KATHMANDU UNIVERSITY

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

DHULIKHEL, KAVRE

Assignment

Submitted by: Submitted to:

Prabin Shah Dr. Er, Suman Manandhar
Roll No: 45 Department of Civil Engineering
Subject: CIEG 209 Visiting Faculty
Group: CIEG
Level: 2nd Year/ 2nd Semester

Date: 4/23/2023
 Kathmandu University
Department of Civil & Structural Engineering
Course No.: CIEG 209 Subject: Engineering Geology
Name: Prabin Shah Assignment/Tutorial No.:
Roll No.: 45 Date of Submission:

Q.1 Why do civil engineers require geology/engineering geology? Explain the reason with
suitable examples.
Ans.
Geology is an earth science concerned with the solid Earth, the rocks of which it is composed,
and the processes by which they change over time.
Geological Engineering is a branch of civil engineering that involves the survey of the geological conditions
of a particular area. Geological condition refers to the particular behavior of earth surface like bearing capacity
of a soil/rock, land topography, level of water content from the ground surface, soon. The details obtained
from the topper investigation are used in order to locate, design and construct the different civil engineering
woks. In trenchless construction, geological engineering plays an important role because it is important to be
aware of the terrain and any formation formations present before any kind of underground tunneling work is
carried out.
Importance of engineering geology/geology in civil engineering:
1. Geology is important for analyzing the stability of ground upon which civil engineering projects are
constructed. If there are major faults on the earth surface like cracks, fissures, improper alignment of
rock lamina, slips, landslides, settlements, seismic faults etc. then these may affect the stability of a
major structure like dam or tunnel.
2. Observations of the ground water table are important factors for determining the load bearing capacity
of the ground and depth and type of foundation needed to safely carry the loads of a structure.
3. Geology also involves study of various types of rocks, their characteristics, and their modifications
along with time under the action of natural forces like water, wind, earth pressure, tectonic movements,
and physical and chemical reactions which helps a civil engineer to predict the sustainability of any
sort of project.
4. Understanding geology helps even in the building materials like the water absorption qualities,
porosities, of granites, marbles, hardness of each of these and thus the suitability for a particular
application.
5. Different projects have different nature. Some projects are to be carried out in slope land whereas some
projects are to be carried out in plain land, while some are to be done near water resources. So, the soil
behaviors might vary from place to place. Soil / rock test needs to be carried out in order to check the
sustainability of the earth surface in term of load bearing capacities. Having knowledge about the site
soil gives a civil engineer an idea about which type of foundation, materials to be used for the
construction.
To discuss with an example, a dam that is planned to be constructed across a river requires a detailed study of
the geology of the locality pertaining not only to the dam site but also the reservoir which stores huge volumes
of water. The downstream portion also needs to be studied with respect to the geology. The fractures, faults,
fissures in rocks, dip inclinations, the nature of soil, mineral composition all are need to be studied in detail
 Kathmandu University
Department of Civil & Structural Engineering
Course No.: CIEG 209 Subject: Engineering Geology
Name: Prabin Shah Assignment/Tutorial No.:
Roll No.: 45 Date of Submission:

and accordingly. After that, the size, materials to be used, special precautions to be taken in construction of
dam are to be decided keeping consideration of every possible risk and failures.

Q.2 Discuss the importance of studying crystallography and its system, form and habit in civil
engineering.
Ans.

Crystallography is a branch of geology that deals with the study of a crystal. A crystal is a regular polyhedral
form bounded by the smooth surfaces. Crystallography is useful in phase identification. When manufacturing
or using a material, it helps to know what compound and what phases are present in any material because
materials’ composition, structure and proportion affects the physical properties of same material.
Importance of crystallography and its system, form and habit in civil engineering:
1. Crystallography can be used by engineer in order to categorize the materials which help in knowing
the best use of individual materials in different construction works.
2. Similarly, it also helps to find out the sustainability of the any construction material that might prevent
from future hazard and chaos in any sort of construction work.
3. It helps in studying the different nature and behaviors of rocks used for different construction sites.
4. Crystallography can be used while manufacturing process of cement. It is used in making clinker by
changing the crystallography in the kiln (~1200 Degree Celsius). Thus, prepared cement can be used
in various civil engineering works.

Q.3 Discuss the importance of rock forming minerals in civil engineering with at least two
specific examples.
Ans.

Rock-forming minerals are any mineral that forms igneous, sedimentary, or metamorphic rocks and that
typically, or solely, forms as an intimate part of rock-making processes. Some of the common examples of
rock forming minerals are quartz, feldspar, calcite, mica etc. The civil engineer should know the behavior and
properties of any sort of rocks that can be applicable in various field. For this, a civil engineer must know
about the origin of the rocks that are obtained from rock forming minerals. After knowing the properties of
rocks by studying their respective rock forming minerals, a civil engineer carries out the examined rocks into
various constructions works such as foundation rock, road pebbling, as building stones, roofing purposes,
concrete aggregate and so on. For example,
 Kathmandu University
Department of Civil & Structural Engineering
Course No.: CIEG 209 Subject: Engineering Geology
Name: Prabin Shah Assignment/Tutorial No.:
Roll No.: 45 Date of Submission:

• Igneous rocks are extensively used for foundation purpose in any construction work. Feldspars, quartz
or feldspathoids, olivine, pyroxenes, amphiboles, and micas are all important minerals in the formation
of almost all igneous rocks.
• Sedimentary rocks like, Sand and gravel are used for concrete works. Likewise, Sandstone and
limestone are used for building stones. Sedimentary rocks are formed by different rock forming
minerals such as clay minerals, calcite, dolomite, gypsum, halite etc.

Q.4 Discuss the significances of internal structure of earth.

Ans.

The earth is a spherical heavenly body flat at the poles and bulges out at the equator. The internal layer of the
earth is divided into 3 layers: -
• Earth Crust
• Mantle
• Core

Figure 1Fig.1. Layers of the earth

• Earth Crust:
The Crust is the outermost layer of the earth, making the outer most layer of the surface of the earth.
Its thickness is 33Km under continental bedding around 5 to 10 Km is oceanic crust and further
continental crust. The crust is divided in two layers which is separated by boundary called canard
discontinuity
a. SIAL
b. SIML
Upper must part of continental crust extended up to a depth of 11km is called SIAL and lower part extended
up to 22km is called SIMA.
Crust is very thin layer of earth broken up in many pieces called plats. These plates usually slide very smoothly
 Kathmandu University
Department of Civil & Structural Engineering
Course No.: CIEG 209 Subject: Engineering Geology
Name: Prabin Shah Assignment/Tutorial No.:
Roll No.: 45 Date of Submission:

but sometimes stick and built up pressure and the rock snaps. When this occurs, we get Earthquakes.
Earthquake can be important because of the energy released during earthquake provides much information
about earth interior. Earthquake also tell us if volcanoes are becoming less or more active. Volcanic activity is
continually adding mass to the crust, also providing important information about earth interior, magma cycle,
formation of igneous rocks and so on.
a. Mantle:
The mantle is layer just lying below earth's crust up to the depth of 2900km and consisting molten materials
(magma) at very high pressure and temperature of about 2200ºC. It consists of two layers:
➢ Upper mantle
The upper mantle is the rock with formation of iron and silicate composition. This layer is extended up to
1070Km. And further divided into parts due to the differences in seismic velocity profile. Upper layer of upper
mental with p velocity 8.1 km/s and lower layer of upper mental with p velocity 10.27 km/s
➢ The lower mantle
Extending to the depth of 1900 km lower mantle has molten material's density up to 5.57 gm/cm3. The p-wave
velocity varies from 10.85 to 13.71 km/s.
b. Core:
Core is the innermost part of earth with extremely high temperature and pressure. It is the layer situated around
the Centre in a spherical shape. The density of materials here is around 9.9 gm/cm3. It is further divided into
two layers by "Lehmann discontinuity".
➢ Outer Core:
The outer core extends to a depth of 2258 km composing liquid iron dense at 9.9 km/s. The layer is extremely
hot with temperature rising between 2200ºC to 5000ºC and p-wave velocity 8.06 km/s. Being in liquid form
s-waves are not transmitted here.
➢ Inner Core:
Inner core is a solid ball like sphere containing mainly Nickel and Iron at very high density of around 13.1
gm/cm3. The temperature rises from 5000ºC to 6000ºC to a pressure equal to 3.5 million atm pressure.
There are various significances of learning internal structure of the earth crust some them are: -
• Nature of p-wave while moving down the earth crust gives us the idea about the state of different layer
of the earth crust.
• Seismic energy released during earthquake due to the movement of the plate provides much
information about earth interior and if volcanoes are becoming less or more active.
• Sometime there is formation of the island like the Hawaii because of hot sport.
• These layers are also important because materials like petroleum, dynamite, natural gas, fresh water
could not be present at one layer.
 Kathmandu University
Department of Civil & Structural Engineering
Course No.: CIEG 209 Subject: Engineering Geology
Name: Prabin Shah Assignment/Tutorial No.:
Roll No.: 45 Date of Submission:

Q.5 Based on velocity and density distributions in the different layers of earth’s structure,
give suitable explanations for the formation of layers.
Ans.

Figure 2. Velocity and Density distribution in different layers of earth

The interior of the earth comes from the analysis of the velocity and density of body waves that travels through
the earth interior in form of waves. These velocities depend upon the various physical factors like bulk
modulus, shear modulus and density of the given material, each of these are influenced by the temperature and
pressure condition. Thus, the seismic velocity varies with the depth inside the earth crust. By this, it is clear
that earth is made up of some homogenous materials from its surface to its center.
 Kathmandu University
Department of Civil & Structural Engineering
Course No.: CIEG 209 Subject: Engineering Geology
Name: Prabin Shah Assignment/Tutorial No.:
Roll No.: 45 Date of Submission:

The pressure at any point in the earth as being determined by the weight of the column of the rock above that
point. If the earth were made up of the same minerals throughout, pressure should increase on increasing the
depth. As, the pressure increases, the minerals should become more compressed and consequently their bulk
modulus should become greater. Under greater confining pressure, the rocks should be less susceptible to
bending or twisting by shear stress. Since, in homogenous earth, both temperature and pressure are expected
to increase. It seems reasonable to conclude that changes in the values of the bulk moduli, shear moduli, and
densities and, as a result the velocities of body waves would be smooth or without abrupt change.

From figure, we can see there are several depths at which velocities abruptly changes. These sharp changes
are referred to as discontinuities and it is inferred that they mark the depth at which there is a change in either
the composition, physical state or both of the earth’s materials. Hence the earth does not appear to be
homogeneous throughout, rather it seems to be comprised of their physical properties.

Q.6 Describe the types of rock and compositions found in each layer. Write down the possible
causes of problems in engineering on the basis of earth’s interior structure.
Ans.

The various types of rocks found in different layers of rocks are mentioned below: -
a. The crust:
This is the outside layer of the earth and is made of solid rock, mostly basalt and granite. There are two types
of crust; oceanic and continental. Oceanic crust is denser and thinner and mainly composed of basalt.
Continental crust is less dense, thicker, and mainly composed of granite.

b. The mantle:
The mantle lies below the crust and is up to 2900 km thick. It consists of hot, dense, iron and magnesium-rich
solid rock. The crust and the upper part of the mantle make up the lithosphere, which is broken into plates,
both large and small.

c. The core:
The core is the center of the earth and is made up of two parts: the liquid outer core and solid inner core. The
outer core is made of nickel, iron and molten rock. Temperatures here can reach up to 50,000 C.

The problems in engineering due to earth interior structure are mentioned below: -
A. The crust is thinnest layer of earth broken in different pieces called plated which floats on the hot
molten materials at very high temperature and pressure, results in the movement of the continents 2 cm
per year. Resulting in frequent seismic activities on the earth crust.
B. Underground construction, mining, foundation piers for high rise building are difficult because the
underground structure suffers more seismic action, resulting in destruction of both health and wealth.
C. The internal structure of the earth determines the strength and stability of the ground profile of any
certain region over which any civil engineering work is done. Hence the low or excess water content
 Kathmandu University
Department of Civil & Structural Engineering
Course No.: CIEG 209 Subject: Engineering Geology
Name: Prabin Shah Assignment/Tutorial No.:
Roll No.: 45 Date of Submission:

in the soils, weak nature of the rocks, lower depth of mantle, etc. might be the possible causes of problems
in engineering works.

Q.7 Describe the types of plate boundaries with suitable diagrams in detail.
Ans.

The tectonic plates of the crust are majorly classified into 3 types depending on their dynamic nature due to
the underlying mantle region:
a. Divergent or constructive plate boundaries
The plates diverge and this causes the construction of new rock that’s why it is called divergent or construction
plate boundaries. It happens when two tectonic plates pull apart and rock from the mantle rises up through the
opening to form new surface rock when it cools. It happens at the start of a new ocean and continues at the
mid-ocean ridge while the ocean is opening. It is associated with rifting (large-scale faulting) and volcanoes.
Paleogene rocks in Ireland is one its example.

Figure 3. Divergent or constructive plate boundaries

b. Convergent or destructive plate boundaries

This is when two tectonic plates move toward each other and collide. The result depends on the type of plates
involved. It is possible to have the collision of two oceanic plates, an oceanic plate and a continental plate or
two continental plates. Subduction occurs when there is a difference in the density of the plates. Oceanic crust
is typically denser than continental crust and is forced downwards into the hot mantle when it collides with
continental crust. The less dense continental crust is forced upward. The Himalayas are an example of the
collision of two continental plates where the Indian plate is crashing into the Eurasian plate and is being forced
upwards. They are continually growing at an average rate of 1cm per year, this will be 10km in 1 million years.
 Kathmandu University
Department of Civil & Structural Engineering
Course No.: CIEG 209 Subject: Engineering Geology
Name: Prabin Shah Assignment/Tutorial No.:
Roll No.: 45 Date of Submission:

Figure 4. Convergent or destructive plate boundaries

c. Passive plate boundaries

Also known as strike-slip or transform boundaries. This is when two plates slide past each other. When the
plates move, the jagged edges of the plate boundaries snag and catch each other and can get jammed. This
causes a build-up of pressure. When the plates eventually pass each other, the pressure is released in the form
of an earthquake. The closest passive plate boundary to Ireland is the boundary between the African and
Eurasian plate south of Portugal. The movement of the two plates can be in opposite directions or in the same
direction but at different speeds for example the San Andreas Fault in California.

Figure 5. Passive Plate boundaries

 Kathmandu University
Department of Civil & Structural Engineering
Course No.: CIEG 209 Subject: Engineering Geology
Name: Prabin Shah Assignment/Tutorial No.:
Roll No.: 45 Date of Submission:

Q.8 Discuss the types of seismic waves with suitable diagrams. Explain the reason for most
destructive seismic wave.
Ans.

Seismic waves are the waves of energy that travel through the earth’s layers, and are a result of earthquakes,
volcanic eruptions, magma movement, large landslides and large explosions that gives out low frequency
acoustic energy. The types of seismic waves are:
1. Body Waves: These are the waves which travel below the surface of the earth, as opposed to surface
waves that travel near the earth surface. The body waves are of two types:
• Primary waves (P-waves): It is the fastest wave which travels through solids, liquids and gases. It is
the compressional wave in which material movement is in the same direction of the wave movement.
In other words, it is the longitudinal waves because their oscillations are parallel to the direction of the
wave, like a spring being pulled back and forth. Velocity of p-waves depends on density and
compressibility of the medium.
• Secondary waves (S-waves): It is slower than P-waves and can travel only through solids only. It is
also called traverse or shear wave in which material movements is perpendicular to the wave
movement. In other words, it is called traverse wave because their oscillations are perpendicular to the
direction of the wave, like waves in swimming pool. This wave moves rock up and down, or side-to-
side and much more destructive than P-waves. Velocity of S-wave depends upon density and rigidity.

2. Surface Waves: Surface waves are long waves generated by the energy brought to the surface by the P
and S waves. The wave has low frequency and long wavelength and the intensity decreases with distance. The
velocity of surface wave is lesser than that of body wave. These waves produce motion in the upper crust.
Therefore, the motion could be up and down; around and back and forth. They cause more destruction. The
surface wave is also of two types:
• Rayleigh waves: It is a named a kind of surface wave named after John William strutt, Lord Rayleigh,
who mathematically predicted the existence of this kind of wave in 1887. The motion of particles is in
elliptical orbits in the vertical plane of propagation. This energy rolls the ground up and down like
waves on the surface of the ocean. As a result, damages on the surface features are highly noticeable.
Most of the shaking felt from an earthquake is due to Rayleigh wave, which can be much larger than
other waves. The Rayleigh wave is particularly damaging because due to it, structures move in two
directions at once.
• Love waves: It is the second kind of surface wave in which the motion is horizontal and at right angle
to the direction of propagation. It is the fastest waves where ground moves side to side. These waves
are named after A.E.H Love, a British mathematician.
 Kathmandu University
Department of Civil & Structural Engineering
Course No.: CIEG 209 Subject: Engineering Geology
Name: Prabin Shah Assignment/Tutorial No.:
Roll No.: 45 Date of Submission:

Q.9 Elaborate terminologies of foreshock, main shock, aftershock, magnitude and intensity.
Tabulate magnitude scale and intensity scale with suitable examples.
Ans.

The designation of an earthquake as foreshock, mainshock or aftershock is only possible after the full
sequence of events has happened.
a. Foreshock:
The foreshock is an earthquake that occurs before a large seismic event (the mainshock) and is related to it in
both time and space. Foreshock activity have been detected for about 40% of all moderate to the large
earthquake and about 70% for events. They occur form a matter of minutes to days or even longer before the
main shock.
b. Mainshock:
The mainshock is the largest earthquake in a sequence, sometimes preceded by one or more fore shock and
almost always followed by many aftershocks. In some earthquakes the main rupture happens in two or more
steps, resulting in multiple main shocks. These are known as doublet earthquakes, and in general can be
distinguished from aftershocks in having similar magnitudes and nearly identical seismic waveforms.
c. Aftershocks:
An aftershock is smaller earthquake that follows a large earthquake that, in the same area of the main shock,
caused as the displaced crush adjusts to the effects of the mainshocks.
d. Magnitude:
The magnitude is a number that characterizes the relative size of an earthquake. Magnitude is based on
measurement of the maximum motion recorded by a seismograph. Several scales have been defined, but the
most commonly used are (1) local magnitude (ML), commonly referred to as "Richter magnitude", (2) surface
wave magnitude (MS), (3) body-wave magnitude (Mb), and (4) moment magnitude (Mw). Scales 1-3 have
limited range and applicability and do not satisfactorily measure the size of the largest earthquakes.
e. Intensity:
The intensity is a number (written as a Roman numeral) describing the severity of an earthquake in terms of
its effects on the earth's surface and on humans and their structures. Several scales exist, but the ones most
commonly exist, but the ones most commonly used in the United States are the Modified Mercalli scale and
the Rossi-Forelle scale.
 Kathmandu University
Department of Civil & Structural Engineering
Course No.: CIEG 209 Subject: Engineering Geology
Name: Prabin Shah Assignment/Tutorial No.:
Roll No.: 45 Date of Submission:

Table: Magnitude and Intensity Scale

 Kathmandu University
Department of Civil & Structural Engineering
Course No.: CIEG 209 Subject: Engineering Geology
Name: Prabin Shah Assignment/Tutorial No.:
Roll No.: 45 Date of Submission:

Q.10 Discuss seismicity in Nepal. Explain the mechanism of recent Gorkha Earthquake in
2015.
Ans.

Nepal and its surrounding region constitute the central portion of the Alpine-Himalayan chain, which is
complex collision system originated by the interaction of two mega plates namely Eurasian and Indian plate.
Crustal thickening, subduction and extensional seismogenic source coexist within the area which generates a
compressional tectonic environment mostly confined in Nepal and its neighborhood the seismic activity in the
Himalayan region is confined to the plate boundary areas and is associated with the under thrusting of the
Indian plate beneath the Eurasian plate. Most of the seismic activity in the central Himalayan appears to be
associated with main boundary trust (MBT) and partially with main central thrust (MCT). Richer (1958)
pointed that the greater thrust of Himalayan is now apparently quiescent for larger earthquake.
Mechanisms of Gorkha Earthquake in 2015:
According to the United States Geological Survey (USGS), the earthquake was caused by a sudden thrust, or
release of built-up stress, along the major fault line where the Indian Plate, carrying India, is slowly diving
underneath the Eurasian Plate, carrying much of Europe and Asia. Kathmandu, situated on a block of crust
approximately 120 km (74 miles) wide and 60 km (37 miles) long, reportedly shifted 3 m (10 ft) to the south in a
matter of just 30 seconds.
Nepal lies towards the southern limit of the diffuse collisional boundary where the Indian Plate under thrusts
the Eurasian Plate, occupying the central sector of the Himalayan arc, nearly one-third of the 2,400 km (1,500
mi) long Himalayas. Geologically, the Nepal Himalayas are sub-divided into five tectonic zones from north to
south and, east to west and almost parallel to sub-parallel. These five distinct morpho-geotectonic zones are:
(1) Terai Plain, (2) Sub Himalaya (Shivalik Range), (3) Lesser Himalaya (Mahabharat Range and mid valleys),
(4) Higher Himalaya, and (5) Inner Himalaya (Tibetan Tethys). Each of these zones is clearly identified by
their morphological, geological, and tectonic features.

The convergence rate between the plates in central Nepal is about 45 mm (1.8 in) per year. The location,
magnitude, and focal mechanism of the earthquake suggest that it was caused by a slip along the Main Frontal
Thrust. The earthquake's effects were amplified in Kathmandu as it sits on the Kathmandu Basin, which
contains up to 600 m (2,000 ft) of sedimentary rocks, representing the infilling of a lake.

Based on a study published in 2014, of the Main Frontal Thrust, on average a great earthquake occurs every
750 ± 140 and 870 ± 350 years in the east Nepal region. A study from 2015 found a 700-year delay between
earthquakes in the region. The study also suggests that because of tectonic stress buildup, the earthquake from
1934 in Nepal and the 2015 quake are connected, following a historic earthquake pattern. A 2016 study on
historical great (M ≥ 8) earthquake pairs and cycles found that associated great earthquakes are likely to in
West China region through the 2020s.
 Kathmandu University
Department of Civil & Structural Engineering
Course No.: CIEG 209 Subject: Engineering Geology
Name: Prabin Shah Assignment/Tutorial No.:
Roll No.: 45 Date of Submission:

Q.11 Describe the prediction of earthquakes. Elaborate geographical distribution of

earthquakes.
Ans.

Even through there has been tremendous progress in the fields of science neither the USGS nor any other
scientists have ever predicted a major earthquake. USGS scientist can only calculate the probability that a
significant earthquake will occur in a specific area within a certain number of year but earthquake prediction
must define three elements the data and time, the location, and the magnitude. Even though it not reliable way
to predict earthquake, there are some predication method listed below:
a. Unusual animal behaviors
It is a well-known fact that animals are endowed with certain sensory perceptions denied to human beings.
Some of the animals have much better power of sniffing, hearing, seeing and sensing than the human beings.
The unusual behavior of animals prior to earthquakes received wide publicity after the Haichang earthquake
in Liaoning province of China, in February 4, 1975 was successfully predicted.
b. Temperature change: -
There seems to be some relation between temperature and earthquakes. A considerable rise of temperature by
10°C and 15°C was reported before earthquakes in Lunglin in China (1976) and Przhevalsk in Russia (1970).
c. Water Level: -
There are drastic changes in water level in several wells just before a major earthquake. There was a fall in
water level a few days before the Nankai earthquake in Japan (1946). Rise of water level by 3 and 15 cm was
reported before Lunglin (China) and Przhevalsk (Russia) earthquakes.
d. Change in Vp/Vs: -
This ratio changes when rock is near the point of fracture due to change in elastic properties of rocks. And this
method led to the success predication of blue mountain lake (New York) earthquake in 1973.
e. Radon Gas: -
Radon is a radioactive gas which is discharged from rock masses prior to earthquake. It is dissolved in the well
water and its concentration in the water increases. Such an increase was reported in Tashkent in 1972 where
increase in concentration varying from 15 to 200 per cent was noticed about 3 to 13 days prior to an earthquake.
Geographical distribution of earthquake:
Earthquakes are distributed unevenly on the globe. In certain places they are more frequent and intense whereas
in other places that are extremely rare. Studies show that on the occurrence of earthquakes on the globe have
indicated that there are certain zones within the continents along which seismic shocks are felt rather
frequently.
It has been observed that most of the destructive earthquakes originate within two well-defined zones or belts
names: The Circum-Pacific Belt and The Mediterranean-Himalayan Seismic Belt. About 80% of all the
terrestrial earthquakes are concentrated in the Circum-Pacific Belt. It follows the western highlands of South
and North America from Cape Horn to Alaska, crosses to Asia and extends southward along the eastern coast
and related island arcs, and loops far to the south east and south beyond New Zealand.
 Kathmandu University
Department of Civil & Structural Engineering
Course No.: CIEG 209 Subject: Engineering Geology
Name: Prabin Shah Assignment/Tutorial No.:
Roll No.: 45 Date of Submission:

Q.12 Discuss the effects of volcanism.

Ans.

The effect of volcanism can be divided into primary and secondary effects.
• Primary effects:
Primary effects are the immediate effects which includes
a. Drop in the temperature of the erupted area due to blockage of sunlight by the ashes and harmful
gases.
b. Lava, the pyroclastic flow and falling debris can kill plants and animals too. The Mount St Helens
volcano in 1980 killed an estimated 24,000 animals including 11,000 hares, 6,000 deer, 300
bobcats, 200 black bears and 15 mountain lions. And the Tambora volcano in 1815 killed about
10,000 people in the area.
c. Famines, fires and earthquakes, result of volcanism causes lose in possessions and life of beings.

• Secondary effects:
Secondary effects are the result from the primary effects:
a. In large eruption volcanic ash and gases can reach the upper atmosphere, if there is enough ash it can
block sunlight causing temperature drops, later on result in climate change all over the world.
b. Sediment accumulation in downstream, blocking the way for transport in rivers.
c. Halting the communications - transport and telephone networks due to flooding.
d. Sometimes, due to heavy traffic of ashes and harmful gases in atmosphere it results in acid rain.
 Kathmandu University
Department of Civil & Structural Engineering
Course No.: CIEG 209 Subject: Engineering Geology
Name: Prabin Shah Assignment/Tutorial No.:
Roll No.: 45 Date of Submission:

Q.13 Describe the prediction of volcanism.

Ans.

Predicting volcanic eruptions include: -

a. Geophysical observations of thermal and magnetic properties, topographic monitoring of tilting or
swelling of the volcano, monitoring seismic activity, and studying the geologic history of a particular
volcano or volcanic center.
b. Before an eruption magma moves into the area beneath the volcano and collects in a magma chamber
or reservoir. As it comes close to the surface, the magma releases gases. These events can offer valuable
clues about the likelihood of an eruption. For example, the movement of magma produce small
earthquakes and vibration (seismicity).
c. Measurement of the tilt of the entire mountain provides information about the breathing of volcano as
magma moves inside it and the instrument the sniff CO2, SO2 or other gases also can signal the change
in the volcanoes.
d. Changes in Magnetic Field: Rocks contain minerals such as magnetite that are magnetic. Such magnetic
minerals generate a magnetic field. However, above a temperature called the Curie Temperature, these
magnetic minerals show no magnetism. Thus, if a magma body enters a volcano, the body itself will
show no magnetism, and if it heats the surrounding rocks to temperatures greater than the Curie
temperature (about 500oC for magnetite) the magnetic field over the volcano will be reduced.
e. Changes in Electrical Resistivity: Rocks have resistance to the flow of electrical current which is highly
dependent on temperature and water content. As magma moves into a volcano this electrical resistivity
will decrease. Making measurements of the electrical resistivity by placing electrodes into the ground,
may allow tracking of the movement of magma.
f. Ground Deformation: As magma moves into a volcano, the structure may inflate. This will cause
deformation of the ground which can be monitored.
g. Changes in Groundwater System: As magma enters a volcano it may cause changes in the groundwater
system, causing the water table to rise or fall and causing the temperature of the water to increase.
h. Changes in Heat Flow: As magma approaches the surface or as the temperature of groundwater
increases, the amount of surface heat flow will increase. Although these changes may be small, they
be measured using infrared remote sensing.

More over volcanologists use many different kinds of tools including instruments that detect and record
earthquakes (seismometers and seismographs), instruments that measure ground deformation (EDM, Leveling,
GPS, tilt), instruments that detect and measure volcanic gases (COSPEC), instruments that determine how
much lava is moving underground (VLF, EM-31), video and still cameras, infrared cameras, satellite imagery
and webcams to predicts volcanism.
 Kathmandu University
Department of Civil & Structural Engineering
Course No.: CIEG 209 Subject: Engineering Geology
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Q.14 Illustrate the types of volcanic products in detail.

Ans.

a. Gases: Gases are invariably emitted during volcanic eruptions. Indeed, the clearest characteristic of
many eruptions is the column of ash‐laden gas rising above them. The gases can be released with
immense energy, driving columns of ash tens of kilometers high. Velocities of up to 600 m/s have been
calculated for the gases leaving the vent in some historic eruptions. The best sampling procedures have
shown that H2O and CO2 are by far the major species. Whereas for most volcanic emissions, water
composes 90% or more of the gas, in some CO2 appears to be the dominant component. SO2, HCl,
H2, and H2S plus He, and other noble gases, together with those metallic halides and sulphides that
are volatile at magmatic temperatures, are generally present as subsidiary constituents. The actual gas
compositions are no doubt, highly variable and dependent on the precise geochemistry of the associated
magma. Yellow crystals of sulphur grown around high‐temperature gas vents provide a common.
b. Lavas: The liquids congeal fast (relative to large intrusions) as they lose heat and volatiles, forming
rocks that are typically finely crystalline or even glassy. The magma that has flowed out on to the
surface is called lava. All lavas contain gases, but due to the high pressure that prevails in the interior
of the earth the content of gases and vapors in the magma are more. The temperature of lavas during
eruptions usually ranges between 900C to 1200°C. Like magma, lava is also divided into three types
such as acidic, intermediate, and basic depending upon the silica content.
• Acidic lava contains a high proportion of silica which has a high melting point and is usually very
viscous and therefore their mobility is low. They cool very slowly and contain many gases in a
dissolved state. Rhyolite composed of orthoclase feldspar and quartz is the example of acidic lava.
• Intermediate lava has the silica content between 55 to 60%. Andesite lavas are the best examples of it
and they mostly characterize extrusions around the margins of the Pacific.
• Basic lava contains low percentage of silica, which is usually 50% or less. They melt at lower
temperature, and have a high density as well as liquid consistency. They cool rapidly and contain little
gas. They are highly mobile and spread over large distances, forming flows or sheets. Basalts are the
best examples of the basic lava.
c. The violent release of gas from volcanic vents is associated with expulsion of fragments of rock and/or
disrupted lava. The accumulation of such fragments gives rise to a pyroclastic (literally, ‘fire‐broken’)
deposit. Numerous terms are employed to denote different types of pyro clast. Cinders and ashes are
terms originating from older hypothesis concerning subterranean combustion. Lapilli denote smaller
(2‐64 mm) are designated as ash. Accretionary lapilli are the name given toconcentrically zoned pellets
formed by sequential adherence of fine ash particles around a nucleus, which may be a water droplet
or a solid particle.
The term tephra (a Greek word meaning ash) can be employed to describe all of the assorted fragments blown
out during explosive eruption, regardless of size. Tuff is another useful term referring to all consolidated
pyroclastic deposits, again regardless of particle size. Coarse (particle size average over 64 mm), unsorted
proximal accumulations, often within vents, are described as agglomerates. The welded tuffs are commonly
known as ignimbrites.
In certain instances, a great cloud of superheated vapors and incandescent rock material and volcanic ash are
violently emitted during the eruption. These are called Nuées ardentes and are sometimes referred to as glowing
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avalanches. Volcanic blocks are the largest masses of rock blown out. These are either the masses of the
solidified lava of earlier eruptions or those of the pre‐existing rocks. They are usually angular and the diameter
of the fragments is always above 32 mm. Thus, they are huge solid fragments ejected during a volcanic activity.

Q.15 Discuss the types of river system with suitable figures.

Ans.

There are 4 types of River Systems and they are as follows:

1. Braided Rivers:
These rivers are developed in mountainous terrain on higher energy gradients. During the low flow periods,
permanent channels are developed. These channels are constituting ripple crossed bedded sands. These
channels are active during flood stage and these can produce the cross beds in larger scales. The sediments
formed are pebbly and sandy in nature. Also, a braided river is a single channel river but consists of a network
of small channels separated by small and often temporary islands called braid bars or, in British usage, aits or
eyots. It also included point bars and sand bars along the channel. Braiding occurs when stream discharge is
insufficient to transport the available load.

2. Meandering Rivers:
These are the curved rivers whose curve can't be enclosed within two parallel lines. These are formed in coastal
areas, lower gradient. Because of the continuous flow, fine sediments were seen. In inner bends of meanders
cross laminated sands are constructed. Channels are separated by levees from flood plains that are comprised
of finer grained muds and sands deposited after breach of levees during flood stage, usually vegetated. Flood stage can
lead to cut off of meanders and breakthrough of river. A meander, in general, is a bend in a sinuous watercourse or river.
A meander forms when moving water in a stream erodes the outer banks and widens its valley, and the inner part of the
river has less energy and deposits silt. A stream of any volume may assume a meandering course, alternately eroding
sediments from the outside of the bend and depositing them on the inside.
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3. Anastomosing Rivers:
Anastomosing rivers are the multi-channel rivers situated on alluvial plains. Most often they seem to form
under relatively low energetic conditions near a base level. It appears to be impossible to define anastomosing
rivers unambiguously on the basis of channel plan form only. It can be defined as an anastomosing river is
composed of two or more interconnected channels that enclose flood basins. Anastomosing rivers are usually
formed by avulsions, i.e., flow diversions that cause the formation of new channels on the floodplain. As a
product of avulsion, anastomosing rivers essentially form in two ways:
a. By formation of bypasses:
While bypassed older channel-belt segments remain active for some period
b. By splitting of the diverted a vulsive flow:
Leading to contemporaneous scour of multiple channels on the floodplain. Both genetic types of anastomosis
may coexist in one river system, but whereas the first may be a long-lived floodplain-wide phenomenon, the
latter only represents a stage in the avulsion process on a restricted part of the flood plain.
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4. Straight Rivers:
Straight River is generally regarded as one of the typical river patterns in conventional classifications in terms
of their channel plain land forms. These include rivers which can be enclosed within the two parallel lines. As
the time passes they curve as per the gradient and path of river. The curvature is given by the sinuosity equation.
However, very few straight patterns were found to be distributed in wider spatial and temporal spans in the
self-adjusted fluvial rivers.

Q.16 Describe the mechanism of river in detail.

Ans:

1. Erosion:
Erosion takes place through various actions which are as follows:
a. Hydraulic action: Water causes friction in the joints of rocks in a stream channel. fragments are carried
along by the river which is called load.
b. Abrasion/corrosion: river (i.e. bounced and dragged). As a result, bed a nd bank materials started to
pluck out and erodes rapidly. Abrasion is the strong process of erosion.
c. Attrition: When particles of the load themselves break into smaller pieces (worn down), the process is
said to be attrition. When thrown against the bed and banks of the rivers, shapes of load turned into
rounded and the edges of the load changes to smooth.
d. Solution/Corrosion: When chemicals in the water dissolves certain minerals in rocks, it is said to be
solution. For example, carbonic acid slowly dissolves limestone.
2. Transportation:
Transportation mainly occurs by
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a. Traction: Larger and heavier rocks/gravels are dragged or rolled along the bed.
b. Saltation (salatim: by leaps/jumps): Smaller and lighter rock fragments and sand hop and bounce along
the river bed. At times, the distinction between traction and saltation may be difficult to determine.
c. Suspension: Some of the load like silt and clay (fine-grained) will float along. They may only be
deposited when stream velocity reaches near 0. Turbulence in the water is crucial in holding a load of
sediments.
d. Solution: Some minerals are transported in dissolved form. Especially chemical solution derived from
minerals like limestone or dolomite.
3. Deposition:
When the river loses its ability to carry sediments/loads, it will suddenly drop the materials on the bed and
sides of the river. The phenomenon is called deposition. Deposition occurs due to following to process:
a. When volume decreases:
➢ Presence of permeable rocks
➢ Receding flood waters
b. When Speed decreases:
➢ It enters a lake
➢ It enters a calm sea
➢ It enters a gently sloping plain

Figure 6. Mechanism of river

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Q.17 Explain relationship between velocity and size of sediments prior to erosion,
transportation and deposition.
Ans:

Water flow in a stream is primarily related to the stream’s gradient, but it is also controlled by the geometry
of the stream channel. Water flow velocity is decreased by friction along the stream bed, so it is slowest at the
bottom and edges and fastest near the surface and in the middle. In fact, the velocity just below the surface is
typically a little higher than right at the surface because of friction between the water and the air. On a curved
section of a stream, flow is fastest on the outside and slowest on the inside.
Other factors that affect stream-water velocity are the size of sediments on the stream bed because large
particles tend to slow the flow more than small ones and the discharge, or volume of water passing a point in
a unit of time (e.g., m3 /second). During a flood, the water level always rises, so there is more cross-sectional
area for the water to flow in; however, as long as a river remains confined to its channel, the velocity of the
water flow also increases.
It is also found that the nature of sediment transportation in a stream. Large particles rest on the bottom bedload
and may only be moved during rapid flows under flood conditions. They can be moved by saltation (bouncing)
and by traction (being pushed along by the force of the flow). Smaller particles may rest on the bottom some
of the time, where they can be moved by saltation and traction, but they can also be held in suspension in the
flowing water, especially at higher velocities. As you know from intuition and from experience, streams that
flow fast tend to be turbulent (flow paths are chaotic and the water surface appears rough) and the water may
be muddy, while those that flow more slowly tend to have laminar flow (straight-line flow and a smooth water
surface) and clear water. Turbulent flow is more effective than laminar flow at keeping sediments in
suspension.
The faster the water is flowing, the larger the particles that can be kept in suspension and transported within
the flowing water. However, as Swedish geographer Filip Hjulström discovered in the 1940s, the relationship
between grain size and the likelihood of a grain being eroded, transported, or deposited is not as simple as one
might imagine. Consider, for example, a 1 mm grain of sand. If it is resting on the bottom, it will remain there
until the velocity is high enough to erode it, around 20 cm/s. But once it is in suspension, that same 1 mm
particle will remain in suspension as long as the velocity doesn’t drop below 10 cm/s. For a 10 mm gravel
grain, the velocity is 105 cm/s to be eroded from the bed but only 80 cm/s to remain in
suspension.
On the other hand, a 0.01 mm silt particle only needs a velocity of 0.1 cm/s to remain in suspension, but
requires 60 cm/s to be eroded. In other words, a tiny silt grain requires a greater velocity to be eroded than a
grain of sand that is 100 times larger! For clay-sized particles, the discrepancy is even greater. In a stream,
the most easily eroded particles are small sand grains between 0.2 mm and 0.5 mm. Anything smaller or
larger requires a higher water velocity to be eroded and entrained in the flow. The main reason for this is that
small particles, and especially the tiny grains of clay, have a strong tendency to stick together, and so are
difficult to erode from the stream bed.
It is important to be aware that a stream can both erode and deposit sediments at the same time. At 100 cm/s,
for example, silt, sand, and medium gravel will be eroded from the stream bed and transported in suspension,
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coarse gravel will be held in suspension, pebbles will be both transported and deposited, and cobbles and
boulders will remain stationary on the stream bed.
A stream typically reaches its greatest velocity when it is close to flooding over its banks. This is known as the
bank-full stage, as shown in Figure 13.17. As soon as the flooding stream overtops its banks and occupies the
wide area of its flood plain, the water has a much larger area to flow through and the velocity drops
significantly. At this point, sediment that was being carried by the high-velocity water is deposited near the
edge of the channel, forming a natural bank.

Figure 7Fig.15. Relationship between velocity and sediment size.

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Q.17 Discuss the importance of igneous, metamorphic and sedimentary rock. Correlate its
importance in civil engineering field with suitable examples (illustrate with at least 6 examples).
Ans:

Importance of rocks are: -

a. Igneous rocks:
These rocks are formed from hot molten lava and magma, through the process of cooling and crystallization.
They are also called primary rocks because these are formed on earth crust. Igneous rocks are the hard, stable,
durable, and bearing more loads so it is always used in the foundation. It will be very beneficial if one is able
to make opening of tunnel in igneous rocks because in this type of conditions due its high strength construction
require lesser supports.
b. Metamorphic rocks:
Metamorphic rocks are the product of metamorphism of pre-existing igneous, sedimentary or even
metamorphic rocks. During the formation of metamorphic rocks, the changes that takes place includes in
texture and structure. In the metamorphic process, most minerals are completely or partially recrystallized
within the rock and new texture and structure are formed. The main changes which occurred in metamorphism
due to temperature and pressure condition. The metamorphic rocks are used as decorative material.
c. Sedimentary rocks:
Sedimentary rocks are the secondary rocks formed by accumulation, compaction, and consolidation of
sediments. The most important phenomena that happen during their deposition and transportation are ‘grading’
which defines them according to their shape, size and density. The sedimentary rocks are used for the
construction of fort. The RED FORT of Delhi construct from sedimentary rocks
Specific use of some of the rocks are:
➢ Limestone: A sedimentary rock, it is used mainly in the manufacture of Portland cement and the
production of lime.
➢ Shale: A sedimentary rock, well stratified in thin beds. It can be a component of bricks and cement.
➢ Basalt: An igneous volcanic rock, dark gray to black, it is the volcanic equivalent of plutonic gabbro
and is rich in ferromagnesian minerals. Basalt can be used in aggregate.
➢ SCHIST: A metamorphic uneven-granular, medium to coarse grained, crystalline with prominent
parallel mineral orientation. Goes from silvery white to all shades of gray with yellow to brown tones
depending on the mineral concentration. Some schists have graphite and some are used as building
stones.
➢ Dolomite: Dolomite is a metamorphic rock depending upon its purity, texture, color and marbled
pattern it is used as dimension stone for statuary, architectural, ornamental purposes and refracting
materials.
➢ Chalk: It is used to prevent silver from losing monuments
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Q.19 Write down the specific uses of following rocks. Limestone, Dolomite, Granite, Chalk,
Marble, Slate, Sandstone, Slate, Clay.
Ans:

The specific uses of following rocks are:

a. Lime stone:
It is a sedimentary rock used mainly in the manufacture of Portland cement, the production of lime,
manufacture of paper, petrochemicals, insecticides, linoleum, fiberglass and glass.
a. Dolomite:
It is a metamorphic rock, source for magnesium and is used as an ingredient in the manufacture of refracting
materials.
b. Granite:
It is an igneous rock, which is high in silica, potassium, sodium and quartz but low in calcium, iron and
magnesium. It is widely used for architectural construction, ornamental stone and monuments.
c. Chalk:
It is a sedimentary rock, used to prevent silver from losing monuments.
d. Marble:
It is a metamorphic rock, depending upon its purity, texture, color and marbled pattern it is quarried for use as
dimension stone for statuary, architectural and ornamental purposes.
e. Slate:
It is a sedimentary rock, used as a component of bricks and cement.
f. Sandstone:
It is a sedimentary rock, principally used for construction.
g. Clay:
It is sedimentary rock, used in making ceramics and as a constituent in the construction of bricks.

Q.20 Discuss the importance of structural geology in the field of engineering field with suitable
examples.
Ans:

Civil Engineers and Structural geology have great importance in order to develop safe and stable structures
like tunnel, bridges, roads, etc. Geology deals with different factors like minerals, rock, water etc. as well as
different physical factors like plateau, mountains, river, and hill etc. available on earth.
Importance of structural geology for civil engineers can be explained with following points:
a. To identify different types of rocks, minerals etc. while they are excavating on the earth. If they find
the ore of hematite then they should be able to identify the ore to extract iron rather than to use them
as aggregate for field work. If civil engineers have good knowledge of geology, they can easily help to
find economical ore if they are working on site.
b. Different structures made on earth surfaces (mostly on crust), so in order to make strong and durable
structure, civil engineers need to perform geotechnical survey like surveying the site soil bearing
capacity, determining different types of faults, joints etc., surveying the structures of rocks inside the
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place on which structure is going to build etc. Analysis of all above geotechnical aspect with help for
destruction of structures in less time. For example: In our country we see most of the bridges are destroyed
even if low discharge water come in river. This is due to missing of the geotechnical or geological survey
before construction of those bridges. So geotechnical survey is necessary for civil engineer.
c. Geology is also related to hydrology. So civil engineers can know about different sorts of ground water
inside the earth. And they can use that knowledge to build the drinking water projects.

In this way, structural geology helps us to understand civil engineer about different types of minerals,
geotechnical information and source of hydrology.

Q.21 Discuss the classification of fold and its engineering significance.

Ans:

Ductile deformation of a layered rock forms bends or warps called folds. Folding is caused due to compressive
stresses. When a layered rock folds, it crinkles similar to bunched up fabric. Folds generally occur at great
depths in the earth’s crust where the rock layers are exposed to high temperatures and pressures. When these
rocks are compressed by convergent plate movements they respond plastically by crumpling or folding.
Basically folds are classified as,
a. Anticline fold: A fold that is convex upward is anticline fold. It has older rocks in the center.
b. Syncline fold: A fold that is convex downward is syncline fold. It has younger rocks in the center.
c. Symmetrical fold: In this fold axial surface is essentially vertical (upright).
d. Asymmetrical fold: In this fold axial surface is inclined.
e. Overturned fold: in this fold axial plane is inclined and both limbs dip in the same direction,
usually at different angles.
f. Recumbent fold: In this fold, AP is essentially horizontal. Recumbent folds may be traced to the
place where AP becomes much steeper.
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• Isoclinal fold: In this fold, two limbs dips at equal angles in the same direction.
i. If the axial plane is vertical it is called vertical isoclinal fold.
j. If the axial plane is inclined, it is called inclined or overturned isoclinal fold.
k. If the axial plane is horizontal, it is called recumbent isoclinal fold.
• Chevron fold: In this fold the hinges are sharp and angular.
• Kink bands: These folds are narrow bands usually only a few inches or few feet wide, in which the
beds assume a dip that is steeper or gentler than that of the adjacent beds.
• Box fold: In this fold the crest is broad and flat, two hinges are present one on either side of the flat
crest.
• Fan fold: In this fold both the limbs are overturned.
• Monocline: This is a fold in which only one limb is bent. This is a case when a rock-bed bends abruptly
and resumes the original attitude at the lower level.
• Drag fold: When a competent (strong) bed slides past an incompetent (weak) bed, dragging forms and
the folds created are drag folds. Similar folding: Folds in which dimensions of the layers measured
parallel to the axial surface, is constant.
• Parallel folding: Folds in which the thickness of fold layers, measured normal to the bed, is constant.
• Antiformal anticline: An anticline fold with the oldest strata in the core is called antiformal anticline.
• Antiformal syncline: An anticline fold with the youngest strata in the core is called antiformal
syncline.
• Synformal syncline: A synclinal fold with the youngest strata in the core is called antiformal anticline
• Synformal anticline: A synclinal fold with the oldest strata in the core is called synformal anticline.

The engineering significance of folds are

a. Folds are very resourceful to make geographical maps, which we use to infer underground structures
where we can't see the rocks and to help us to understand the formation of geologic resources to locate
and manage them.
b. Folds indicate ductile deformation which helps in risk management while working on a construction
projects.
c. Concave folds are should be avoided during the initiation of any construction projects as it has great
ability to collect ground water causing water problems.
d. Proper investigation of folds prior to working on any construction project can be beneficial, safe and
cost efficient.

Q.22 Describe the types of primary and secondary structures in detail with suitable diagrams.
Ans:

Geologic structures are usually the result of the powerful tectonic forces that occur within the earth. These
forces fold and break rocks, form deep faults, and build mountains. There are two types of structure: Primary
and secondary
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Primary Structures:
a. Cross bedding: This is the layering within a stratum and at an angle to the main bedding plane. This
is also known as cross stratification. These layers latter indicate windblown conditions in either a desert
or a beach.

Source:https://imgproxy.geocaching.com/cf88bf772f5a902a04266fa81f29395a23416659?url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.earthlearningide
a.com%2 FEarthcache%2FCrossbedding.jpg

b. Ripple marks: They are found in bedding planes of shallow water deposits. They are formed either
by water waves or by winds pilling up the sediment into long ridges

Source:https://geologyistheway.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/10/Wave-ripples-1024x549.jpg

c. Graded bedding: In this bedding deposition of sediments/ sedimentary rocks takes place from coarse to fine
materials from bottom to top forming a set of single layer.

Source: https://encrypted-tbn0.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcQKS18qNDWA5wHlmYZ
b3ytcGg2807NAv8Oh7Z4vemK_Gs7MUBtzoeEVFWkCQSgOgtx_Z4&usqp=CAU
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d. Flute cast: They are also known as sole marks. Flute cast are elongated depressions that are formed on the
bottom as current erodes.

Source:https://img.geocaching.com/cache/large/8f18e5e5-3127-4ba0-9e3f-c54a1f9b71d5.png

e. Load casts: These are bulbous protrusions. These are formed when compaction causes sediment to be pushed
downward into softer sediment.

Source:https://encryptedtbn0.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcQTqAKnaTV6CGLjjfVucBc_WPpIBt4XjSzTvw&usqp=CAU

f. Mud cracks: They are formed due to shrinkage of the sediment on the surface after drying out.

Source:https://image.slidesharecdn.com/sedimentaryrocksandstructures-120315033250-phpapp01/85/sedimentary-rocks-and-structures-9-
320.jpg?cb=1331782508
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Secondary structures:
g. Folds: In structural geology, a fold is a stack of originally planar surfaces, such as sedimentary strata, that are
bent or curved during permanent deformation.

Source:https://esomake.co.ke/images/secondary/geography/folding-002.jpg

h. Faults: A fault is a fracture or zone of fractures between two blocks of rock. Faults allow the blocks to move
relative to each other. This movement may occur rapidly, in the form of an earthquake - or may occur slowly,
in the form of creep

Source:https://www.nps.gov/common/uploads/stories/images/nri/20161209/articles/F77F9239-1DD8-B71B

i. Joints: Joints are planes or surface which intersect rocks, but along which there has been no appreciable
displacement parallel to the joint surface

Source:https://www.researchgate.net/profile/MCai/publication/248151172/figure/fig3/AS:392796243546119@1470661330720/Illustration

of-joint-persistence.png
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Q.23 Describe the types of faults in detail with suitable diagrams.

Ans:

A fault is a fracture or zone of fractures between two blocks of rock. Faults allow the blocks to move relative
to each other. This movement may occur rapidly, in the form of an earthquake - or may occur slowly, in the
form of creep. Fault is a planar discontinuity between blocks of rocks that have been displaced past one another,
in a direction parallel to the discontinuity. The types of fault are:
a. Normal fault: A dip-slip fault in which the block above the fault has moved downward relative to the
block below. This type of faulting occurs in response to extension. It occurs when the “hanging wall”
moves down relative to the “foot wall”.
b. Reverse fault: A dip-slip fault in which the upper block, above the fault plane, moves up and over the
lower block. This type of faulting is common in areas of compression. When the dip angle is shallow,
a reverse fault is often described as a thrust fault. It occurs where the “hanging wall” moves up or is
thrust over the “foot wall”.
c. Strike slip fault: A fault on which the two blocks slide past one another.

Source:https://i.ytimg.com/vi/qhSzpCpI38U/maxresdefault.jpg

d. Thrust fault: A fault which is very small angle of hade (i.e. the inclination of fault plane with the
vertical plane is very small) and the hanging wall that apparently goes up with respect to the footwall
is called thrust fault.

Source:https://www.uoguelph.ca/geology/geol2250/glo ssary/HTML%20files/thrustfault.jpg

e. Horst: Fault in which wedge shaped block has gone up with respect to the side blocks is horst.
f. Graben: Fault in which wedge shaped block has gone down with respect to the side block
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Source:https://i.ytimg.com/vi/CYWG5B2Fg14/hqdefault.jpg

Q.24 Describe genetic & geometric classification of joints & its engineering importance.
Ans:

Joints are cracks or fracture present in the rocks along which there has been no displacement. Joints occur in
all types of rocks. They may be vertical, inclines or even horizontal. Joints are formed as a result of contraction
due to cooling or consolidation of rocks. They are also formed when the rocks are subjected to compression
or tension during earth movements.
Classification of joints are as follows:
a. Geometric joints:
i) Strike Joints: Joints that are parallel to the strike of rocks are called ‘Strike Joints’.
ii) Dip Joints: Joints that are parallel to the dip of rocks are called ‘Dip Joints’.
iii) Oblique Joints: Joints, which run in a direction that lies between the strikes and dip direction
of the rock beds, are called ‘Oblique Joints’.
iv) Bedding joints: Bedding joints are those which are parallel to the bedding of the associated
rocks.

b. Genetic joints:
i) Tension joints: Tension joints are those, which are formed as a result of tension forces. These
joints are relatively open and have rough and irregular surfaces.
 Kathmandu University
Department of Civil & Structural Engineering
Course No.: CIEG 209 Subject: Engineering Geology
Name: Prabin Shah Assignment/Tutorial No.:
Roll No.: 45 Date of Submission:

ii. Shear joints: They are commonly observed in the vicinity of the fault planes and shear zones, where
their relationship with shearing forces is clearly established.

Source:https://img.brainkart.com/article/article-Structural-Geology---J8U.jpg

iii. Sheet joints: Sheet joints are found in massive igneous rocks. These rocks constitute one set of
prominent joint plane which often appear as sedimentary strata.

Source:https://slideplayer.com/slide/4526327/15/images/24/Sheet+Joints.jpg

iv. Mural joints: These are formed in massive igneous rocks. They are formed due to three sets of joints
perpendicular to each other resulting cubical blocks or murals. They are formed owing to contraction during
solidification of magma.

Source: https://i.ytimg.com/vi/dUBIDvx8sEk/mqdefault.jpg
 Kathmandu University
Department of Civil & Structural Engineering
Course No.: CIEG 209 Subject: Engineering Geology
Name: Prabin Shah Assignment/Tutorial No.:
Roll No.: 45 Date of Submission:

v. Columnar joints: These joints are found in volcanic rocks such as basalt. These rocks constitute
prominent vertical joint planes that break the rock into hexagonal prismatic columns.

Source:https://d3i71xaburhd42.cloudfront.net/1df43d203e98ebfbc0f8dfc0c334efdc2652ee7f/9-Figure11-1.png

The significance of joints are:

• Because of their almost universal presence, joints are of engineering importance, especially in
excavation operations.
• It is desireable for joints to be spaced closely enough to reduce secondary plugging and blasting
requirement to a minimum, but not so closely spaced as to impair stability of excavation slopes or
increase breakage in tunnels.
• Joints oriented approximately at right angles to the working face present the most unfavorable
conditions, whereas joints oriented approximately parallel to the working face greatly facilitate blasting
operations and ensure a fairly even and smooth break parallel to the face.
• Joint offer channels for underground water circulation and in working below the ground water table
may greatly increase water problems.

Q.25 Describe the types of unconformity and its engineering significance.

Ans:

Unconformities are typically buried erosional surfaces that can represent a break in the geologic record of
hundreds of millions of years or more.
Types of unconformity:
1) Disconformities: Disconformities are usually erosion contacts that are parallel to the bedding planes
of the upper and lower rock units. Since they are hard to recognize in a layered sedimentary rock
sequence, they are often discovered when the fossils in the upper and lower rock units are studied. A
gap in the fossil record indicates a gap in the depositional record, and the length of time the
disconformities represents can be calculated.
2) Nonconformity: Nonconformity is the contact that separates a younger sedimentary rock unit from an
igneous intrusive rock or metamorphic rock unit. Nonconformity suggests that a period of long‐term
uplift, weathering, and erosion occurred to expose the older, deeper rock at the surface before it was
finally buried by the younger rocks above it. Nonconformity is the old erosional surface on the
underlying rock.
 Kathmandu University
Department of Civil & Structural Engineering
Course No.: CIEG 209 Subject: Engineering Geology
Name: Prabin Shah Assignment/Tutorial No.:
Roll No.: 45 Date of Submission:

4. Angular unconformity: An angular unconformity is the contact that separates a younger, gently
dipping rock unit from older underlying rocks that are tilted or deformed layered rock. The contact is
more obvious than disconformities because the rock units are not parallel and at first appear cross‐
cutting. It generally represent a longer time than do disconformities as the underlying rock had usually
been uplifted, and eroded before the upper rock unit was deposited.

The engineering significance of unconformity are:

a. Unconformities are erosional or non- depositional breaks in a sequence of rocks. Hence proper
investigation about unconformities helps to identify weak and strong areas for working on any
constructional projects.
b. Unconformities are structural features and they play an important role in investigation of deformed
rocks and represents break in stratigraphic sequence.
c. It is an indicator of the geo-environment under rock formations the deposit is kept.
d. It is an ideal place to get fuel and mineral deposits.