Thermodynamics.

• Thermodynamics is the study of the relations

between heat, work, temperature, and energy.
• The laws of thermodynamics describe how the
energy in a system changes and whether the
system can perform useful work on its
surroundings.
• In broad terms, thermodynamics deals with the
transfer of heat energy from one
place/body/system to another.
 Difference between heat and
temperature
• Heat measures the total energy, both kinetic
and potential of the particles that make up a
body while Temperature measures the
average kinetic energy of the particles of a
body.
• SI unit of heat is a joule(J) while temperature
is kelvin (K)
 Heat transfer
• According to thermodynamic systems, heat
transfer is defined as“The movement of heat across
the border of the system due to a difference in
temperature between the system and its
surroundings.”
• Conduction is defined as the process of transmission
of energy from one particle of the medium to another
with the particles being in direct contact with each
other. Conduction is the method of transfer of heat
within a body or from one body to the other due to the
transfer of heat by molecules vibrating at their mean
positions. The bodies through which the heat transfer
must be in contact with each other. There is no actual
movement of matter while transferring heat from one
location to the other
• Convection is defined as the movement heat
through a fluid where molecules move from higher
temperature regions to lower temperature regions.
Convection is the mode of heat transfer which
occurs mostly in liquids and gases.In this method,
heat transfer takes place with the actual motion of
matter from one place within the body to the other.
• Radiation is where heat energy that travels in the
form of electromagnetic waves. It does not require
any medium and can be used for transfer of heat in
a vacuum as well. This method uses electromagnetic
waves which transfer heat from one place to the
other. The heat and light from the sun in our solar
system reach our planet using radiation only.
Basis of
Heat Temperature
Comparison

It refers to the amount of It is the measure of the heat’s

Meaning
energy present in a body intensity(degree of hotness or coldness)

Unit of
Joules Celsius, Fahrenheit, Kelvin
Measurement

It is the total kinetic and

potential energy which the It is the average kinetic energy of the
Measures
molecules in an object molecules present in an object
contain

The heat has the ability to We can use it to measure the degree of
Working Ability
do work heat

Device Calorimeter Thermometer

Symbol Q T

It flows from a hotter It rises when we heat it and falls when

Property
 Laws of thermodynamics
• First law
The first law asserts that if heat is recognized as
a form of energy, then the total energy of a
system plus its surroundings is conserved; in
other words, the total energy of
the universe remains constant.
ΔU = Q − W or Q =ΔU + W
Where ΔU is the change in internal energy of the
system, Q is the heat energy added to the system
and W is the work done by the system on its
surrounding.
 Real life examples of first law of themodynamics
• Melting of the ice cube is a classic example of the first law of
thermodynamics occurring in our daily lives. When you leave an ice
cube out in the open, you will notice it melting and converting to
water in just a few minutes.
• Burning of wood - When you burn wood at a campfire, chemical
energy gets converted to thermal energy; the chemical reaction
that turns wood into ash releases energy in the form of heat. The
heat that is generated by stars is also due to chemical reactions that
occur inside their cores.
• Light bulbs transform electrical energy into heat &light energy
(radiant energy).
• Plants convert the energy of sunlight (radiant energy) into chemical
energy stored in organic molecules.
• Heat engines convert chemical energy of fuels to mechanical
energy.
The second law of thermodynamics.
• Heat does not flow spontaneously from a colder region to a hotter
region, or, equivalently, heat at a given temperature cannot be
converted entirely into work. Consequently, the entropy of a closed
system, or heat energy per unit temperature, increases over time
toward some maximum value. Thus, all closed systems tend toward
an equilibrium state in which entropy is at a maximum and no
energy is available to do useful work.
• Entropy, the measure of a system’s thermal energy per unit
temperature that is unavailable for doing useful work. Because work
is obtained from ordered molecular motion, the amount of entropy is
also a measure of the molecular disorder, or randomness, of a
system.
• ΔS = QT where ΔS is change in entropy, Q is heat added
in system and T is the absolute temperature of the
system.
 Examples of second law of thermodynamics
• If you put a cup of hot coffee in a room of
average temperature, the drink will gradually
cool down — eventually reaching the same
temperature.We describe this as it reaching
thermal equilibrium with the room.
• One notable example of the second law of
thermodynamics is the heat engine model.
Heat engines involve a cycle of increasing and
decreasing temperatures that move a piston.
 Measurement of Heat
• Heat capacity Heat capacity is defined as the
quantity of heat required to raise the temperature
of a given mass of a substance by one degree
Celsius or one Kelvin. It is denoted by C.
• Heat capacity(C) = heat absorbed(Q) /
temperature change (θ). The units of heat
capacity are J / °C or J / K.
𝑸
𝑪=
𝜽
 Specific heat capacity
• Specific heat capacity S.H.C of a substance is
the quantity of heat required to raise the
temperature of 1 kg of the substance by 1 °C or 1
K. It is denoted by 'c', hence,
𝑸
𝒄 = or Q=mcθ
𝒎𝜽
where Q is quantity of heat, m is mass and θ is change in
temperature.
The units for 'c' are J kg-1 K-1.
 example

Find the quantity of energy required to raise the

temperature of 30 g of water from 25oC to 55oC
given that the specific heat capacity of water is
4200 J/K kg
soln
Q=mcθ
= 0.03×4200×(55-25)
= 3780 J
 Determination of specific heat capacity

• A calorimeter is used to
determine the specific heat
capacity of a substance.
• This uses the principle of thermal
equilibrium and first law of
thermodynamics i.e heat gained
by a substance is equal to the heat
lost by another substance when
equilibrium is achieved.
• Heat losses in calorimeter are
controlled such that no losses
occur to the surrounding or if they
occur are negligible.
 Latent heat
• Latent heat is energy which is supplied or extracted to
change the state of a substance without changing its
temperature.
• Specific latent heat of fusion ( Lf) is described as the
amount of heat energy required to convert the unit
mass of a substance from solid to liquid state without a
change in temperature.
Q = mLf
• specific latent heat of vaporization(Lv) is the energy
required to change a substance from liquid to gas at a
constant temperature.
Q=mLv
 Example 1
Determine the amount of heat required to vaporize completely 300g of water at
25oC. (Specific heat capacity of water c = 4.2 x 103 Jkg-1K-1,Lv of water is Lv = 2.26
x 106 J kg-1 )
Solution
Heat gained by water from 25oC to boiling point 100oC
Q=mcθ
=0.3x 4.2 x 103x( 100-25)
=94500J
Latent heat gained during vaporization at 100oC
Q=mLv
=0.3 x 2.26 x 106
=678000J
Heat required = 94500 + 678000= 772500J or 7.725 x 105J
 Example 2
i) In an experiment to determine the specific latent heat of fusion of ice,
100g of ice at 0oC was put into200g of water contained in a well lagged
copper calorimeter of mass 60g at 35oC, after stirring the final
temperature was 10oC. Assuming no heat was lost to the surrounding;
determine the specific latent heat of fusion of ice from this
experiment.(Specific heat capacity of water = 4.2 x 103 Jkg-1K-1) Specific heat
capacity of copper = 390 Jkg-1K-1

Solution.
Heat lost by water in calorimeter
Q=mcθ =0.2x4200x(35-10) =21000J
Heat lost by copper calorimeter
Q=mcθ =0.06x390x (35-10) = 585J
Latent heat gained by ice
Q=mLf = 0.1xLf
Heat gained by melted water
Q=mcθ =0.1 x4200x(10-0)= 4200
Heat gained =heat lost
0.1Lf +4200 = 21000 + 585
o.1Lf =17385
Lf =173850 Jkg-1
The end