PART A

1. Compare IP4 and IP6 and Expand the address 0:15::1:12:1213 to its
original.

Ans:-
● IPv4: 32-bit address space; ~4.3 billion addresses; simple header.
● IPv6: 128-bit address space; ~340 undecillion addresses; complex header;
mandatory security features.
● Expansion of 0:15::1:12:1213: 0:15:0:0:0:0:1:12:1213.

2. Compute the size of the window for host A if the value of rwnd is 3000
bytes and the value of cwnd is 3500 bytes?

Ans:-
● rwnd: 3000 bytes
● cwnd: 3500 bytes
● Window Size = min(3000, 3500) = 3000 bytes.

3. List out the drawbacks of User Datagram Protocols (UDP) and compare
with Transmission Control protocol (TCP)

Ans:-
UDP Drawbacks:

● No connection establishment.
● No reliability or error correction.
● No flow control.

Comparison:

● TCP: Connection-oriented, reliable, flow control.

● UDP: Connectionless, fast, less overhead.

4. Illustrate the Datagram of Transmission Control protocol (TCP)

Ans:-
Source Port: 16 bits
Destination Port: 16 bits
Sequence Number: 32 bits
Acknowledgment Number: 32 bits
Flags, Window Size, Checksum, Options, Data: Various lengths.

5. Mention the features and types of VoIP

Ans:-
● Features: Cost-effective, flexible, multimedia support, portable.
● Types: Managed VoIP, Hosted VoIP, SIP Trunking.

6. The TCP server sends the SYN +ACK segments to the fake clients, which
are lost. Interpret the attack and methods to overcome.

Ans:-
● Attack: SYN Flooding with fake IP addresses.
● Mitigation: Use SYN Cookies, rate limiting, and firewalls.

7. Define back pressure and choke point in congestion mechanism

Ans:-

● Back Pressure: Signals upstream devices to slow down.

● Choke Point: A network point causing congestion.

8. Interpret the ways of checking network reachability.

Ans:-
● Ping: ICMP echo requests.
● Traceroute: Traces packet paths.
● Monitoring Tools: Check device availability.

9. Compare the retransmission policy with the Admission policy in TCP

congestions

Ans:-
● Retransmission Policy: Resending lost packets.
● Admission Policy: Deciding whether to accept new connections based on
load.
10. Draw the frame format of IEEE802.3

Ans:-
● Preamble: 7 bytes
● SFD: 1 byte
● Destination MAC: 6 bytes
● Source MAC: 6 bytes
● Length/Type: 2 bytes
● Data: 46-1500 bytes
● FCS: 4 bytes

11. Infer the term NAT in network layer.

Ans:-
NAT (Network Address Translation): Allows multiple devices to share one
public IP address, enhancing security and conserving addresses.

12. Differentiate CSMA/CD and CSMA/CA.

Ans:-
● CSMA/CD: Wired; detects collisions.
● CSMA/CA: Wireless; avoids collisions.

13. Define sub-netting in network layer and list its various classes.

Ans:-
● Sub-netting: Dividing a network into smaller subnets.
● Classes: A (0-127), B (128-191), C (192-223), D (224-239), E (240-255).

14. Sketch the header format of UDP.

Ans:-
● Source Port: 16 bits
● Destination Port: 16 bits
● Length: 16 bits
● Checksum: 16 bits
15. Classify the three types of WWW documents.

Ans:-

● Static: Fixed content (HTML).

● Dynamic: Generated in real-time (PHP, ASP).
● Interactive: User-interactive (web apps).

16. Compare open loop congestion control and closed loop congestion
control.

Ans:-
● Open Loop: No feedback; simpler.
● Closed Loop: Uses feedback; adaptive.

17. List out the types of firewalls.

Ans:-
● Packet Filtering: Blocks packets based on rules.
● Stateful Inspection: Monitors connection states.
● Proxy: Intermediary between users and services.
● Next-Gen: Combines traditional firewall features with advanced
capabilities.

18. Brief on HDLC protocol.

Ans:-
● HDLC: Bit-oriented synchronous data link protocol.
● Features: Framing, error detection, control fields for communication
management.

PART-B

1.
i) Explain the function of Bluetooth (IEEE 802.15.1) with required datagram
and illustrations.
Alternatively asked as:
Assume you are working in a software company where you have been
allotted with Team ‘A’ and Team ‘A’ consist of 26 members including
Project manager and Team members. Among the 26 members your position
is 14. Let’s consider you have to form a team of three members and
complete the new task. You have the option to select the team members as
prime numbers from your position. You need to exchange the task between
the team members in radio telegraphy whose operating frequency is
between 2.40 GHz – 2.48 GHz with a guard band of 2 MHz which is limited to
a short range communication. Construct the mechanism for this radio
telegraphy with a required architecture.

ii) Illustrate that Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) is a

client/server protocol that automatically provides an Internet Protocol (IP)
host with its IP address and other related configuration information

2.
i) For the above network, using distance vector routing, generate the
following routing
tables:

a: initial routing table of all the nodes

b: Node A shares to Node C. Updated table of Node C
c: Node C shares to Node A. Updated table of Node A
 d: Node C shares to Node B. Updated table of Node B

ii) Express the datagram, encapsulation, error and query messages

handling by Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) and mention its
drawback

3.
i) Examine that Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP) is an
application-layer protocol for monitoring and managing network devices on
our campus local area network (LAN).

ii) Explain the following concepts with the required illustration and
examples
a)Firewall
b)DoDS attack

4.
i) Justify that Quality of service (QoS) is the use of mechanisms or
technologies that work on a network to control traffic and supports the
performance of critical applications with limited network capacity.

Ans:-

Quality of Service (QoS) is a network management practice that ensures critical

applications maintain performance and reliability, even in limited-capacity
environments. QoS employs specific technologies and mechanisms to control
traffic flow, prioritize high-importance applications, and allocate resources
strategically.

1. Traffic Prioritization and Scheduling

● Prioritizing Applications: Certain applications, like VoIP, video

conferencing, and live streaming, are sensitive to delays and require
continuous, high-speed data transfer. QoS prioritizes these applications
 over less time-sensitive ones (e.g., file downloads or email), ensuring they
receive the necessary resources to function without interruptions.
● Scheduling Mechanisms: Various scheduling techniques, such as
First-In-First-Out (FIFO), priority queuing, and weighted fair queuing,
organize data packets to ensure efficient flow. Priority queuing, for
instance, processes packets for critical applications first, reducing delays
for high-priority data. Weighted fair queuing allocates resources based on
application needs, balancing load and preventing lower-priority traffic from
causing congestion.

2. Bandwidth Management to Prevent Congestion

● Efficient Bandwidth Allocation: Each application type has different

bandwidth requirements. Video conferencing and online gaming need high
bandwidth to prevent quality issues, while other applications, like email,
can function with less. QoS distributes available bandwidth according to
these needs, ensuring that demanding applications receive sufficient
bandwidth, even in capacity-limited networks.
● Preventing Network Saturation: By regulating the flow of data packets,
QoS prevents lower-priority traffic from consuming excessive bandwidth,
maintaining network stability and allowing high-priority applications to run
smoothly.

3. Delay and Jitter Minimization for Real-Time Applications

● Delay Management: Delay, or latency, measures the time it takes for data
to travel from source to destination. Real-time applications, such as voice
and video calls, are highly sensitive to delays. QoS minimizes latency by
prioritizing the flow of packets, ensuring real-time data reaches the
destination as quickly as possible.
● Jitter Control: Jitter refers to the variation in packet arrival times. High
jitter disrupts applications where consistent data flow is critical (e.g., audio
and video). QoS reduces jitter by ensuring packets are delivered at regular
intervals, maintaining steady performance for real-time applications.

4. Reliability for Data Integrity

● Reliability Assurance: QoS ensures data integrity by reducing packet

loss. For applications like file transfers, emails, and online transactions,
 packet loss can lead to data corruption or missing information. QoS
mechanisms, such as packet retransmission and prioritization, maintain
reliability by reducing the risk of packet loss, allowing these applications to
perform consistently even under limited network conditions.

5. Traffic Shaping for Flow Rate Control

● Managing Data Rates: Traffic shaping techniques, such as leaky bucket

and token bucket models, help control the flow rate of data. By regulating
how much data enters the network at a given time, QoS prevents traffic
spikes that could overwhelm the network. This control is particularly
important during peak usage, where excess traffic can lead to congestion,
ensuring that high-priority applications maintain performance without
interruption.

ii) Justify the significance of the following methods in application layer of

OSI model
a) FTP (File Transfer Protocol)

FTP is a widely used protocol within the application layer for transferring files
between computers over a network. Here’s why it’s essential:

1. Reliable File Transfer:

○ FTP offers a stable and dependable method for transferring files,
including large datasets. It's crucial for tasks like uploading web
pages to servers, distributing software updates, and maintaining
backup files.
○ It enables both upload and download functions, which allows users
to retrieve or share files easily across locations.
2. Client-Server Communication:
○ As a client-server protocol, FTP allows a client (user) to connect to a
remote server to transfer files. This client-server architecture enables
flexible data management across networks, both within local
networks and across the internet.
○ This flexibility is essential for organizations that need to manage,
share, and synchronize files across different locations or
departments.
3. Data Integrity and Transfer Control:
 ○ FTP supports error-checking mechanisms that ensure data integrity,
meaning files arrive at the destination intact. It also allows resuming
interrupted file transfers, making it ideal for transferring large or
critical files.
○ This capability is important in situations where network issues may
disrupt transfers, allowing for continuity and minimizing data loss.
4. Authentication and Access Control:
○ FTP provides user authentication options, allowing the establishment
of secure connections. Access control options support different
permission levels, such as read, write, and delete, making it safer for
users to manage access to sensitive files.
○ This security is essential for corporate networks, as it helps control
who can access specific files, enhancing data privacy and security.

b) WWW and HTTPs

The World Wide Web (WWW) and HTTPS serve as the backbone of secure web
browsing and internet usage:

WWW (World Wide Web)

1. Global Information Sharing:

○ The WWW is an interconnected system of hyperlinked resources
accessible over the internet, enabling people to access and share
vast amounts of information.
○ As a primary platform for global communication, the WWW allows
individuals and organizations to exchange ideas, conduct business,
and collaborate across the globe.
2. Resource Interlinking and Hypermedia:
○ Hypertext and hypermedia form the foundation of the WWW,
allowing easy navigation through linked resources like websites,
documents, images, and videos. This makes accessing information
more intuitive and engaging for users.
○ For example, hypertext enables users to jump between related
resources quickly, enhancing the user experience and supporting
multimedia integration for interactive web content.

HTTPS (Hypertext Transfer Protocol Secure)

 1. Data Encryption for Privacy:
○ HTTPS is an extension of HTTP that encrypts data transferred
between a client and server, ensuring that sensitive
information—such as personal details, passwords, and financial
information—is secure from unauthorized access.
○ This encryption provides privacy for users, which is essential for trust
in e-commerce, online banking, and other services requiring secure
data handling.
2. Authentication and Trust:
○ HTTPS uses SSL/TLS certificates to verify the identity of websites,
ensuring that users are interacting with genuine websites. When a
website uses HTTPS, the padlock icon in the browser signifies a
trusted and secure connection.
○ This verification is essential for protecting users from fraudulent
sites, providing a secure environment for online transactions and
preventing identity theft.
3. Cybersecurity Protection:
○ By securing the communication channels between users and
websites, HTTPS helps protect against attacks like
man-in-the-middle (MitM), where attackers attempt to intercept or
alter data during transmission.
○ For organizations and users, this protection is critical for
safeguarding confidential communications and ensuring data
remains intact and unaltered.
4. Essential for Secure Transactions:
○ HTTPS is now the standard protocol for secure online activities,
particularly for services that require user data entry, such as online
shopping, banking, and personal information management. The
protocol ensures that all transmitted information is protected from
prying eyes.
○ This security is necessary for building trust with users, as HTTPS
prevents unauthorized access to sensitive information, making it
foundational for today’s internet-based applications.

5.
i) Using Bellman-Ford algorithm identify the shortest paths from Source
node ‘A’ to the destination node ‘G’ with their respective routing tables.
ii) Intricate the use of mechanisms or technologies that work on a network
to control traffic and ensure the performance of critical applications with
limited network capacity.

Ans:-

Here’s a point-wise breakdown of the mechanisms and technologies used in

networks to control traffic and ensure the performance of critical applications
under limited capacity:

1. Traffic Classification and Prioritization

● Traffic Classification: Identify and categorize packets based on

application type and service requirements.
● Prioritization: Use policies (e.g., Differentiated Services) to assign higher
priority to critical applications, ensuring timely processing.

2. Quality of Service (QoS) Mechanisms

● QoS Policies: Create policies for resource allocation, guaranteeing

bandwidth and latency for critical applications.
● Traffic Shaping: Control the flow and rate of packets entering the network
to maintain a steady stream and prevent congestion.

3. Packet Scheduling Algorithms

● FIFO (First-In-First-Out): Process packets in the order they arrive; simple

but can lead to delays for critical traffic.
● Priority Queuing: Classify packets into priority classes, processing
high-priority packets first, though it risks starving lower-priority traffic.
 ● Weighted Fair Queuing (WFQ): Allocate resources based on packet class
weights, ensuring balanced resource distribution.

4. Bandwidth Management Techniques

● Rate Limiting: Set maximum bandwidth limits for applications/users to

ensure critical applications receive necessary resources.
● Traffic Policing: Monitor packet rates and enforce traffic profiles to
prevent excessive bandwidth use.

5. Load Balancing

● Load Balancing: Distribute traffic across multiple servers or paths to

prevent overload on any single resource.
● Application Delivery Controllers (ADCs): Optimize application delivery
through load balancing, caching, and compression.

6. Adaptive QoS Mechanisms

● Dynamic QoS Adjustments: Monitor traffic in real-time and automatically

adjust bandwidth allocations based on conditions.
● Application Performance Monitoring (APM): Analyze performance and
traffic patterns to proactively adjust QoS policies.

7. Redundancy and Resilience

● Redundant Network Paths: Implement backup links to reroute traffic in

case of congestion or failure.
● Traffic Engineering: Use techniques like MPLS for dynamic routing based
on current network conditions.

8. Caching and Content Delivery Networks (CDNs)

● Caching: Store frequently accessed data closer to users to reduce

bandwidth usage and improve access speed.
● Content Delivery Networks (CDNs): Distribute content across multiple
servers to reduce latency and enhance performance.

Conclusion
These mechanisms and technologies collectively ensure that critical applications
maintain optimal performance, even when network capacity is limited, through
effective traffic management, prioritization, and resource optimization.

6.
i) Illustrate the three-way process of synchronization, synchronization and
acknowledgement and acknowledgement in detail where the message
exchanged between client and server for connection establishment in TCP.

Ans:-

The three-way handshake is a fundamental process used in the Transmission

Control Protocol (TCP) to establish a reliable connection between a client and a
server. This process involves a series of messages exchanged between the two
parties to synchronize their sequence numbers and establish connection
parameters. Here's a detailed illustration of this process:

1. Step 1: SYN (Synchronization)

● Client to Server:
○ The client initiates the connection by sending a SYN (synchronize)
packet to the server.
○ This packet contains:
■ The client's initial sequence number (let's call it seq = X).
■ A flag indicating that this is a SYN packet.
● Purpose:
○ The SYN packet informs the server that the client wishes to establish
a connection and starts the synchronization process.

2. Step 2: SYN-ACK (Synchronization and Acknowledgement)

● Server to Client:
○ Upon receiving the SYN packet, the server acknowledges the
request by sending a SYN-ACK (synchronize-acknowledge) packet
back to the client.
○ This packet contains:
■ An acknowledgment number set to X + 1, indicating that it
received the SYN packet from the client.
■ The server's initial sequence number (let's call it seq = Y).
 ■ A flag indicating that this is a SYN-ACK packet.
● Purpose:
○ The SYN-ACK packet serves two purposes:
■ It acknowledges the client's SYN request.
■ It informs the client of the server's initial sequence number.

3. Step 3: ACK (Acknowledgement)

● Client to Server:
○ After receiving the SYN-ACK packet from the server, the client sends
an ACK (acknowledge) packet to the server.
○ This packet contains:
■ An acknowledgment number set to Y + 1, indicating that it
received the SYN-ACK from the server.
■ The same sequence number seq = X + 1 used for the initial
SYN.
● Purpose:
○ The ACK packet confirms the client's receipt of the server's
SYN-ACK, completing the handshake process.

Summary of the Three-Way Handshake Process

● Client sends a SYN packet:

○ Packet: SYN, Seq: X
● Server responds with SYN-ACK:
○ Packet: SYN-ACK, Seq: Y, Ack: X + 1
● Client sends ACK packet:
○ Packet: ACK, Seq: X + 1, Ack: Y + 1

Connection Established

After the completion of the three-way handshake, a reliable TCP connection is

established between the client and server. At this point, both parties are
synchronized in terms of sequence numbers and ready to exchange data reliably.

Visualization of the Three-Way Handshake

Here’s a visual representation of the three-way handshake process:

Client Server
 | |

|--- SYN (Seq = X) ------------------->| (Step 1)

| |

|<--- SYN-ACK (Seq = Y, Ack = X + 1) --| (Step 2)

| |

|--- ACK (Seq = X + 1, Ack = Y + 1) -->| (Step 3)

| |

Importance of the Three-Way Handshake

● Reliability: Ensures that both client and server are ready to communicate.
● Synchronization: Establishes initial sequence numbers for data integrity.
● Flow Control: Facilitates the setup of flow control and congestion control
mechanisms before data transmission begins.

This process is essential for establishing a reliable, ordered, and error-checked

connection, which is fundamental to the operation of TCP in networking.

ii) Justify and elaborate with its working why a DNS system is required
instead of directly using IP addresses.

Ans:-
The importance of a DNS system over directly using IP addresses, with each
point broken down further:

1. Human Readability

● Ease of Use: Domain names are easier for people to remember and use
compared to numeric IP addresses.
● User Experience: A memorable name like www.example.com improves
user experience and navigation.

2. Dynamic IP Addressing
 ● Automatic Updates: DNS allows domain names to point to changing IP
addresses without user knowledge.
● Minimized Downtime: Users can access the same domain even if the
underlying IP address changes.

3. Hierarchical Structure

● Organized Naming: The DNS structure allows for a logical and organized
naming system (e.g., subdomains).
● Easier Management: Simplifies administration of domains and their
respective resources.

4. Decentralization

● Distributed System: DNS is spread across multiple servers globally,

ensuring no single point of failure.
● Increased Reliability: If one server fails, others can still resolve requests,
maintaining service availability.

5. Load Distribution

● Traffic Management: DNS can direct users to different servers based on

load, optimizing resource usage.
● Performance Enhancement: Helps prevent server overload, leading to
faster response times and better user experiences.

6. Security Features

● DNS Security Extensions (DNSSEC): Adds a layer of security to verify

the authenticity of responses, preventing spoofing.
● DDoS Mitigation: Can help absorb and mitigate Distributed Denial of
Service (DDoS) attacks through distributed resolution.

7. Support for Additional Services

● Email Routing: DNS can specify mail exchange (MX) records, directing
email traffic efficiently.
● Service Discovery: Enables applications to discover services on networks
(e.g., using SRV records).
8. Scalability

● Growing Demand: DNS can accommodate the increasing number of

domain names and IP addresses as the internet expands.
● Flexible Infrastructure: Supports millions of domain names without a
significant impact on performance.

9. Caching Mechanism

● Reduced Latency: DNS caches the resolved IP addresses, speeding up

subsequent access to frequently visited sites.
● Lower Network Traffic: Reduces the need for repeated lookups,
conserving bandwidth and server resources.

10. Example of Functionality

● Query Process: Resolving a domain involves several steps:

○ Local Resolver: Starts the query process by checking its cache.
○ Root Server: Directs to the appropriate TLD server.
○ TLD Server: Points to the authoritative name server for the domain.
○ Authoritative Server: Provides the final IP address needed to
access the resource.

Conclusion

The DNS system is vital for ensuring that the Internet remains user-friendly,
efficient, and robust. It bridges the gap between easy-to-remember domain
names and the technical requirements of the underlying IP address
infrastructure.