Chapter 1 Solutions, Susanna Epp Discrete Math

5th Edition

https://github.com/spamegg1

September 6, 2024

Contents
1 Exercise Set 1.1 5
1.1 Problem 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.1.1 (a) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.1.2 (b) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.2 Problem 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.2.1 (a) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.2.2 (b) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.3 Problem 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.3.1 (a) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.3.2 (b) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.4 Problem 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.4.1 (a) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.4.2 (b) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.5 Problem 5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.5.1 (a) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.5.2 (b) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.5.3 (c) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.6 Problem 6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.6.1 (a) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.6.2 (b) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.6.3 (c) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.7 Problem 7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.7.1 (a) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.7.2 (b) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.7.3 (c) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.7.4 (d) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.8 Problem 8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.8.1 (a) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.8.2 (b) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

1
 1.8.3 (c) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.8.4 (d) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.8.5 (e) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.9 Problem 9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.9.1 (a) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.9.2 (b) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.9.3 (c) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.9.4 (d) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.9.5 (e) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.10 Problem 10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.10.1 (a) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.10.2 (b) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.10.3 (c) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.11 Problem 11 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.11.1 (a) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.11.2 (b) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.11.3 (c) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.12 Problem 12 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.12.1 (a) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.12.2 (b) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.12.3 (c) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.13 Problem 13 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.13.1 (a) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.13.2 (b) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.13.3 (c) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

2 Exercise Set 1.2 12

2.1 Problem 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.2 Problem 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.2.1 (a) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.2.2 (b) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.2.3 (c) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.2.4 (d) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.3 Problem 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.3.1 (a) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.3.2 (b) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.3.3 (c) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.4 Problem 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.4.1 (a) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.4.2 (b) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.4.3 (c) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.4.4 (d) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.4.5 (e) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.5 Problem 5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.6 Problem 6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

2
2.7 Problem 7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.7.1 (a) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.7.2 (b) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.7.3 (c) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.7.4 (d) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.7.5 (e) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.7.6 (f) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.8 Problem 8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.8.1 (a) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.8.2 (b) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.8.3 (c) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.8.4 (d) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.9 Problem 9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.9.1 (a) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.9.2 (b) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.9.3 (c) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.9.4 (d) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.9.5 (e) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.9.6 (f) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.9.7 (g) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.9.8 (h) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.9.9 (i) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.9.10 (j) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.10 Problem 10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.10.1 (a) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.10.2 (b) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.10.3 (c) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.10.4 (d) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.11 Problem 11 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.11.1 (a) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.11.2 (b) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.11.3 (c) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.11.4 (d) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.12 Problem 12 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.12.1 (a) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.12.2 (b) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.12.3 (c) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.12.4 (d) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.13 Problem 13 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.13.1 (a) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.13.2 (b) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.13.3 (c) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.14 Problem 14 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.14.1 (a) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.14.2 (b) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

3
 2.14.3 (c) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.15 Problem 15 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.16 Problem 16 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

3 Exercise Set 1.3 21

3.1 Problem 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
3.1.1 (a) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
3.1.2 (b) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
3.1.3 (c) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
3.1.4 (d) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
3.2 Problem 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
3.2.1 (a) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
3.2.2 (b) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
3.2.3 (c) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
3.2.4 (d) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
3.3 Problem 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
3.3.1 (a) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
3.3.2 (b) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
3.3.3 (c) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
3.3.4 (d) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
3.4 Problem 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
3.4.1 (a) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
3.4.2 (b) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
3.4.3 (c) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
3.4.4 (d) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
3.5 Problem 5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
3.5.1 (a) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
3.5.2 (b) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
3.6 Problem 6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
3.6.1 (a) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
3.6.2 (b) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
3.7 Problem 7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
3.7.1 (a) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
3.7.2 (b) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
3.8 Problem 8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
3.8.1 (a) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
3.8.2 (b) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
3.9 Problem 9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
3.9.1 (a) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
3.9.2 (b) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
3.10 Problem 10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
3.11 Problem 11 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
3.12 Problem 12 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
3.13 Problem 13 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
3.13.1 (a) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

4
 3.13.2 (b) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
3.14 Problem 14 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
3.14.1 (a) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
3.14.2 (b) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
3.15 Problem 15 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
3.15.1 (a) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
3.15.2 (b) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
3.15.3 (c) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
3.15.4 (d) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
3.15.5 (e) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
3.16 Problem 16 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
3.17 Problem 17 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
3.18 Problem 18 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
3.19 Problem 19 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
3.20 Problem 20 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

4 Exercise Set 1.4 33

4.1 Problem 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
4.2 Problem 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
4.3 Problem 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
4.4 Problem 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
4.5 Problem 5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
4.6 Problem 6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
4.7 Problem 7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
4.8 Problem 8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
4.9 Problem 9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
4.10 Problem 10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
4.10.1 (a) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
4.10.2 (b) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
4.11 Problem 11 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
4.12 Problem 12 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
4.13 Problem 13 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
4.14 Problem 14 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
4.15 Problem 15 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
4.16 Problem 16 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
4.17 Problem 17 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42

1 Exercise Set 1.1

In each of 1–6, fill in the blanks using a variable or variables to rewrite the
given statement.

1.1 Problem 1
Is there a real number whose square is −1?

5
1.1.1 (a)
Is there a real number x such that ?

Proof. Is there a real number x such that x2 = −1?

1.1.2 (b)
Does there exist such that x2 = −1?

Proof. Does there exist a real number x such that x2 = −1?

1.2 Problem 2
Is there an integer that has a remainder of 2 when it is divided by 5 and a remainder
of 3 when it is divided by 6?
Note: There are integers with this property. Can you think of one?

1.2.1 (a)
Is there an integer n such that n has ?

Proof. Is there an integer n such that n has a remainder of 2 when it is divided by 5

and a remainder of 3 when it is divided by 6?

1.2.2 (b)
Does there exist such that if n is divided by 5 the remainder is 2 and if ?

Proof. Does there exist an integer n such that if n is divided by 5 the remainder is 2
and if n is divided by 6 the remainder is 3?

1.3 Problem 3
Given any two distinct real numbers, there is a real number in between them.

1.3.1 (a)
Given any two distinct real numbers a and b, there is a real number c such that c is
.

Proof. Given any two distinct real numbers a and b, there is a real number c such that
c is between a and b.

6
1.3.2 (b)
For any two , such that c is between a and b.

Proof. For any two distinct real numbers a and b, there exists a real number c such
that c is between a and b.

1.4 Problem 4
Given any real number, there is a real number that is greater.

1.4.1 (a)
Given any real number r, there is s such that s is .

Proof. Given any real number r, there is a real number s such that s is greater than r.

1.4.2 (b)
For any , such that s > r.

Proof. For any real number r, there exists a real number s such that s > r.

1.5 Problem 5
The reciprocal of any positive real number is positive.

1.5.1 (a)
Given any positive real number r, the reciprocal of .

Proof. Given any positive real number r, the reciprocal of r is positive.

1.5.2 (b)
For any real number r, if r is , then .

Proof. For any real number r, if r is positive, then 1/r is positive.

1.5.3 (c)
If a real number r , then .

Proof. If a real number r is positive, then 1/r is positive.

7
1.6 Problem 6
The cube root of any negative real number is negative.

1.6.1 (a)
Given any negative real number s, the cube root of .

Proof. Given any negative real number s, the cube root of s is negative.

1.6.2 (b)
For any real number s, if s is , then .
√
Proof. For any real number s, if s is negative, then 3
s is negative.

1.6.3 (c)
If a real number s , then .
√
Proof. If a real number s is negative, then 3
s is negative.

1.7 Problem 7
Rewrite the following statements less formally, without using variables. Determine, as
best as you can, whether the statements are true or false.

1.7.1 (a)
There are real numbers u and v with the property that u + v < u − v.

Proof. Rewrite: There are real numbers such that their sum is less than their difference.
True: 0 and −1 have this property: −1 = 0 + (−1) < 0 − (−1) = 1

1.7.2 (b)
There is a real number x such that x2 < x.

Proof. Rewrite: there is a real number whose square is less than itself.
 2
1 1 1
True: 1/2 has this property: = <
4 2 2

8
1.7.3 (c)
For every positive integer n, n2 ≥ n.

Proof. Rewrite: The square of every positive integer is greater than or equal to itself.
True: if we look at the first few examples it holds: 12 = 1 ≥ 1, 22 = 4 ≥ 2, 32 = 9 ≥ 3
and so on. This is however not a proof. Later we’ll learn methods to prove this for all
positive integers.

1.7.4 (d)
For all real numbers a and b, |a + b| ≤ |a| + |b|.

Proof. Rewrite: for all two real numbers, the absolute value of their sum is less than
or equal to the sum of their absolute values.
True: this is known as the Triangle Inequality and it will be proved later.

In each of 8-13, fill in the blanks to rewrite the given statement.

1.8 Problem 8
For every object J, if J is a square then J has four sides.

1.8.1 (a)
All squares .

Proof. All squares have four sides.

1.8.2 (b)
Every square .

Proof. Every square has four sides.

1.8.3 (c)
If an object is a square, then it .

Proof. If an object is a square, then it has four sides.

1.8.4 (d)
If J , then J .

Proof. If J is a square, then J has four sides.

9
1.8.5 (e)
For every square J, .

Proof. For every square J, J has four sides.

1.9 Problem 9
For every equation E, if E is quadratic then E has at most two real solutions.

1.9.1 (a)
All quadratic equations .

Proof. All quadratic equations have at most two real solutions.

1.9.2 (b)
Every quadratic equation .

Proof. Every quadratic equation has at most two real solutions.

1.9.3 (c)
If an equation is quadratic, then it .

Proof. If an equation is quadratic, then it has at most two real solutions.

1.9.4 (d)
If E , then E .

Proof. If E is a quadratic equation, then E has at most two real solutions.

1.9.5 (e)
For every quadratic equation E, .

Proof. For every quadratic equation E, E has at most two real solutions.

1.10 Problem 10
Every nonzero real number has a reciprocal.

1.10.1 (a)
All nonzero real numbers .

Proof. All nonzero real numbers have reciprocals.

10
1.10.2 (b)
For every nonzero real number r, there is for r.

Proof. For every nonzero real number r, there is a reciprocal for r.

1.10.3 (c)
For every nonzero real number r, there is a real number s such that .

Proof. For every nonzero real number r, there is a real number s such that r = 1/s.

1.11 Problem 11
Every positive number has a positive square root.

1.11.1 (a)
All positive numbers .

Proof. All positive numbers have a positive square root.

1.11.2 (b)
For every positive number e, there is for e.

Proof. For every positive number e, there is a positive square root for e.

1.11.3 (c)
For every positive number e, there is a positive number r such that .

Proof. For every positive number e, there is a positive number r such that r2 = e.

1.12 Problem 12
There is a real number whose product with every number leaves the number unchanged.

1.12.1 (a)
Some has the property that its .

Proof. Some real number has the property that its product with every number leaves
the number unchanged.

11
1.12.2 (b)
There is a real number r such that the product of r .

Proof. There is a real number r such that the product of r with every number leaves
the number unchanged.

1.12.3 (c)
There is a real number r with the property that for every real number s, .

Proof. There is a real number r with the property that for every real number s,
r · s = s.

1.13 Problem 13
There is a real number whose product with every real number equals zero.

1.13.1 (a)
Some has the property that its .

Proof. Some real number has the property that its product with every real number
is zero.

1.13.2 (b)
There is a real number a such that the product of a .

Proof. There is a real number a such that the product of a with every real number
is zero.

1.13.3 (c)
There is a real number a with the property that for every real number b, .

Proof. There is a real number a with the property that for every real number b,
a · b = 0.

2 Exercise Set 1.2

2.1 Problem 1
Which of the following sets are equal?
A = {a, b, c, d} B = {d, e, a, c} C = {d, b, a, c} D = {a, a, d, e, c, e}

12
Proof. A = C because they have the same 4 elements a, b, c, d written in different
orders.
B = D because, after we remove the repetitions of a and e from D, they both have
the same 4 elements a, c, d, e in different orders.
No other two sets are equal.

2.2 Problem 2
Write in words how to read each of the following out loud.

2.2.1 (a)
{x ∈ R+ | 0 < x < 1}

Proof. The set of all positive real numbers x such that 0 is less than x and x is less
than 1.

2.2.2 (b)
{x ∈ R | x ≤ 0 or x ≥ 1}

Proof. The set of all reals x such that x is less than or equal to 0 or x is greater than
or equal to 1.

2.2.3 (c)
{n ∈ Z | n is a factor of 6}

Proof. The set of all integers n such that n is a factor of 6.

2.2.4 (d)
{n ∈ Z+ | n is a factor of 6}

Proof. The set of all positive integers n such that n is a factor of 6.

2.3 Problem 3
2.3.1 (a)
Is 4 = {4}?

Proof. No, {4} is a set with one element, namely 4, whereas 4 is just a symbol that
represents the number 4.

13
2.3.2 (b)
How many elements are in the set {3, 4, 3, 5}?

Proof. Three: the elements of the set are 3, 4, and 5.

2.3.3 (c)
Proof. Three: the elements are the symbol 1, the set {1}, and the set {1, {1}}.

2.4 Problem 4
2.4.1 (a)
Is 2 ∈ {2}?

Proof. Yes.

2.4.2 (b)
How many elements are in the set {2, 2, 2, 2}?

Proof. One. The only element of the set is 2.

2.4.3 (c)
How many elements are in the set {0, {0}}?

Proof. Two: the elements are the number 0 and the set {0}.

2.4.4 (d)
Is {0} ∈ {{0}, {1}}?

Proof. Yes. The elements of the second set are {0} and {1}.

2.4.5 (e)
Is 0 ∈ {{0}, {1}}?

Proof. No. The elements of the second set are {0} and {1}, so 0 is not an element of
the second set (because 0 ̸= {0}).

14
2.5 Problem 5
Which of the following sets are equal?

A = {0, 1, 2}
B = {x ∈ R | − 1 ≤ x < 3}
C = {x ∈ R | − 1 < x < 3}
D = {x ∈ Z | − 1 < x < 3}
E = {x ∈ Z+ | − 1 < x < 3}

Proof. B or C are not equal to any one of A, D, E because B and D contain infinitely
many real numbers, whereas A, D, E contain only finitely many integers.
B ̸= C because −1 ∈ B but −1 ∈
/ C.
A = D because D consists of integers strictly between -1 and 3, namely 0, 1, 2.
No other two sets are equal, because E does not contain 0.

2.6 Problem 6
For each integer n, let Tn = {n, n2 }. How many elements are in each of T2 , T−3 , T1 ,
and T0 ? Justify your answers.

Proof. T2 = {2, 22 } = {2, 4} has two elements.

T−3 = {−3, (−3)2 } = {−3, 9} has two elements.
T1 = {1, 12 } = {1, 1} = {1} has one element.
T0 = {0, 02 } = {0, 0} = {0} has one element.

2.7 Problem 7
Use set-roster notation to indicate the elements in each of the following sets.

2.7.1 (a)
S = {n ∈ Z | n = (−1)k , for some integer k}.

Proof. Here S = {−1, 1} because for all integers k, (−1)k is either −1 or 1.

2.7.2 (b)
T = {m ∈ Z | m = 1 + (−1)i , for some integer i}.

Proof. Similar to part (a), we have T = {0, 2}.

15
2.7.3 (c)
U = {r ∈ Z | 2 ≤ r ≤ −2}

Proof. Here U is the empty set because there are no integers r such that 2 ≤ r and
r ≤ −2 at the same time.

2.7.4 (d)
V = {s ∈ Z | s > 2 or s < 3}

Proof. Here V = Z = {. . . , −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, . . .}. Because all integers satisfy the given
property (of being either greater than 2 or less than 3).

2.7.5 (e)
W = {t ∈ Z | 1 < t < −3}

Proof. Similar to part (c), W = ∅.

2.7.6 (f )
X = {u ∈ Z | u ≤ 4 or u ≥ 1}

Proof. Similar to part (d) here X = Z.

2.8 Problem 8
Let A = {c, d, f, g}, B = {f, j}, and C = {d, g}. Answer each of the following
questions. Give reasons for your answers.

2.8.1 (a)
Is B ⊆ A?

Proof. No, because j ∈ B but j ∈

/ A.

2.8.2 (b)
Is C ⊆ A?

Proof. Yes. Both elements of C are also elements of A.

2.8.3 (c)
Is C ⊆ C?

Proof. Yes. Every element of C is an element of C.

16
2.8.4 (d)
Is C a proper subset of A?

Proof. Yes. By part (b) we have C ⊆ A, and we also have C ̸= A because c ∈ A and
c∈
/ C. Therefore C ⊂ A.

2.9 Problem 9
2.9.1 (a)
Is 3 ∈ {1, 2, 3}?

Proof. Yes.

2.9.2 (b)
Is 1 ⊆ {1}?

Proof. No, the number 1 is not a set and so it cannot be a subset.

2.9.3 (c)
Is {2} ∈ {1, 2}?

Proof. No. {2} ⊂ {1, 2} and 2 ∈ {1, 2} but {2} ∈

/ {1, 2}.

2.9.4 (d)
Is {3} ∈ {1, {2}, {3}}?

Proof. Yes.

2.9.5 (e)
Is 1 ∈ {1}?

Proof. Yes.

2.9.6 (f )
Is {2} ⊆ {1, {2}, {3}}?

Proof. No, the only element in {2} is the number 2 and the number 2 is not one of
the three elements in {1, {2}, {3}}.

17
2.9.7 (g)
Is {1} ⊆ {1, 2}?

Proof. Yes. Every element of {1}, namely 1, is also an element of {1, 2}.

2.9.8 (h)
Is 1 ∈ {{1}, 2}?

Proof. No. 1 ̸= {1} and 1 ̸= 2.

2.9.9 (i)
Is {1} ⊆ {1, {2}}?

Proof. Yes, the only element in {1} is the number 1, which is an element in {1, {2}}.

2.9.10 (j)
Is {1} ⊆ {1}?

Proof. Yes. Every element of {1} is also an element of {1}.

2.10 Problem 10
2.10.1 (a)
Is ((−2)2 , −22 ) = (−22 , (−2)2 )?

Proof. No, because (−2)2 = 4 and −22 = −4, therefore (4, −4) ̸= (−4, 4).

2.10.2 (b)
Is (5, −5) = (−5, 5)?

Proof. No, because 5 ̸= −5, and these are ordered tuples, so order matters.

2.10.3 (c)
√
Is (8 − 9, 3 −1) = (−1, −1)?
√
3
Proof. Yes, because 8 − 9 = −1 and −1 = −1. So they are both (−1, −1).

18
2.10.4 (d)
Is ( −2 3 3
−4 , (−2) ) = ( 6 , −8)?

−2 3
Proof. Yes, because both −4 and 6 are equal to 1/2, and (−2)3 = −8.

2.11 Problem 11
Let A = {w, x, y, z} and B = {a, b}. Use the set-roster notation to write each of the
following sets, and indicate the number of elements that are in each set.

2.11.1 (a)
A×B

Proof. A × B = {(w, a), (w, b), (x, a), (x, b), (y, a), (y, b), (z, a), (z, b)}
8 elements.

2.11.2 (b)
B×A

Proof. B × A = {(a, w), (b, w), (a, x), (b, x), (a, y), (b, y), (a, z), (b, z)}
8 elements.

2.11.3 (c)
A×A

Proof. 16 elements:
A × A = {(w, w), (w, x), (w.y), (w, z), (x, w), (x, x), (x, y), (x, z),
(y, w), (y, x), (y, y), (y, z), (z, w), (z, x), (z, y), (z, z)}

2.11.4 (d)
B×B

Proof. 4 elements: B × B = {(a, a), (a, b), (b, a), (b, b)}

2.12 Problem 12
Let S = {2, 4, 6} and T = {1, 3, 5}. Use the set-roster notation to write each of the
following sets, and indicate the number of elements that are in each set.

19
2.12.1 (a)
S×T

Proof. S × T = {(2, 1), (2, 3), (2, 5), (4, 1), (4, 3), (4, 5), (6, 1), (6, 3), (6, 5)}
9 elements.

2.12.2 (b)
T ×S

Proof. T × S = {(1, 2), (3, 2), (5, 2), (1, 4), (3, 4), (5, 4), (1, 6), (3, 6), (5, 6)}
9 elements.

2.12.3 (c)
S×S

Proof. S × S = {(2, 2), (2, 4), (2, 6), (4, 2), (4, 4), (4, 6), (6, 2), (6, 4), (6, 6)}
9 elements.

2.12.4 (d)
T ×T

Proof. T × T = {(1, 1), (3, 1), (5, 1), (1, 3), (3, 3), (5, 3), (1, 5), (3, 5), (5, 5)}
9 elements.

2.13 Problem 13
Let A = {1, 2, 3}, B = {u}, and C = {m, n}. Find each of the following sets.

2.13.1 (a)
A × (B × C)

Proof. {(1, (u, m)), (1, (u, n)), (2, (u, m)), (2, (u, n)), (3, (u, m)), (3, (u, n))}

2.13.2 (b)
(A × B) × C

Proof. {((1, u), m), ((1, u), n), ((2, u), m), ((2, u), n), ((3, u), m), ((3, u), n)}

20
2.13.3 (c)
A×B×C

Proof. {(1, u, m), (1, u, n), (2, u, m), (2, u, n), (3, u, m), (3, u, n)}

2.14 Problem 14
Let R = {a}, S = {x, y}, and T = {p, q, r}. Find each of the following sets.

2.14.1 (a)
R × (S × T )

Proof. {(a, (x, p)), (a, (x, q)), (a, (x, r)), (a, (y, p)), (a, (y, q)), (a, (y, r))}

2.14.2 (b)
(R × S) × T

Proof. {((a, x), p), ((a, x), q), ((a, x), r), ((a, y), p), ((a, y), q), ((a, y), r)}

2.14.3 (c)
R×S×T

Proof. {(a, x, p), (a, x, q), (a, x, r), (a, y, p), (a, y, q), (a, y, r)}

2.15 Problem 15
Let S = {0, 1}. List all the strings of length 4 over S that contain three or more 0’s.

Proof. 0000, 0001, 0010, 0100, 1000

2.16 Problem 16
Let T = {x, y}. List all the strings of length 5 over T that have exactly one y.

Proof. xxxxy, xxxyx, xxyxx, xyxxx, yxxxx

3 Exercise Set 1.3

3.1 Problem 1
Let A = {2, 3, 4} and B = {6, 8, 10} and define a relation R from A to B as follows:
For every (x, y) ∈ A × B,

21
 y
(x, y) ∈ R means that is an integer.
x

3.1.1 (a)
Is 4 R 6? Is 4 R 8? Is (3, 8) ∈ R? Is (2, 10) ∈ R?

Proof. 4 R 6 because 6/4 is not an integer.

4 R 8 because 8/4 = 2 is an integer.
(3, 8) ∈
/ R because 8/3 is not an integer.
(2, 10) ∈ R because 10/2 = 5 is an integer.

3.1.2 (b)
Write R as a set of ordered pairs.

Proof. R = {(2, 6), (2, 8), (2, 10), (3, 6), (4, 8)}

3.1.3 (c)
Write the domain and co-domain of R.

Proof. Domain of R = A = {2, 3, 4}

Co-domain of R = B = {6, 8, 10}

3.1.4 (d)
Draw an arrow diagram for R.

Proof.

3.2 Problem 2
Let C = D = {−3, −2, −1, 1, 2, 3} and define a relation S from C to D as follows: For
every (x, y) ∈ C × D,
1 1
(x, y) ∈ S means that − is an integer.
x y

22
3.2.1 (a)
Is 2 S 2? Is -1 S -1? Is (3, 3) ∈ S? Is (3, −3) ∈ S?
1 1
Proof. 2 S 2 is true, because − = 0 is an integer.
2 2
1 1
-1 S -1 is true, because − = 0 is an integer.
−1 −1
1 1
(3, 3) ∈ S because − = 0 is an integer.
3 3
1 1 2
(3, −3) ∈/ S because − = is not an integer.
3 −3 3

3.2.2 (b)
Write S as a set of ordered pairs.

Proof. S = {(−3, −3), (−2, −2), (−1, −1), (1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3), (−2, 2),
(2, −2), (−1, 1), (1, −1)}

3.2.3 (c)
Write the domain and co-domain of S.

Proof. Domain of S = C = {−3, −2, −1, 1, 2, 3}

Co-domain of S = D = {−3, −2, −1, 1, 2, 3}

3.2.4 (d)
Draw an arrow diagram for S.

23
Proof.

3.3 Problem 3
Let E = {1, 2, 3} and F = {−2, −1, 0} and define a relation T from E to F as follows:
For every (x, y) ∈ E × F ,
x−y
(x, y) ∈ T means that is an integer.
3

3.3.1 (a)
Is 3 T 0? Is 1 T (-1)? Is (2, −1) ∈ T ? Is (3, −2) ∈ T ?
3−0
Proof. 3 T 0 because = 1 is an integer.
3
1 − (−1)
1 T (-1) because = 2/3 is not an integer.
3
2 − (−1)
(2, −1) ∈ T because = 1 is an integer.
3
3 − (−2)
(3, −2) ∈
/ T because = 5/3 is not an integer.
3

3.3.2 (b)
Write T as a set of ordered pairs.

Proof. T = {(1, −2), (2, −1), (3, 0)}

3.3.3 (c)
Write the domain and co-domain of T .

Proof. Domain of T = E = {1, 2, 3}

Co-domain of T = F = {−2, −1, 0}

3.3.4 (d)
Draw an arrow diagram for T .

Proof.

24
3.4 Problem 4
Let G = {−2, 0, 2} and H = {4, 6, 8} and define a relation V from G to H as follows:
For every (x, y) ∈ G × H,
x−y
(x, y) ∈ V means that is an integer.
4

3.4.1 (a)
Is 2 V 6? Is (−2) V 8? Is (0, 6) ∈ V ? Is (2, 4) ∈ V ?
2−6
Proof. 2 V 6 because = −1 is an integer.
4
−2 − 8
(−2) V 8 because = −5/2 is not an integer.
4
0−6
(0, 6) ∈
/ V because = −3/2 is an not integer.
4
2−4
(2, 4) ∈
/ V because = −1/2 is not an integer.
4

3.4.2 (b)
Write V as a set of ordered pairs.

Proof. V = {(−2, 6), (0, 4), (0, 8), (2, 6)}

3.4.3 (c)
Write the domain and co-domain of V .

Proof. Domain of V = G = {−2, 0, 2}

Co-domain of V = H = {4, 6, 8}

3.4.4 (d)
Draw an arrow diagram for V .

25
Proof.

3.5 Problem 5
Define a relation S from R to R as follows: For every (x, y) ∈ R × R,
(x, y) ∈ S means that x ≥ y.

3.5.1 (a)
Is (2, 1) ∈ S? Is (2, 2) ∈ S? Is 2 S 3? Is (−1) S (−2)?

Proof. (2, 1) ∈ S because 2 ≥ 1.

(2, 2) ∈ S because 2 ≥ 2.
2 V 3 because 2 ≱ 3.
(−1) V (−2) because −1 ≥ −2.

3.5.2 (b)
Draw the graph of S in the Cartesian plane.

Proof.

3.6 Problem 6
Define a relation R from R to R as follows: For every (x, y) ∈ R × R,
(x, y) ∈ R means that y = x2 .

3.6.1 (a)
Is (2, 4) ∈ R? Is (4, 2) ∈ R? Is (−3) R 9? Is 9 R (−3)?

26
Proof. (2, 4) ∈ R because 4 = 22 .
/ R because 2 ̸= 42 .
(4, 2) ∈
(−3) R 9 because 9 = (−3)2 .
9 R (−3) because −3 ̸= 92 .

3.6.2 (b)
Draw the graph of R in the Cartesian plane.

Proof.

3.7 Problem 7
Let A = {4, 5, 6} and B = {5, 6, 7} and define relations R, S, and T from A to B as
follows: For every (x, y) ∈ A × B:
(x, y) ∈ R means that x ≥ y.
(x, y) ∈ S means that x−y 2 is an integer.
T = {(4, 7), (6, 5), (6, 7)}

3.7.1 (a)
Draw arrow diagrams for R, S, and T .

Proof.

27
3.7.2 (b)
Indicate whether any of the relations R, S, and T are functions.

Proof. R is not a function because it satisfies neither property (1) nor property (2) of
the definition. It fails property (1) because (4, y) ∈
/ R, for any y in B. It fails property
(2) because (6, 5) [ R and (6, 6) [ R and 5 ? 6.
S is not a function because (5, 5) ∈ S and (5, 7) ∈ S and 5 ̸= 7. So S does not satisfy
property (2) of the definition of function.
T is not a function both because (5, x) ∈
/ T for any x in B and because (6, 5) ∈ T and
(6, 7) ∈ T and 5 ̸= 7. So T does not satisfy either property (1) or property (2) of the
definition of function.

3.8 Problem 8
Let A = {2, 4} and B = {1, 3, 5} and define relations U , V , and W from A to B as
follows: For every (x, y) ∈ A × B:
(x, y) ∈ U means that y − x > 2.
(x, y) ∈ V means that y − 1 = x2 .
W = {(2, 5), (4, 1), (2, 3)}.

3.8.1 (a)
Draw arrow diagrams for U , V , and W .

Proof.

3.8.2 (b)
Indicate whether any of the relations U , V , and W are functions.

Proof. U and V are not functions because they are undefined for 4 ∈ A and 2 ∈ A
respectively. So they fail property (1) of a function.
W is not a function because both (2, 3) ∈ W and (2, 5) ∈ W and 3 ̸= 5. So it fails
property (2) of a function.

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3.9 Problem 9
3.9.1 (a)
Find all functions from {0, 1} to {1}.

Proof. There is only 1 function from {0, 1} to {1}.

Any function must be defined on both inputs 0, 1. There is only one option for the
output, namely 1. So the only function is: {(0, 1), (1, 1)}.

3.9.2 (b)
Find two relations from {0, 1} to {1} that are not functions.

Proof. R = {(0, 1)} is a relation that is not a function, because it’s undefined on input
1, so it fails property (1) of a function.
S = {(1, 1)} is a relation but not a function, for similar reasons.

3.10 Problem 10
Find four relations from {a, b} to {x, y} that are not functions from {a, b} to {x, y}.

Proof. R = {(a, x)} (undefined for input b)

S = {(a, y)} (undefined for input b)
T = {(b, x)} (undefined for input a)
U = {(b, y)} (undefined for input a)

3.11 Problem 11
Let A = {0, 1, 2} and let S be the set of all strings over A. Define a relation L from S
to Znonneg as follows: For every string s in S and every nonnegative integer n,
(s, n) ∈ L means that the length of s is n.
Then L is a function because every string in S has one and only one length. Find
L(0201) and L(12).

Proof. L(0201) = 4 and L(12) = 2, because those are the lengths of the strings.

3.12 Problem 12
Let A = {x, y} and let S be the set of all strings over A. Define a relation C from S
to S as follows: For all strings s and t in S,
(s, t) ∈ C means that t = ys.

29
Then C is a function because every string in S consists entirely of x’s and y’s and
adding an additional y on the left creates a single new string that consists of x’s and
y’s and is, therefore, also in S. Find C(x) and C(yyxyx).

Proof. The function C adds an additional y on the left of its input. Therefore: C(x) =
yx and C(yyxyx) = yyyxyx.

3.13 Problem 13
Let A = {−1, 0, 1} and B = {t, u, v, w}. Define a function F : A → B by the following
arrow diagram:

3.13.1 (a)
Write the domain and co-domain of F .

Proof. Domain = A = {−1, 0, 1}

Co-domain = B = {t, u, v, w}

3.13.2 (b)
Find F (−1), F (0), and F (1).

Proof. F (−1) = u, F (0) = w, and F (1) = u.

3.14 Problem 14
Let C = {1, 2, 3, 4} and D = {a, b, c, d}. Define a function G : C → D by the following
arrow diagram:

30
3.14.1 (a)
Write the domain and co-domain of G.

Proof. Domain = C = {1, 2, 3, 4}

Co-domain = D = {a, b, c, d}

3.14.2 (b)
Find G(1), G(2), G(3), and G(4).

Proof. G(1) = c, G(2) = c, G(3) = c, and G(4) = c.

3.15 Problem 15
Let X = {2, 4, 5} and Y = {1, 2, 4, 6}. Which of the following arrow diagrams deter-
mine functions from X to Y ?

3.15.1 (a)
Proof. Not a function. Fails property (2) because both (2, 2) and (2, 6) are included
in the relation.

3.15.2 (b)
Proof. Not a function. Fails property (1) because it’s undefined on input 5.

3.15.3 (c)
Proof. Not a function. Fails property (2) because both (4, 1) and (4, 2) are included
in the relation.

31
3.15.4 (d)
Proof. Is a function. Satisfies both properties.

3.15.5 (e)
Proof. Not a function. Fails property (1) because it’s undefined on input 2.

3.16 Problem 16
Let f be the squaring function defined in Example 1.3.6. Find f (−1), f (0), and f (1/2).

Proof. f (−1) = (−1)2 = 1, f (0) = 02 = 0, and f (1/2) = (1/2)2 = 1/4.

3.17 Problem 17
Let g be the successor function defined in Example 1.3.6. Find g(−1000), g(0), and
g(999).

Proof. g(−1000) = −1000 + 1 = −999, g(0) = 0 + 1 = 1, and g(999) = 999 + 1 =

1000.

3.18 Problem 18
Let h be the constant function defined in Example 1.3.6. Find h(−12/5), h(0/1), and
h(9/17).

Proof. h(−12/5) = 2, h(0/1) = 2, and h(9/17) = 2.

3.19 Problem 19
Define functions f and g from R to R by the following formulas: For every x ∈ R,
2x3 + 2x
f (x) = 2x and g(x) = 2 .
x +1
Does f = g? Explain.

Proof. Yes. Because by algebra, for all x ∈ R

2x3 + 2x 2x(x2 + 1)
g(x) = 2 = = 2x.
x +1 x2 + 1
Therefore by definition of equality of functions, f = g.

32
3.20 Problem 20
Define functions H and K from R to R by the following formulas: For every x ∈ R,
H(x) = (x − 2)2 and K(x) = (x − 1)(x − 3) + 1.
Does H = K? Explain.

Proof. Yes. Because by algebra, for all x ∈ R we have H(x) = (x − 2)2 = x2 − 4x + 4

and K(x) = (x − 1)(x − 3) + 1 = x2 − 4x + 3 + 1 = x2 − 4x + 4.
So, for all x ∈ R we have H(x) = K(x). Therefore by definition of equality of functions,
H = K.

4 Exercise Set 1.4

In 1 and 2, graphs are represented by drawings. Define each graph for-
mally by specifying its vertex set, its edge set, and a table giving the
edge-endpoint function.

4.1 Problem 1

Proof. The graph has vertex set {v1 , v2 , v3 , v4 } and edge set {e1 , e2 , e3 } with edge-
endpoint function as follows:

Edge Endpoints
e1 {v1 , v2 }
e2 {v1 , v3 }
e3 {v3 }

4.2 Problem 2

33
Proof. The graph has vertex set {v1 , v2 , v3 , v4 } and edge set {e1 , e2 , e3 , e4 , e5 } with
edge-endpoint function as follows:

Edge Endpoints
e1 {v1 , v2 }
e2 {v2 , v3 }
e3 {v2 , v3 }
e4 {v2 , v4 }
e5 {v4 }

In 3 and 4, draw pictures of the specified graphs.

4.3 Problem 3
Graph G has vertex set {v1 , v2 , v3 , v4 , v5 } and edge set {e1 , e2 , e3 , e4 } with edge-endpoint
function as follows:

Edge Endpoints
e1 {v1 , v2 }
e2 {v1 , v2 }
e3 {v2 , v3 }
e4 {v2 }

Proof.

4.4 Problem 4
Graph H has vertex set {v1 , v2 , v3 , v4 , v5 } and edge set {e1 , e2 , e3 , e4 } with edge-endpoint
function as follows:

Edge Endpoints
e1 {v1 }
e2 {v2 , v3 }
e3 {v2 , v3 }
e4 {v1 , v5 }

34
Proof.

In 5-7, show that the two drawings represent the same graph by labeling
the vertices and edges of the right-hand drawing to correspond to those of
the left-hand drawing.

4.5 Problem 5

Proof. Imagine that the edges are strings and the vertices are knots. You can pick
up the left-hand figure and lay it down again to form the right-hand figure as shown
below.

4.6 Problem 6

35
Proof. We can hold the edges e3 and e4 in our hands, and “un-twist” the crossing
edges e1 and e2 by rotating one of the edges, say e3 , upside down (which switches v2
and v3 ), to get the shape below:

4.7 Problem 7

Proof.

For each of the graphs in 8 and 9:

1. Find all edges that are incident on v1 .
2. Find all vertices that are adjacent to v3 .

36
 3. Find all edges that are adjacent to e1 .
4. Find all loops.
5. Find all parallel edges.
6. Find all isolated vertices.
7. Find the degree of v3 .

4.8 Problem 8

Proof. 1. e1 , e2 , and e3 are incident on v1 .

2. v1 , v2 , and v3 are adjacent to v3 .
3. e2 , e8 , e9 , and e3 are adjacent to e1 .
4. Loops are e6 and e7 .
5. e8 and e9 are parallel; e4 and e5 are parallel.
6. v6 is an isolated vertex.
7. degree of v3 = 5.

4.9 Problem 9

Proof. 1. e1 , e2 , e7 are incident on v1 .

2. v1 , v2 are adjacent to v3 .

37
 3. e2 , e7 are adjacent to e1 .
4. Loops are e1 and e3 .
5. e4 and e5 are parallel.
6. v4 is an isolated vertex.
7. degree of v3 = 2.

4.10 Problem 10
Use the graph of Example 1.4.6 to determine

4.10.1 (a)
whether Sports Illustrated contains printed writing;

Proof. Yes. According to the graph, Sports Illustrated is an instance of a sports

magazine, a sports magazine is a periodical, and a periodical contains printed writing.

4.10.2 (b)
whether Poetry Magazine contains long words.

Proof. Yes. Poetry Magazine is an instance of a literary journal, a literary journal is

a scholarly journal, and a scholarly journal contains long words.

4.11 Problem 11
Find three other winning sequences of moves for the vegetarians and the cannibals in
Example 1.4.7.

Proof. The three other winning sequences of moves are apparent from the picture.
There are 2 places where the graph branches into 2, giving us 2 × 2 = 4 possible
solutions. In the example we’ve seen 1 out of 4 solutions. The other 3 are:
1. vvccB/ → vc/Bvc → vvcB/c → c/Bvvc → vcB/vc → /Bvvcc
2. vvccB/ → vv/Bcc → vvcB/c → c/Bvvc → ccB/vv → /Bvvcc
3. vvccB/ → vv/Bcc → vvcB/c → c/Bvvc → vcB/vc → /Bvvcc
Including the original solution as (4), these solutions correspond to the following paths
in the solution graph:

38
4.12 Problem 12
Another famous puzzle used as an example in the study of artificial intelligence seems
first to have appeared in a collection of problems, Problems for the Quickening of the
Mind, which was compiled about A.D. 775. It involves a wolf, a goat, a bag of cabbage,
and a ferryman. From an initial position on the left bank of a river, the ferryman is
to transport the wolf, the goat, and the cabbage to the right bank. The difficulty is
that the ferryman’s boat is only big enough for him to transport one object at a time,
other than himself. Yet, for obvious reasons, the wolf cannot be left alone with the
goat, and the goat cannot be left alone with the cabbage. How should the ferryman
proceed?

Proof. To solve this puzzle using a graph, introduce a notation in which, for example,
wc/f g means that the wolf and the cabbage are on the left bank of the river and
the ferryman and the goat are on the right bank. Then draw those arrangements of
wolf, cabbage, goat, and ferryman that can be reached from the initial arrangement
(wgcf /) and that are not arrangements to be avoided (such as (wg/f c)). At each
stage ask yourself, “Where can I go from here?” and draw lines or arrows pointing to
those arrangements. This method gives the graph shown below.

39
4.13 Problem 13
Solve the vegetarians-and-cannibals puzzle for the case where there are three vegetar-
ians and three cannibals to be transported from one side of a river to the other.

Proof. This one is quite difficult: draw the graph and go through all the possibilities.
Almost all the possible moves are illegal, so you have to rule them out. Showing the
full graph with all the illegal moves ruled out gets too big; therefore I will show the
only two possible winning sequences:
The two winning sequences only differ in the first two moves:
vc v
(1) vvvcccB/ → vvcc/Bvc ← vvvccB/c
cc c
(2) vvvcccB/ → vvvc/Bcc ← vvvccB/c
After that, they are the same, because there is always only one legal move:
cc c vv vc vv
vvvccB/c → vvv/cccB ← vvvcB/cc → vc/vvccB ← vvccB/vc → cc/vvvcB
c cc c cc
← cccB/vvv → c/vvvccB ← ccB/vvvc → /vvvcccB

4.14 Problem 14
Two jugs A and B have capacities of 3 quarts and 5 quarts, respectively. Can you
use the jugs to measure out exactly 1 quart of water, while obeying the following
restrictions? You may fill either jug to capacity from a water tap; you may empty the
contents of either jug into a drain; and you may pour water from either jug into the
other.

Proof. Represent possible amounts of water in jugs A and B by ordered pairs. For
instance, the ordered pair (1, 3) would indicate that there is one quart of water in
jug A and three quarts in jug B. Starting with (0, 0), draw arrows from one ordered
pair to another if it is possible to go from the situation represented by one pair to
that represented by the other by either filling a jug, emptying a jug, or transferring
water from one jug to another. You need only draw arrows from states that have
arrows pointing to them; the other states cannot be reached. Then find a directed
path (sequence of directed edges) from the initial state (0, 0) to a final state (1, 0) or
(0, 1). Here is one of the solutions (there are infinitely many):

40
4.15 Problem 15
Imagine that the diagram shown below is a map with countries labeled a − g. Is it
possible to color the map with only three colors so that no two adjacent countries have
the same color? To answer this question, follow the procedure suggested by Example
1.4.9. Draw and analyze a graph in which each country is represented by a vertex and
two vertices are connected by an edge if, and only if, the countries share a common
border.

Proof. Vertex e has maximal degree, so color it with color #1. Vertex a does not
share an edge with e, and so color #1 may also be used for it. From the remaining
uncolored vertices, all of d, g, and f have maximal degree. Choose any one of them,
say, d, and use color #2 for it. Observe that vertices c and f do not share an edge
with d, but they do share an edge with each other, which means that color #2 may be
used for one but not the other. Choose to color f with color #2 because the degree
of f is greater than the degree of c. The remaining uncolored vertices, b, c, and g, are
unconnected, and so color #3 may be used for all three.

4.16 Problem 16
In this exercise a graph is used to help solve a scheduling problem. Twelve faculty
members in a mathematics department serve on the following committees:
Undergraduate Education: Tenner, Peterson, Kashina, Degras
Graduate Education: Hu, Ramsey, Degras, Bergen
Colloquium: Carroll, Drupieski, Au-Yeung
Library: Ugarcovici, Tenner, Carroll

41
Hiring: Hu, Drupieski, Ramsey, Peterson
Personnel: Ramsey, Wang, Ugarcovici
The committees must all meet during the first week of classes, but there are only three
time slots available. Find a schedule that will allow all faculty members to attend the
meetings of all committees on which they serve. To do this, represent each committee
as the vertex of a graph, and draw an edge between two vertices if the two committees
have a common member. Find a way to color the vertices using only three colors so
that no two committees have the same color, and explain how to use the result to
schedule the meetings.

Proof. Undergraduate is connected to Library (because of Tenner), Hiring (because of

Peterson), Graduate (because of Degras).
Graduate is connected to Hiring (because of Hu and Ramsey), Personnel (because of
Ramsey).
Colloquium is connected to Library (because of Carroll), Hiring (because of Drupieski).
Hiring is connected to Personnel (because of Ramsey).
Library is connected to Personnel (because of Ugarcovici).
Based on this info we have one possible solution:

So we can do the following:

Time 1: BLUE: hiring, library
Time 2: GREEN: personnel, undergraduate education
Time 3: RED: graduate education, colloquium
(We could have also colored Colloquium with GREEN instead. That’s another valid
solution.)

4.17 Problem 17
A department wants to schedule final exams so that no student has more than one
exam on any given day. The vertices of the graph below show the courses that are

42
being taken by more than one student, with an edge connecting two vertices if there
is a student in both courses. Find a way to color the vertices of the graph with only
four colors so that no two adjacent vertices have the same color and explain how to
use the result to schedule the final exams.

Proof. One possible solution:

We can schedule the exams of the:

green courses (MCS101 and MCS102) on Monday,
blue course (MCS135) on Tuesday,
red courses (MCS130 and MCS110) on Wednesday,
orange courses (MCS100 and MCS120) on Thursday.
Since there is no edge connecting any two courses of the same color, there are no
students taking two courses of the same color.

43