopy to test the thermal per­ Using X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy on a variety of multiple-
formance of Ti3C2Tx/polyvinyl alcohol (PVA). By raising the thermal layer MXene, Halim et al. [126] demonstrated that the terminating
coefficient of resistance with no affecting the crystal structure, the PVA group is mostly fluorine but gradually changes to oxygen. Changes to "n"
increased the thermal stability of Ti3C2Tx. Ti3C2Tx and Ti3C2Tx/PVA had from 1 to 2 or "X" from C to N exclusively impact the hydroxyl to oxygen
TC ratings of 55.8 W/m K and 47.6 W/m K, respectively, and these termination ratio for MXene depending on titanium. In actuality, the O
values were higher than those of other 2D materials, suggesting that the to OH ratio rose as "n" was increased from 1 to 2, but it fell when the
polymer MXene was appropriate for use in energy storage technologies. ratio of carbon to nitrogen atoms declined. When tetrabutylammonium
hydroxide is applied to delaminate HF etched MXene, the MXene
2.2.3. Electrical properties dismissal is able to be altered throughout the exfoliation process. This
The electrical conductivity of MXene varies depending on the kind of results in an increase in oxygen terminations at the expense of fluorine,
preparation process. Improved conductivity is the consequence of large demonstrating that the latter are thermally unsteady.
flake size together low concentration defects, resulting in can be ob­
tained by sonication-free delamination and gentler etching [122].

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Md.S. Mohtasim and B.K. Das Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 207 (2025) 114952

Fig. 4. (a)Diagrammatic representation of the steps involved in making polyacrylamide/sodium sulfate decahydrate/MXene hydrogels. Microscope pictures of (b)
polyacrylamide, (c) polyacrylamide/decahydrate sodium, and (d) polyacrylamide/decahydrate sodium/MXene 0.50 (e) Schematic illustration illustrating the process
by which Na2SO4.10H2O transforms from its amorphous to its crystalline phases [131].

3. Application of MXene composites in thermal fields (PAM) hydrogel, and hydrated salts such sodium sulfate decahydrate
(SSD). The SSD was well encased by the 3D PAM/MXene network,
Owing to its exceptional qualities, composites based on MXene demonstrating an impressive scale persistence ratio of 98.1 %, an
possessed an extensive variety of uses, thus rendering them attractive apparent heat measured at 163.3 J/g, and exceptional
candidates. As shown in Fig. 3, these sorts of uses span a wide range of room-temperature versatility. The temperature reactivity and adjustable
industries, including but not restricted to electrical, thermal, electronic, modulus changes of the hydrogels were achieved by inducing the
optical, catalysis, electrochemical, biomedical, sensors, and environ­ melting-crystallization transition of SSD. Such hydrogel-based sensors
mental. Authors only intend to go into detail about applications that are demonstrated high sensitivity (gauge factor of 3.36), a wide strain range
related to thermal fields here. (300 %) and dependable endurance (200 stretching cycles) attributable
to the electronic MXene nanosheets and SSD crystals. The
3.1. Solar energy application PAM/SSD/MXene hydrogels showed remarkable solar-thermal energy
conversion and storage properties, allowing for the maintenance of the
Composites containing MXene have been extensively utilized in solar body temperature at about 35 ◦ C during photothermal treatment as
energy applications to optimize conversion of sunlight and maximize shown in Fig. 4(a–e).
solar utilization. Nagalingam et al. [127] investigated 2D Ti3C2Tx MXene-based NPs had been developed by Aslfattahi et al. [133] to be
MXene nanosheets for the dye-sensitized solar cells applications. A re­ added to organic PCM in order to improve the thermal characteristics of
view on MXene-based photocatalyst synthesis, and performance analysis PCM. Paraffin wax, PW70, was used with three different concentrations
for solar energy applications was carried out by Raza et al. [128]. In light of MXene NPs (0.1 wt%, 0.2 wt%, and 0.3 wt%). Various characteristics,
of the superior optical qualities of MXene Ti3C2Tx nanosheets spanning including temperature coefficient, specific heat capacity, and absor­
the 800 nm 1800 nm range, Jiang et al. [129] investigated their features. bance capacity, were taken into account. When MXene NPs were loaded
The nonlinear reflecting index with the substantial coefficient of into PCM at 0.3 wt%, the absorbance capacitance in the UV–visible zone
absorbance were noted, which demonstrated an extended signal band was increased by 39 % to that of pure PCM. The incorporation of 0.3 wt
that encompasses light wavelength. The incredibly thin MXene nano­ % MXene in PCM was shown to enhance TC and specific heat capacity by
sheets produced by a two-step exfoliation process were studied by Lin 16 % and 43 %, respectively. In order to improve TC and solar energy
et al. [130]. By using HF etching to transform the MAX phase of Ti3AlC2 storage efficiency, Chen et al. [134] established stable Ti3C2Tx
into Ti3C2 MXene, a high photothermal effectiveness for conversion was framework-supported composites (FCPCMs) as depicted in Fig. 5(a–d).
demonstrated. Ti3C2 nanosheets showed outstanding absorbency in the The composites demonstrated a good phase change enthalpy, enhanced
adjacent to infrared range. To develop flexible phase change hydrogels, TCfrom 0.166 W/m K to 1.733 W/m K and achieved a 95 % PCE and
Qi et al. [131] suggested a one-step photoinitiated polymerization energy storage.
method. The hydrogel was made of MXene nanosheets, polyacrylamide PEG/Ti3C2Tx composite PCM was described by Fan et al. [135] in an

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Md.S. Mohtasim and B.K. Das Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 207 (2025) 114952

Fig. 5. (a) Phase diagram for the Framework-supported composite phase change materials (PCMs) and phonon transport diagram for samples prepared using varying
techniques, (b) TC comparison, (c) Temperature-time curves for samples during the photothermal conversion and storage as well as the energy discharge, the melting
process beginning and ending points of 25 MP are shown in the inset, (d) photothermal conversion and retention of energy [134].

effort to improve the retention of energy for solar thermal applications. crystallization. The findings demonstrated that the latent heats of
Ultra-thin Ti3C2Tx nanosheets were utilized in the fabrication of the melting for PEG@MXene were 131.2 J/g, and that the relative enthalpy
composite to serve as an underlying component for the PEG encapsu­ efficiency was 80.3 % and the relative TC and EC were 2.052 W/m K and
lation. PEG/Ti3C2Tx shown superior absorption of solar energy in the 10.41 S/m, respectively. Dopamine-decorated MXene was synthesized
near visible and near IR regions. Considering real solar radiation, the by Du et al. [140] and used to PEG-based polyurethane PCM to effec­
PCE reached 94.5 % and demonstrated form-stable characteristics both tively transform solar energy into thermal energy. The resulting com­
before and shortly thereafter phase change. For use in solar energy ap­ posite PCM showed good TC, form-stability, and thermal resilience.
plications, Lin et al. [136] presented a 2D PEG PCM based on MXene Phase change enthalpy was shown in the DSC data to be between 121.9
aerogel (AG) that contains transitioning metal carbides/carbonitrides. J/g and 128.2 J/g. The solar radiation measurements demonstrated that
Using a one-step freeze-drying process, MXene nanosheets were mixed the composite PCM has a PCE of up to 90.1 %. Lithium fluoride and
with PEG to create the composite. The resulting MXene/PEG composite hydrochloric acid solutions were used to create 2D MXene nanosheets
had a high extinction index in the UV–vis–NIR range at 380 nm and with superior solar-thermal conversion. MXene/polyimide AGs were
relatively lightweight. The thermal stability of PEG has been enhanced synthesized and subsequently impregnated with PEG to produce MXe­
and the level of temperature at which it decomposes thermally was ne/PI@PEG phase change composites (MPPCCs), by Cao et al. [141].
raised to 40 ◦ C. It was possible to achieve up to 92 % PCE with the MPPCC-4 exhibits the potential to increase solar energy consumption
MXene/PEG composite. CPCM with enhanced shape retention and due to its high energy density, flame retardant qualities, as well as its
photo-thermal conversion efficacy (PCE) were produced by Shao et al. PEG loading capacity. MPPCC has a high enthalpy (167.9 J/g), an
[137] by the incorporation of MXene-coated melamine foam into PEG outstanding PEG load capability (98.1 %), and a 99.8 % proportional
(MF@MXene/PEG) as shown in Fig. 6(a–d). The composites demon­ enthalpy performance as shown in Fig. 7(a–c). Ti3C2Tx MXene/wood
strated a solar-thermal conversion efficiency of 92.7 % with an aspect supported PCM (PMPCMs) had a high TEScapacity (166.9–191.6 J/g)
stability ratio of 90 %. and an outstanding n-octadecane entrapment yield, according to the
Lu et al. [139] suggested a new composite called PEG@MXene, DSC data [142]. The solar-thermal storage efficiency of wood-endorsed
which is made of 2D MXene and PEG. MXene nanosheets acted as CPCMs was considerably increased (up to 88.4 %) by coating it with
thermal conductive additives and PEG as PCM, the composite was MXene. This indicates that the delignified wood has excellent flame
created via a vacuum impregnation process. DSC and XRD demonstrated retardancy as illustrated in Fig. 7(d).
that PEG served as heterogeneous crystal nuclei and improved PEG A two-dimensional, chemically resilient, optically and thermally

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Md.S. Mohtasim and B.K. Das Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 207 (2025) 114952

Fig. 6. (a) A schematic representation showing the steps involved in making melamine foam@MXene sponges and composites made of melamine foam @MXene and
polyethylene glycol. (b) The chromatic and microstructural analysis of pristine melamine foam, melamine foam @MXene, and melamine foam @MXene/Poly­
ethylene glycol composites are displayed in the photographs. (c) MF@MXene3 sponge stress-strain maps at three different compressive strains: 30 %, 60 %, and 90 %.
(d) Digital images showing the melamine foam @MXene/polyethylene glycol composite sponge compression-recovery performance [137]. (e) A hierarchical PCM
combined with polyethylene glycol and customized dual-network by MXene/Silver nanowires for thermal control and energy preservation [134,138].

efficient MXene@eutectic salt hydrate composite PCM has been pro­ established a shape-stable CPCM. The composite material which was
posed by Kalidasan et al. [143] for efficient solar TES applications. SSD developed shows a large increase in TC, reaching a value of 0.64 W/m K,
and sodium phosphate dibasic dodecahydrate are used to create a and also exhibits an appropriate PCE of 88.9 % as a result of the com­
low-temperature eutectic salt hydrate PCM with a phase shift tempera­ plementary effects of MXene nanosheets and AgNWs. The high-level
ture of 27.6 ◦ C and a melting enthalpy of 216 J/g using the Schrader PEG loading of 90.1 % in the resultant composite PCM yields an
equation. A two-step approach is used to create an MXene-based PCM impressive phase change enthalpy of 124.8 J/g, underscoring its supe­
nanocomposite using binary eutectic PCM of SSD/sodium phosphate rior energy storage capacity. The resulting composite lowers the oper­
dibasic dodecahydrate at varying weight fractions. The developed ating temperature of a conventional Li-ion battery (LIB) by more than
nanocomposite PCM has enhanced chemical stability, a high optical 12 ◦ C during a 3C discharge procedure, demonstrating dependable
absorbance of 1.1, low transmissibility of 10.2 %, consistent TC of 0.621 structural stability and outstanding thermal management capability as
W/m K, upgraded melting enthalpy about 161.2 J/g, and significant shown in Fig. 6(e).
cycle stability. Huang et al. [144] examined the bio-based MXene hybrid By chemically modifying stearyl alcohol (SAL) with a phosphorus-
aerogel/CPCM for solar TES and found its high enthalpy of 231.38 J/g, containing molecule, Luo et al. [145] developed and produced
excellent conductivity of 147.5 S/m, and outstanding cycle stability. flame-retardant PCMs. Then, using a vacuum impregnation technique,
form-stable CPCM were developed, utilizing MXene containing a
3.2. Application in battery thermal management permeable geometry acting as the sustaining skeleton of PCM. The
consequent MXene-based PCMs (PSM-4) showcase a large TC (0.486
When charging or discharging, the PCM stores heat energy by W/m K) and are form-stable across heating up to 90 ◦ C, as anticipated.
absorbing excess heat. The battery stays warm as a result of solidifica­ These properties are due to the substantial aspect ratio, strong capillary
tion and the release of heat when the temperature drops. MXene-based effect, and interfacial connection that occurs between the PCM molec­
PCMs show promise for high performance battery-to-metal-metal sys­ ular structure and MXene. The integration of phosphorus and MXene
tems due to their SSA, excellent TC, and great temperature stability. By enhances flame retardancy of PCM and it reduces both total and peak
encasing PEG within a dual-network hydrogel that was altered with the radiant heat rates by 32.1 % and 42.8 %, respectively.
use of Ti3C2Tx MXenes and silver nanowires (AgNWs), Ma et al. [138] Through the use of a dry ball-milling technique, the investigation

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Md.S. Mohtasim and B.K. Das Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 207 (2025) 114952

Fig. 7. Diagrams showing the steps involved in preparing (a) MXene/Polyimide@Polyethylene glycol CPCM, (b) MXene, and (c) MXene/delignified wood supported
form-stable PCM [141]. (d) The possible uses in the domains of temperature modulation and maximum electromagnetic interference shielding [142].

conducted by Ali et al. [146] improved the capacity for storage of the kg/m2 h evaporation rate. Under variable solar illumination, the MXe­
Ti3C2Tx (MXene)/Fe2O3 nanocomposite by containing Fe2O3 nano­ ne/SA/SiO2-MEPCM demonstrates a high latent heat capacity of over
particles within Ti3C2Tx nanosheets. These composites exhibit reduced 150 J/g enabling sequential and highly efficient evaporation.
MXene oxidation, a greater specific surface region, and a homogeneous MXene and its derivatives show great potential as competitors in
distribution of Fe2O3 nanoparticles. With its best reversible specific ca­ desalination applications. The reason for this is that MXene possesses
pacity and rate performance, the Ti3C2Tx-50 wt% Fe2O3 composite of­ good mechanical, electrical, and hydrophilic qualities in addition to a
fers robust and high-performing MXene/transition metal oxide large SSA. Accordingly, MXene has a low interaction angle of 21.5 O and
composites for LIB applications. The Ti3C2Tx-50 wt% Fe2O3 composite, long-term stability on the outermost layer of the water, making it an
out of all those examined, had the best rate performance of 100 mA appropriate candidate for desalination [148]. Due to gloomy conditions,
h/gm at 10C and the largest reversed specific capacity of about 270 mA Zhao et al. [149] suggested using MXene-based Ags to ensure continual
h/g at 1C. steam generation beneath these atmospheric conditions. Therefore,
crosslinked MXene Ags were developed and attached to solar cells.
These Ags could use the energy from the solar cells to generate heat on
3.3. Desalination application
sunny days and to generate power during low light or overcast weather.
As a result, the additional electricity used for steam generation was
In order to achieve feasible seawater desalination, an unusual kind of
reduced. When both were combined at a solar intensity of 0.5 kW/m2,
phase-change miniature capsules covered with sodium alginate (SA) and
the rate at which water evaporated was 1.624 kg/m2 h, as opposed to
adorned with MXene (MXene/SA/SiO2-MEPCM) was developed as a
1.337 kg/m2 h.
dual-functioning sun absorbent for the contact evaporator by Zhang
In solar interaction with membrane distillation, Tan et al. [150]
et al. [147]. The process of creating the MXene/SA/SiO2-MEPCM
suggested the MXene wrapping, significantly improved the photo­
involved encasing n-docosane as a PCM in the SiO2 shell, installing a SA
thermal characteristics and preventing fouling of polyvinylidene
layer, and then embellishing MXene nanosheets. Under one solar illu­
difluoride. The final composition showed a 12 % decrease in thermal
mination, the unique SA of the microcapsule and MXene nanosheet
energy consumption and a 56 % decreased flux discharge. Ti3C2Tx
combination produces a remarkable 97 % sunlight absorption index and
MXene was synthesized by Li et al. [151] for effective light-to-heat
good moisture absorption, which in turn encourages a significant 2.11

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Md.S. Mohtasim and B.K. Das Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 207 (2025) 114952

Fig. 8. (a) Antifreeze beetles consume light employing their black surface, conserving thermal energy through the action of antifreeze proteins (AFPs) when exposed
to sunlight, (b) An illustration depicting the steps involved in making MXene/bacterial-cellulose hybrid @ methyltrimethoxysilane (MB@MTMS) aerogels (AGs) and
MB@MTMS AGs-paraffin; (c) SEM images of the MB aerogels -paraffin, MXene/bacterial-cellulose hybrid AGs, and MB@MTMS AGs-paraffin, accordingly, (d) tensile
stress-strain graphs for MB AGs-paraffin and MB@MTMS AGs-paraffin according to 10 ◦ C and 50 ◦ C, accordingly, and optical images of MB@MTMS AGs prior to and
after compressing are included in the recess. The compression stress-strain curves of MB@MTMS AGs under 10 cycle tests of 80 % compression-decompression [160].

transformation that produces steam. Up to 93.2 % of the light was blocks bulk water interface. Conversely, hydrophilic lower quickly
absorbed by the MXene nanostructure, and only 0.32 mg/cm2 of supplied water to tubes that were arranged vertically. The trials were
sunlight-absorbing material was loaded. In comparison to other equip­ carried out, and the outcomes showed a PCE of 87 % and 1.46 kg/m2 h of
ment, the resultant composite likewise showed significant generated water evaporation over a period of fifteen days. Along this line, seawater
steam of 1.33 kg/m2 h, and it proved consistent up to 100 ◦ C. For was used to produce 6 L/m2 of clean water every day. Atomically thin
effective steam in subsequent generations, Zhao et al. [152] developed a MXene nanosheets were used for generating the ultrathin MXene
3D solar liquid steam generator depending on the MXene topology. The membranes that Liu et al. [154] suggested for distillation. Many factors
framework was made using a straightforward, two-step dip coating were taken into account, including supply temperature and the longi­
method that had a 98 % absorbent capacity. It was also reasonably tudinal size of the nanosheets. At 65 ◦ C, an amount of 3 wt% of NaCl was
priced. When the manufactured composite was exposed to 1 or 5 suns, delivered. The final construction has good endurance over time, an
the water evaporation rate was 1.41 kg/m2 h and 7.49 kg/m2 h, adequate water flux of 85.4 L/m2 h, and 99 % salt refusal. Molybdenum
respectively. Under the irradiation of 1 and 5 suns, the solar steam carbide MXene for coastal and saltwater desalination was studied by
conversion efficiency was 88.7 % and 94.2 % respectively. Sarimuk et al. [155]. The transitioning metal carbide MAX phase was
In order to prepare a vertically oriented Mobius MXene-based AG, acid-treated to create the composite. The composite demonstrated up to
Zhang et al. [153] manufactured a water-repellent topmost layer and a 95 % efficiency in desalinating 15 mg/g in 600 mM NaCl.
hydrophilic lower layer. MXene exhibits a high effectiveness in con­ These outcomes were obtained in without the use of a switching
verting light into heat, and its hydrophobic outermost layer effectively membrane, an attractive medium for the procedure of desalination. A

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Md.S. Mohtasim and B.K. Das Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 207 (2025) 114952

Fig. 9. The fabrication schematic diagram of CPCMs, (b–e) SEM pictures of MXene AG and MAX powder, (f) AFM image of MXene nanosheet, and (g) the TC of
dodecane (C22), dodecane/MXene/cellulose nanocrystals/konjac glucomannan/Ag (PMCK), PMCKA–5, and PMCKA–10 [144].

Water-repellent MXene-based barrier featuring delaminated Ti3C2 equilibrium was reached, and 174.08 % of mechanical integrity was
nanosheets and trimethoxy silane substitution was produced by Zhao attained by increasing tensile strength. The surge in composite TC
et al. [156] as a long-lasting and efficient photothermal degradation augmentation when MXene concentration is increased. The thermal
material for desalination. The final composite showed a 71 % conversion stability of titanium carbide Ti2C, Ti3C2, and Ti4C3 MXene for electronics
efficiency and an evaporation rate of 1.31 kg/m2 h. Additionally, the functions was studied by Borysiuk and Mochalin [158]. For assessing the
composite demonstrated endurance in high salinity for roughly 200 h choices of MXenes, various criteria were taken into account, including
when exposed to sunshine. Although the refusal rate of metallic sub­ the Lindemann Index, radial distribution function, and atomistic
stances was 100 %, that of the four main salts like Na, K, Mg, Ca was 99.5 configuration. For Ti2C, Ti3C2, and Ti4C3, the required melting tem­
%. Unfortunately, salt obstruction makes such membranes unsuitable peratures were 1050 K, 1500 K, and 1700 K, respectively. The study
for prolonged use. revealed that the melting temperature of MXene was substantially less
than graphene. This is advantageous for electronic components, where
3.4. Electronic application dissipating heat is the primary determinant of functionality.
In order to generate an array of layers for electrical applications, Jin
Owing to their superior cooling capabilities, PCM based on MXene et al. [159] proposed a polyvinyl alcohol (PVA)/MXene based structure
have found widespread application in electronic cooling components. obtained using multilevel casting. The resulting flame-retarded com­
The polyvinyl chloride/MXene nanocomposite was synthesized and posite had a compact architecture for transmitting heat and electrons,
studied by Mazhar et al. [157] for use in TES applications in electronics. which led to high TC and EC. The composite had a 19.5 wt% MXene
After HF etching to produce the delaminated MXene, solvent molding content, which was 23 times greater than PVA, with 716 S/m EC and
and sonication were used to combine the material at varying concen­ 4.57 W/m K TC. Due to extensive use in sophisticated electrical func­
trations with PVC. 3.48 W/m K was added to the TC, 683.6 ◦ C of thermal tions, the maximum electromagnetic interference (EMI) shielding effect

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Md.S. Mohtasim and B.K. Das Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 207 (2025) 114952

Table 2
MXene incorporated CPCM featuring preparation methods, characterizations and thermophysical property findings.
MXene incorporated PCM Methods Characterization Thermal Melting Latent Thermal Ref.
conductivity (W/ temperature heat (J/g) conversion
m K) (◦ C) efficiency (%)

PEG/BPC@MXene Vacuum TEM, FTIR, SEM, DSC, TGA, 0.566 57.50 154.90 99.36 [166]
impregnation EDS, XPS
PMPCM Impregnation TEM, FTIR, SEM, XRD, DSC, – 33.40 191.60 Up to 88.40 [142]
TGA, EDS, XPS
n-docosane/PA/MEL-modified Vacuum TEM, FTIR, SEM, XRD, DSC, – 48.40 219.5 Up to 89.50 [167]
Nb2CTx MXene/delignified impregnation TGA, EDS
wood
MXene@PVP-PEG Vacuum AFM, FTIR, FE-SEM, DSC, 0.533 65.10 143.40 Up to 96.20 [168]
impregnation TGA, EDS, XRD
CPM fc-PCMs (C20/PVA/ Physical blending FTIR, SEM, DSC, TGA, EDX, – 37.66 145.26 – [169]
MXene) MA
MXene/PI@PEG Vacuum SEM, FTIR, SEM, DSC, TGA – 36.60 167.9 99.8 [141]
impregnation
3D-Ti3C2Tx/PEG Vacuum DSC, TGA, EDS, XRD 1.733 63.19 119.11 95.02 [134]
impregnation
MXene/DM Freeze-drying AFM, FTIR, FE-SEM, DSC, – 153.30 202.70 88.10 [170]
TGA, EDS, XRD
PAM/SSD/MXene hydrogels One-step SEM, EDS, XRD, TL – 35.10 163.30 – [131]
photoinitiated
polymerization
SA/MXene@PEG Vacuum drying SEM, TEM, AFM, FTIR, TGA, – 64.50 148.50 Up to 98.80 [171]
DSC
EUPCM/2D MXene Magnetic Stirring and FTIR, SEM, DSC, TGA, XRD, – 55.68 159.30 – [172]
Sonication EDX, UV–vis
TDA/MXene/CNC CPCMs Vacuum FTIR, SEM, XRD, DSC, TGA 0.491 39.20 221.5 96.60 [161]
impregnation
SSPCM/MXene Vacuum FTIR, SEM, XRD, DSC, TGA 0.612 56.98 100.46 99.20 [173]
impregnation
SSPCC/MXene Vacuum FTIR, SEM, XRD, DSC – – 164.92 76.90 [174]
impregnation
MB@MTMS Ags-Paraffin Vacuum TEM, EDS, TGA, DSC, FTIR 0.0241 – 93.49 – [160]
impregnation
SM-Ti3C2Tx/PVA Freeze-drying under UV–vis–NIR, SEM, HRTEM, 0.162 – – 88.52 [162]
vacuum XRD, FTIR, DSC, AFM, EDX
PMCKA Directional FTIR, SEM, XRD, DSC, TGA 0.4818 45.98 231.38 94.10 [144]
freeze-drying and
vacuum absorbed
PEG/Bio- based PPF@MXene Simple impregnation AFM, SEM, EDS, XPS, DSC, 0.42 62 157.90 99 [165]
nanosheets process UV–vis–NIR,
MXene decorated n- Emulsification SEM, AFM, XRD, DSC, 0.693 54.80 12.60 – [175]
tetradecane/water (NPCMEs) UV–vis–NIR, MA
PEG/Ti3C2Tx Vacuum FE-SEM, EDS, HRTEM, XRD 0.428 138 362.20 96.50 [176]
impregnation
MXene@PEG aerogels Magnetic stirring TEM, AFM, XPS 0.146 330.30 186.80 92.70 [137]
PEG@MPMF Vacuum oven SEM-EDS, XRD, BET – 335.5 186.20 – [177]
PEG Aerogels@MXene Magnetic stirring XRD, SEM, EDS, AFM, – – 167.72 92.50 [136]
UV–Vis–NIR
f-PEG/MXene Direct vacuum FTIR, SEM, AFM, BET, XRD, 2.052 333 131.2 95.90 [139]
impregnation POM, CCD
PEG4000/Cellulose/MXene Vacuum oven FTIR, TGA, DSC, SEM, XRD – 67.50 192.20 – [178]
P-SAL@MXene Vacuum melt FTIR, SEM, XRD, TEM, AFM – 346.30 147.90 94.60 [145]
impregnation
PA/T-15@G Vacuum SEM, TEM, XRD, FTIR, DSC 0.505 334 193.6 97.70 [179]
impregnation
PA/T-30@G Vacuum SEM, TEM, XRD, FTIR, DSC 0.919 334.10 191.70 95.30 [179]
impregnation
PA/T-45@G Vacuum SEM, TEM, XRD, FTIR, DSC 0.775 333 184.70 93.50 [179]
impregnation
SSPCMs Ultrasonic Method FTIR, AFM, XRD – – 127.97 90.45 [180]
EPDM/Ti3C2Tx/PW Water-assisted melt FTIR, SEM, XRD – – 120 95 [181]
blending
PMC fs-CPCMs One-step in situ XRD, SEM, FTIR – – 183 91.60 [182]
encapsulation

(SE) reached 44.3 dB, and a particular EMI SE (SSEt) was 9343 dB of energy by antifreeze proteins to withstand harsh weather. The
cm2/g. concept for a film made from a composite is based on the energy storage
capacity of antifreeze proteins. Ji et al. [160] developed it by impreg­
4. Bio-mimic approaches nating organic PCM in a surface-modified MXene/bacterial-cellulose
AG. The mechanical properties were achieved using organic PCM
Antifreeze beetles possess an intelligent thermal control scheme that importing materials, while it demonstrated greater compatibility with
depends on the absorption of light by the black surface and the retention paraffin, leading to improved loading capacities (upto 47.60 % when

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Md.S. Mohtasim and B.K. Das Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 207 (2025) 114952

Fig. 10. (a) Ti3C2Tx MXene nanosheet production, (b) tetradecylamine/MXene/cellulose nanocrystal (TDA/MXene/CNC CPCMs), (c) MXene/CNC-2 mixed AG
physical layout, (d–e) SEM pictures of the AG, and (f) SEM images of TDA/MXene/CNC CPCM-2 [161].

contrasted with MB Ags-paraffin) and phase change heat retention produced a novel class of PCM called tetradecylamine/MXene/cellulose
(28.83 %–32.74 %). The resulting MB@MTMS Ags-paraffin exhibits nanocrystal CPCMs (TDA/MXene/CNC CPCMs). TDA has been utilized
minimal absorption (reduced by 50 %) and good photothermal energies as the phase transition material in storing energy, and lightweight
conversion capability, as well as the intended TES and unleashing per­ MXene/CNC composite AG was used as a foundation material for the
formance regardless of or regardless of simulated solar irradiation, very first instance. TDA/MXene/CNC CPCMs have a latent heat of 221.5
respectively as shown in Fig. 8(a–d). J/g as depicted in Table 2. The MXene/CNC-2 composite AG had a
Following a quick and easy physical mixing procedure, biomass density of 0.0614 g/cm3 and an incorporation rate of up to 90.6 wt% for
cellulose nanocrystals (CNCs), konjac glucomannan (KGM), AgNO3, and TDA. TDA/MXene/CNC CPCM-5 had a TC of 0.491 W/m K, a figure that
MXene were subsequently exposed to directed freeze-drying and ther­ was 1.87 times greater than pure TDA. At 60 ◦ C, the TDA/MXene/CNC
mal annealing by Huang et al. [144]. The resultant CPCM, PMCKA, was CPCMs showed outstanding shape endurance and remarkable thermal
produced by further adsorption of paraffin by the lightweight permeable resilience up to 120 ◦ C as depicted in Fig. 10(a–f).
carbon Ags. PMCKA exhibited outstanding cycle order and a high A multiscale AG exhibiting a feather-like morphology that is created
enthalpy of 231.38 J/g, an outstanding conductivity of 147.5 S/m, and a by Zhang et al. [162] conceptually assembling spectrally modulated
high loading rate of 95.16 %. PMCKA has the potential to achieve Ti3C2Tx (SM-Ti3C2Tx) nanosheets and polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) into a
photothermal and electrothermal conversion effectiveness of up to cohesive structure with effective multipurpose characteristics. Excep­
97.45 % and 98.89 %, respectively. This result indicates that PMCKA tional heat retention is achieved by the lengthwise struts of AG with
performs better in photothermal and electrothermal conversion when transversely analogous ligaments produced at an angled position of
used for solar energy storage as illustrated in Fig. 9(a–g). Consequently, approximately 60◦ from the struts, which mimic the intricate micro­
it is likely that PMCKA will find widespread use in solar energy con­ structure of penguin drop feathers. In order to prevent overproduction,
version, commercial recycling of waste heat, and electronic device the hydrophilic spongy ligaments act as upstream water circulation
thermal control. channels, propelling the fluid to the evaporation surface while keeping it
By employing a vacuum impregnation technique, Jiang et al. [161] contained inside the ligaments. Due to these useful characteristics, the

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Md.S. Mohtasim and B.K. Das Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 207 (2025) 114952

Fig. 11. Development of the visually adjusted Ti3C2Tx/polyvinyl alcohol (SM- Ti3C2Tx/PVA) AG using biomimetic fabrication and design. (a) A down-feather photo
taken using a camera and an optical microscope that displays multiscale structural characteristics, (b) An illustration of the SM- Ti3C2Tx/PVA AG’s unusual
microstructure, which resembles a penguin’s down feather, and a schematic of how it may be used for solar-powered water evaporation are shown in a SEM scan.
Diagrams demonstrating (c) the SM- Ti3C2Tx/PVA AG’s manufacturing and d) its multiscale, multifaceted structures. e) The SM- Ti3C2Tx/PVA AG’s structural
properties (optical) and water modulation, (f) lateral ligaments developed inside the channel at a 60◦ angle to the major struts; and horizontally aligned channels
sandwiched between the predominant struts [162].

assembled AG has an excellent energy efficiency of 88.52 % and an assembling Ti3C2Tx Ags primarily depend on external binders, which
evaporative rate of 0.92 kg/m2 h at 0.5 sun solar irradiation as seen in greatly diminishes the practical application of the finished elements.
Fig. 11(a–f). Underneath natural sunlight, it offers a tremendous deal of Ding et al. [164] established metal ion-intercalated Ti3C2Tx Ags with no
possibilities for solar-powered water desalination that is feasible. polymeric binders to overcome this difficulty. These Ags have a huge
Table 3 elucidates a detailed comparison of six matrices incorporated SSA of 140.5 m2/g, a characteristic EC of 758.4 S/m, and great stability
with PCM. in aqueous conditions. To create a Ti3C2Tx sheet with a ruffled appear­
Shi et al. [163] discussed the development, construction, and jam­ ance, the solution of Ti3C2Tx was blade-coated across the polystyrene
ming of a new class of MXene-based Janus-like nanoparticle surfactants, substrate and heated to 130 ◦ C. The swelling of Ti3C2Tx was subse­
known as MXene-surfactants (MXSs), and this can considerably increase quently induced by fully loading the constructed substrate with Mg2+.
the interfacial behaviour of MXene nanosheets. This is achieved through Finally, freeze-drying Mg2+/MXene hydrogels produced biomimetic
the synergistic assembly of MXene and amine-functionalized polyhedral aerogels with the centralized microstructure of the revered Texas lizard,
oligomeric silsesquioxane at the interface between oils and water. Phrynosoma cornutum as shown in Fig. 13(a–f). In quasi-solid-state
Notably, this straightforward assembly method creates a new platform micro-supercapacitors, the Mg2+/MXene AG showed remarkable EMI
for the production of operational MXene assemblies at different sizes, shielding capabilities, superior salt sequestration capabilities in brine
from mesoscale (like arranged liquids) to macroscale (like Ags) as shown water desalination, and extraordinarily high aerial capacitive.
in Fig. 12(a–j). These structures can be employed in a variety of pur­ Sheng et al. [165] devised and developed a unique bio-based pomelo
poses, such as electronics, nanocomposites, and all-liquid microfluidic peel foam (PPF)/polyethylene glycol (PEG) composite PCM. It subse­
systems. A remarkable average EMI, SE of 34.5 dB throughout the quently underwent modifications with low dosage of MXene nanosheets
complete X-band is displayed by the nanocomposite containing 0.40 vol to increase its PCE, TES capacity, and TC as shown in Fig. 14(a–f). The
% of Ti3C2Tx, which is adequate for many military and commercial procedure involved was a straightforward impregnation. The PCE sub­
applications. stantially enhanced upon the addition of MXene nanosheets to PPF, and
Unfortunately, it is nevertheless difficult to scale the special prop­ the loading of PEG in FCPCMs increased from 86.9 wt% to 96.2 wt%.
erties of Ti3C2Tx nanosheets to effective AG despite sacrificing EC and/ Additionally, the TC of the resulting PPF@MXene/PEG FCPCMs
or electrochemical activity. This is considering conventional methods of enhanced, increasing from 0.25 W/m K to 0.42 W/m K. It demonstrates

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Md.S. Mohtasim and B.K. Das Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 207 (2025) 114952

Table 3
Comparison of six matrices incorporated with PCM.
Matrix Structure Advantages Disadvantages

MXene [43] Chemical stability. Complex synthesis.

Tunable surface chemistry. Issues regarding compatibility.
Good Mechanical strength and flexibility. High cost.
Enhanced TC and EC. Limited PCM loading.
Improved SSA.
Environmental sustainability

Ceramic [184] High sensible heat storage capacity. Frangibility.

Wettable with PCM and dimensional stability. Limited flexibility.
Good chemical and thermal stability. Difficulty in processing.
Good corrosion resistance.

Metallic [184] Excellent TC and stability. High cost and degradation rate.
Good mechanical strength. Less weight.
High porosity.

Carbon [184] Better TC. High cost.

Less high temperature stability.
Complex preparation process.

Polymeric [184] Flexible. Low TC and thermal stability.

Limited cost. Low applicable temperature,
Good reproducibility and extensive preparation.

Bio-based fiber [185] Better temperature regulating capability. Complex heat transfer mechanism.
Good PCE
Green technology
Excellent TC.

that there is complete potential for the application of the developed environmentally friendly innovation and technological growth through
PPF@MXene/PEG FCPCMs in the field of solar TES. Fig. 15(a) and (b) learning opportunities with an emphasis on materials research, energy
shows the improvements of latent heat and TC of BMX-CPCM in contrast preservation, and temperature control, all of which are related to
to the metal oxide-based nano-particles incorporated with PCM. Quality Education (SDG 4). BMX-CPCM exhibits potential in fields such
as desalination and the treatment of water. These can help guarantee
5. Attainable sustainable development goals (SDGs) availability of healthy and pure water by facilitating efficient disinfec­
tion operations, particularly in areas experiencing acute water shortages
There are 17 global Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) accord­ or issues with contaminants. This is related to SDG 6: Clean Water and
ing to the 2030 Agenda for a Sustainable Future, which was approved by Sanitation. Battery packs and supercapacitors are two examples of de­
all UN members in 2015. By keeping interior temperatures steady, BMX- vices for conserving energy that can have performance increased by
CPCMs can improve the thermal comfort of structures, automobiles, and BMX-CPCMs. These substances can support the incorporation of green
electronic equipment, improving well-being and overall health. These power sources and promote sustainable and environmentally friendly
substances can aid in the prevention of illnesses associated with heat and energy alternatives, which shows Affordable and Clean Energy (SDG 7),
enhance overall comfort in areas susceptible to excessive temperatures, by enhancing their ability to store energy and heat management [186].
so contributing to the promotion of Good Health and Well-Being (SDG The industrial integrated renewable energy industries stand to
3). STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics) areas benefit economically from the growth and commercialization of BMX-
offer chances for learning and improvement in skills due to the CPCMs technology. These resources can promote environmentally
advancement and application of BMX-CPCMs developments. The in­ friendly behaviors and prosperity by encouraging entrepreneurship and
dividuals might feel empowered to make a difference in creativity, which demonstrates Decent Work and Economic Growth

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Md.S. Mohtasim and B.K. Das Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 207 (2025) 114952

Fig. 12. (a) Schematic illustrating how MXene surfactants are used to create MXene AGs and Pickering emulsions. (b–d) Images captured by SEM of MXene aerogels
made from emulsion blueprints at varying MXene quantities of 2.0 mg/mL, 5.0 mg/mL, and 10 mg/mL, (e) an in-depth view of (d), (f) a tiny piece of MXene AG on a
flower, (g) a minimal piece of AG (~6.4 mg) assisting a 20 gm wt, (h) tiny droplets of water on the surface of MXene AG, (i) oil absorption of MXene AG, (j) jamming
behavior at various MXene quantities of 0.10 mg/mL, 2.0 mg/mL [163].

(SDG 8). Healthy and environmentally conscious residences in metro­ in water. BMX-CPCMs promote the preservation of life beneath water
politan areas are mostly dependent on appropriate thermal manage­ and life regarding land, which relates to SDGs 14 and 15, by encouraging
ment. To support Sustainable Cities and Communities (SDG 11), BMX- energy efficiency and lowering carbon footprints [187]. This inadver­
CPCMs might enhance drywall insulation, conserve energy for both tent mitigates the effects of environmental change on marine and
heating and cooling, and mitigate the impact of city heat islands. terrestrial organisms. Coordination among administrations, businesses,
Through the reduction of the releases of greenhouse gases linked to academic institutions, and other interested parties is necessary to ach­
energy consumption, aid in the mitigation of climate change. These ieve sustainable development goals. Multidisciplinary interactions and
substances support the development of renewable energy sources as well partnerships are a part of the development and discovery process for
as contribute to broader measures to address global warming, what is BMX-CPCMs which refers to worldwide energy consumption and envi­
referred to as Climate Action (SDG 13), by increasing the productiveness ronmental concerns Partnerships for the Goals (SDG 17). Through
of storage facilities and thermal control mechanisms. Biodiversity must addressing these SDGs, BMX-CPCMs showcase their diverse potential to
be preserved for long-term growth to take place, regardless of land and promote socio-economic and environmental well-being globally,

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Md.S. Mohtasim and B.K. Das Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 207 (2025) 114952

Fig. 13. (a) Diagrammatic illustration of the Mg2+-induced gel formation method’s scalable production of the crumpled-texture Mg2+/MXene platform. The artificial
structure has a texture similar to that of the skin of Phrynosoma cornutum. (b) An electronic image of Phrynosoma cornutum. (c–d) SEM and optical photos of the lizard
skin’s tiny water-transporting decorations. (e) Moving water throughout the skin micro channels of Phrynosoma cornutum. (f) SEM and optical pictures of the MXene
coating with a crumpled structure following thermal shrinkage [164].

Fig. 14. Digital images of (a) fresh pomelo, SEM pictures of (b) dried Pomelo Peel Foam (PPF) and (c) PPF@MXene-4, (d) dried PPF, and (e) a schematic depiction of
how light is converted and stored into heat; (f) an analysis of the enthalpy efficiency and relative enthalpy efficiency of FCPCMs [165].

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Md.S. Mohtasim and B.K. Das Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 207 (2025) 114952

particle forms that are designed to mimic nature. Many distinct natural
morphologies and structures have attracted a lot of curiosity due to their
striking configurations. Examples of these include biomass cellulose
nanocrystals, biomimetic aerogels with the centralized microstructure
of the revered Texas lizard, multiscale AG with a feather-like
morphology similar to that of a penguin, and bio-based pomelo peel
foam, ice-structuring freeze-casting and so on.
Numerous investigations regarding BMX-CPCMs have found im­
provements in latent heat up to 106.50 % on average, along with
excellent thermal stability with no matrix leakage in 500 cycles and an
upsurge in TC of up to 708 % as well as better electrical conductivity. As
a result, they have the potential to be employed to the thermal control of
electrical devices as well as industrial waste recuperation of heat. These
composites exhibit exceptional flame redundancy, a better evaporation
rate of 0.92 kg/m2 h, and photothermal conversion efficiency of up to
99.80 %. Certain BMX-CPCMs have superior elasticity and compress­
ibility, with the ability to rebound to nearly the initial height even after
enduring a significant 80 % compression strain deformation. BMX-
CPCMs showcase their diverse potential to promote socio-economic
and environmental well-being globally, helping to create an evenly
distributed and sustainable world by achieving several SDGs. There are
still major challenges to be solved in order to increase the latent heat and
TC, as well as the potential efficacy, of BMX-CPCM, despite the fact that
considerable efforts have been made to improve its explanatory qualities
and expand the range of its use in TES systems. The following is a list of
suggested future work in correlation:
A mere twenty of the seventy MAX phases were eventually satis­
factorily etched into 2D MXene components due to technical challenges
and constraints in the chemical synthesis and etching procedure. The
simplicity and effectiveness of transforming MAX phases into 2D MXene
materials are determined according to their intrinsic characteristics.
Additionally, certain MAX phases may be difficult to successfully
convert into 2D MXene materials due to a lack of knowledge or insuf­
ficient study. Due to some unique applications or desired qualities, some
MAX phases may also receive special attention and emphasis in this field
of study. MXene materials have outstanding TC characteristics that are
comparable to those of metallic and ceramics, which are both renowned
for having excellent heat conductivity. The tremendous potential for
heat conductivity of MXene materials has been confirmed by theoretical
Fig. 15. Comparative visualization among metal oxide nano-particle based studies. Nevertheless, the real TC of macroscopic MXene materials, like
CPCM and MXene incorporated bio-mimic CPCM [138,144,160,162,165,183] films, is less than predicted. The difficulty of creating macroscopic
in light to (a) improvements in thermal conductivity, (b) variation in MXene materials with high TC needs to be significantly overcome in
latent heat. order to fully utilize MXene materials in practical applications. Regu­
lating the termination of MXene on its surface and lowering the resis­
helping to create an evenly distributed and sustainable world as shown tance to heat at the contact point of MXene nanosheets throughout the
in Fig. 16. creation of macroscopic nanomaterials are two critical scientific con­
cerns that must be resolved in order to achieve this.
6. Conclusions and future scopes The ability to preserve the extra energy produced by solar panels
throughout the day and discharge it at night is one of the many possible
In the area of thermal energy conservation, MXene has proven to be applications for BMX-CPCMs in the field of solar energy storage. This
an exceptional 2D material, exceeding other 2D materials. Its remark­ can increase the overall effectiveness of solar energy plants and lessen
able characteristics, including its high electrical and thermal conduc­ reliance on grid-linked power. The temperature of solar panels can be
tivity, strong light the absorbing capacity, and minimal infrared controlled with MXene-based CPCMs, extending its lifespan and effi­
emissivity, make it an especially intriguing substance for thermal energy ciency. BMX-CPCMs are capable of being utilized in TES for preserving
management and photo and electrothermal conversion. The enormous and discharging heat produced by sources of sustainable energy,
surface area of MXene offers numerous energy transfer surfaces, and its refrigeration and heating systems, and industrial operations. By
2D structure facilitates quick energy exchange throughout the liquid and lowering energy waste and raising the effectiveness of energy systems,
solid stages. Due to this, remarkable thermal qualities of MXene will be they can offer steady and effective temperature management.
of significant assistance to its application in fields including thermal The practical application of MXene is limited because to its weak
energy consumption, personal thermal management, dispersion of heat electrochemical stability, leading to the need for additional research.
in electronics, military camouflage, battery thermal management and Progress is still severely hampered by the high cost of MXene-based
desalination systems. energy storage materials, though. It is possible to eliminate scale-up
Perforated skeletons, fibers, or granules with strong heat conduc­ and cost-related barriers to initiate a revolution in the energy sector.
tivity are typically combined with PCMs to produce composite PCMs. As The thermal performance of BMX-CPCMs is not well understood. The
a result, the current development of bio-inspired composite PCMs fo­ ability of BMX-CPCMs to store and release considerable quantities of
cuses on developing porousness skeletons, fiber configurations, or energy is recognized, although the underlying mechanisms are still

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Md.S. Mohtasim and B.K. Das Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 207 (2025) 114952

Fig. 16. Schematic representing the attainable Sustainable Development Goals by BMX-CPCMs.

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