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Geography
for CLAT
HARSHVARDHAN TRIPATHI
 SOLAR SYSTEM
• Our galaxy is milky way Galaxy (or the Akash Ganga). It is spiral in shape.

• The Sun is at the centre of the solar system and one of the stars in the Milky Way
galaxy.

• Hydrogen and helium are the main gases present in the Sun and Weighs 2 × 1027
tons.

• It has a surface temperature of about 6000°C.

• Light (at the speed of 300,000 km per second) takes about 8.5 minutes to
reach the Earth from the Sun.

• There are eight planets in the Solar system.

• The sequence of planets according to their distance from the Sun is Mercury,
Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune. The sequence of
planets according to their size (in discending order i.e., from big to small) is
Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune , Earth, Venus, Mars, Mercury.(important)

Mercury

 Closest planet to the Sun.

 Orbits the Sun the quickest.

 No significant atmosphere.

 Rotation period is longer than its orbital (revolution) period.

 No natural satellites (moons).

 Spacecrafts to Mercury: Mariner 10, MESSENGER, BepiColombo
(upcoming).

 Can be seen from the earth only before sunrise and after sunset.

Venus

 Known as Earth’s twin.

 Longest rotation period of any planet.

 Rotation period is longer than its orbital (revolution) period.

 Hottest planet in the solar system.

 Dense atmosphere of gases and chemicals including sulphuric

acid clouds.

 Revolves around the sun in clockwise manner while most others are
revolving in anti-clockwise.

 Second brightest natural object in the night sky (after Moon).

 Can be seen from the earth only before sunrise (Morning Star) and
after sunset (Evening Star).

 No natural satellites (moons).

 First planet visited by a spacecraft.

 Spacecrafts to Venus: Mariner 2, Venera 7, Magellan etc.

Earth

 Only planet in the solar system to be known to support life.

 Has water in all three states – liquid, solid and gas.

 Gasses present in the earth’s atmosphere are Nitrogen, Hydrogen,

Oxygen, Carbon Dioxide etc

 It takes 23 hour 56 minutes 46 seconds to rotate around its axis.

 It takes 365.26 days to revolve around the Sun.

 The Ozone layer present in the Earth’s atmosphere protects it from

the ultra violet rays.

 Moon is the only natural satellite of the Earth.

Mars

 Known as the ‘Red Planet’ due to presence of iron-rich red soil.

 Despite its red colour, it is cold because it has lost most of its
atmosphere.

 Phobos and Deimos are the two moons of Mars.

 Has polar ice caps and traces of sub-terrestrial liquid water has been
found.

 Has the largest known volcano (and second tallest mountain) in the
solar system – Mons Olympus.

 Spacecrafts to Mars: Mariner 4, 2001 Mars Odyssey, Mars Orbiter

Mission (India), MAVEN etc.

 Rovers on Mars: Opportunity, Curiosity, Spirit (decommissioned).

 Jupiter

 Largest planet of the solar system.

 Has two and a half times the mass of all other planets put together.

 Has the shortest rotation period.

 A gas giant, primarily composed of hydrogen and helium with no

discernible solid surface.

 Has a giant storm (three times the diameter of earth) since 1831
called the ‘Great Red Spot’.

 Has a faint ring around it.

 Has 67 moons.

 4 largest moons discovered by Galileo – Ganymede (largest moon in

the solar system – bigger than Mercury), Callisto, Io (volcanic), Europa
(has water-ice).

 Missions to Jupiter: Galileo, Juno (upcoming).

Saturn

 Second largest planet in the Solar system.

 Its density is less than the water.

 Has a band of concentric rings revolving around it made up of tiny

rocks and pieces of ice.

 Has 62 moons.
 Moons of Saturn: Titan is the largest (has a major atmosphere,
complex organic chemistry and ICE VOLCANOES ), Rhea (may have
its own ring system), Enceladus.

 Missions to Saturn: Cassini-Huygens.

Uranus

 Discovered by Sir William Herschel.

 Blue-green (cyan) in colour.

 Third biggest planet of the solar system.

 Composed of Hydrogen, Helium, Water, Ammonia, Methane.

 It is tilted sideways so that its poles lie where most other planets
have their equators.

 Has faint rings.

 Has 27 known moons (5 main – Miranda, Ariel, Umbriel, Titania,

Oberon).

 Spacecraft Flyby: Voyager 2.

Neptune

 Discovered by mathematical predictions and disturbances in Uranus’

orbit.

 First proposed by Alexis Bouvard, and first observed by Johann

Galle.

 Farthest planet from the Sun.

 Primarily composed of hydrogen, helium, nitrogen, water, ammonia,
methane.

 Is blue in colour because of methane.

 Has a storm called ‘Great Dark Spot’.

 Has 14 known moons (Triton – largest)

 Spacecraft Flyby: Voyager 2.

Pluto

 Used to be the ninth planet.

 Demoted to status of “Dwarf Planet”.

 Icy and cold.

 Has five moons – Charon, Styx, Nix, Kerberos, Hydra.

Asteroids

 Almost like planets but smaller in size.

 Not spherical in appearance.

 Revolve around the Sun.

 Most of them are found in a belt between Mars and Jupiter.

 The largest asteroid in the Asteroid Belt is Ceres.

Meteorites

 Meteoroids are formed due to the collisions between asteroids.

 They are fragments of rocks floating about in space.

 Sometimes they come across earth and fall into the earth’s
atmosphere. That’s when they become meteors or “shooting stars”.

 Most of these meteors can’t reach earth’s surface and burn up in the
atmosphere due to the friction with air.

 The meteors that do reach the earth’s surface are known as

meteorites.

Comets

 Tiny icy and rocky bodies that travel in highly elliptical orbits around
the sun.

 When they pass close to the sun, they water and gases heat up.

 This leads to the formation of a tail behind the rocky core in the
direction opposite to the sun.

 Most famous comet is Halley’s Comet which reappears every 75-76

years.

 Last appeared: 1986. Next appearance: 2061

EARTH
Earth is the third planet from the Sun and is the largest of the terrestrial planets.
The Earth is the only planet in our solar system not to be named after a Greek or
Roman deity. The Earth was formed approximately 4.54 billion years ago and is
the only known planet to support life.

Facts about the Earth

 Mass: 5,972,190,000,000,000 billion kg
 Equatorial Diameter: 12,756 km
 Polar Diameter: 12,714 km
 Equatorial Circumference: 40,030 km
 Known Moons: 1
 Notable Moons: The Moon
 Orbit Distance: 149,598,262 km (1 AU)
 Orbit Period: 365.26 Earth days
 Surface Temperature: -88 to 58°C

Composition and Structure of the Earth

The Earth consists of four concentric layers: inner core, outer core, mantle and
crust. The crust is made up of tectonic plates, which are in constant motion.
Earthquakes and volcanoes are most likely to occur at plate boundaries.

The Earth is made up of four distinct layers:

1. The inner core is in the center and is the hottest part of the Earth. It is solid and
made up of iron and nickel with temperatures of up to 5,500°C. With its immense
heat energy, the inner core is like the engine room of the Earth.

2. The outer core is the layer surrounding the inner core. It is a liquid layer, also
made up of iron and nickel. It is still extremely hot, with temperatures similar to
the inner core.

3. The mantle is the widest section of the Earth. It has a thickness of approximately
2,900 km. The mantle is made up of semi-molten rock called magma. In the upper
parts of the mantle the rock is hard, but lower down the rock is soft and beginning
to melt.
4. The crust is the outer layer of the earth. It is a thin layer between 0-60 km thick.
The crust is the solid rock layer upon which we live. There are two different types
of crust:

Continental crust, which carries land, and oceanic crust, which carries water.

Shape: The shape of Earth approximates an oblate spheroid, a sphere flattened

along the axis from pole to pole such that there is a bulge around the equator.

Chemical composition:
Earth's mass is approximately 5.97×1024 kg.

It is composed mostly of iron (32.1%), oxygen (30.1%), silicon (15.1%),

magnesium (13.9%), sulfur (2.9%), nickel (1.8%), calcium (1.5%), and aluminium
(1.4%), with the remaining 1.2% consisting of trace amounts of other elements.
Due to mass segregation, the core region is believed to be primarily composed of
iron (88.8%), with smaller amounts of nickel (5.8%), sulfur (4.5%), and less

than 1% trace elements.

Tectonic plates: The mechanically rigid outer layer of Earth, the lithosphere, is
broken into pieces called tectonic plates. These plates are rigid segments that move
in relation to one another at one of three types of plate boundaries: convergent
boundaries, at which two plates come together, divergent boundaries, at which

two plates are pulled apart, and transform boundaries, in which two plates slide
past one another laterally. Earthquakes, volcanic activity, mountain-building, and
oceanic trench formation can occur along these plate boundaries.

Surface: Earth's terrain varies greatly from place to place. About

70.8% of the surface is covered by water, with much of the continental shelf below
sea level. The submerged surface has mountainous features, including a globe-
spanning mid-ocean ridge system, as well as undersea volcanoes, oceanic trenches,

submarine canyons, oceanic plateaus and abyssal plains. The remaining 29.2% not
covered by water consists of mountains, deserts, plains, plateaus, and other
landforms.

Magnetic field: The main part of the Earth's magnetic field is generated in the
core, the site of a dynamo process that converts kinetic energy of fluid convective
motion into electrical and magnetic field energy. The field extends outwards from
the core, through the mantle, and up to Earth's surface, where it is, to rough
approximation, a dipole.

Magnetosphere: The extent of Earth's magnetic field in space defines the

magnetosphere. Ions and electrons of the solar wind are deflected by the
magnetosphere; solar wind pressure compresses the dayside of the magnetosphere,
to about 10 Earth radii, and extends the night side magnetosphere into a long tail.

Since the velocity of the solar wind is greater than the speed at which wave
propagate through the solar wind, a supersonic bow shock precedes the dayside
magnetosphere within the solar wind

THE CONTINENTS
Continents make up the largest landmasses on the planet earth. A continent is
larger than an island and is usually made up of multiple countries. There are seven
continents in the world although some people do combine Europe and Asia into the
single continent Eurasia and others combine North and South America into the

American continent.
 Africa:
 It is second as far as population and size among the Earth's continents.
 About 1 billion people live in the 54 countries in Africa. This is about 15
percent of the world's population living on 20 percent of the total land area.
 The equator passes through the center of the continent with largely tropical
climates. The northern and southern portion of Africa has more temperate
conditions.
 Africa is also noted as the birthplace of mankind. The oldest fossil evidence
of Homo sapiens was found in the eastern part of the continent.(very
important)

Antarctica:
 The continent is the most southern of the seven continents and includes the
South Pole.
 It is also the least populated with less than 5,000 residents.
 Antarctica is known as the coldest landmass and has few native plants or
animals. Much of the landmass is covered with permanent glaciers.

Asia:
 Asia covers nearly 9 percent of the earth's surface making it the largest of the
continents.
 It is also the home to the most people with an estimated population of 4.3 billion.
 Asia is defined as the eastern portion of the Eurasia continent with the Ural river
and mountains serving as the dividing line with Europe.
 Asia contains some of the oldest civilizations in the world including the Chinese
and Japanese nations.
 The continents large population makes it an important part of the world economy.
Asia includes the Saudi Arabia peninsula with the oil rich countries including the
United Arab Emirates and Kuwait.

Australia :
 The continent of Australia includes the mainland of the country Australia and the
island nations of New Guinea, Tasmania and Seram. During ice ages, when much
of the world's water was frozen in glaciers, the Australian mainland was connected
by land bridges to these islands.
 The continent first was inhabited by man nearly 45,000 years ago. European
inhabitants came onto the Australian landmass in the 1700s. Australia is the most
isolated and remote of the continents and has been least influenced by migrations
of people, plants and animals.

Europe :
 The western portion of the Eurasian continent is known as Europe. It is noted as
one of the smallest of the continents, with 7 percent of the world's landmass.
However, Europe is home to about 11% of Earth's population, and is the second
most densely populated continent, with 134 people per square mile, behind Asia's
203 people per square mile.
 Europe, by definition, includes the continental mainland ending in the east at the
Ural Mountains in Russia. Europe also includes islands such as Iceland and Sicily,
and the islands of the British Isles. The British Isles consist of the large island that
is home to England, Scotland, and Wales, and is called Great Britain; the British
Isles also include the small island that contains Northern Ireland and the Republic
of Ireland, and several much smaller surrounding islands.
North America:
The North American continent includes the Latin American regions that serve as a
connection between North and South America. North America makes up about 17
percent of the world's landmass and is home to about 8 percent of the people.

This population of about 529 million people live in about 23 independent

countries. The earliest human inhabitants in North America were from Asia and
crossed into Alaska over the Bering land bridge during an ice age. The arrival of
Europeans occurred in the mid 1600s. This population is now dominant in North

America.

South America :
The South American continent is the southern portion of the larger American
continent. The equator passes through the continent yielding a tropical climate to
much of the landmass with temperate conditions possible in the south. The
indigenous people of South America may have migrated south from North
America although the majority of its current 371 million residents are of European
descent. The population bases are largely along the Pacific and Atlantic coasts with
large portions of the inland regions hosting small and widely spread populations.

South America includes the Andes Mountains which comprise the longest range of
peaks in the world.

THE OCEANS
There are five oceans which cover the surface of our globe. They cover more than
71% of the Earth's surface.
Pacific Ocean :
The largest coral reef in the world is located off the Australian coast and is called
the Great Barrier Reef. The ring of fire is also located in the Pacific Ocean.

Atlantic Ocean :
The Atlantic is the second biggest ocean in the world and is between the continents
of America and Europe and Africa. The Atlantic Ocean is about half the size of the
Pacific Ocean and covers roughly 20% of the Earth's surface. However it is
growing in size as it is spreading along the Mid-Atlantic Coasts.

Sharks, such as this Thresher Shark swimming in the gulf stream, are found in the
waters of the Atlantic. The Mid-Atlantic Ridge is the longest mountain range on
Earth. It spreads from Iceland to Antarctica beneath the Atlantic.

Indian Ocean :
The Indian Ocean is located between Africa andAustral-Asia. The waters of the
Indian Ocean provide the largest breeding grounds of the world for
humpback whales. Also found in the Indian Ocean, a fish which was thought to
be extinct was discovered there: the Coelacanth is found in the warm waters off the
Comoro islands between Mozambique and Madagascar. The Northern Indian
Ocean also is the most important transport route for oil as it connects the oil-rich
countries of the Middle East Each with Asia.

Arctic Ocean :
The Arctic Ocean is located around the North Pole across the Arctic circle. There
are many polar bears living on the Arctic ice. A jellyfish with the funny name
'Lion's mane jellyfish' can also be found in the Arctic Ocean's waters. It grows up
to 2.4m or 8 feet across and lives on plankton and fishes. The Arctic Ocean's ice
covers are shrinking by 8% every ten years. Many Arctic ground features are
named after early Arctic explorers, like Nansen Basin or Mendeleyev Ridge.

Southern Ocean :
The Southern Ocean is located around the South Pole across the Antarctic circle in
the Southern Hemisphere off Antarctica. The Southern Ocean is the home of
Emperor Penguins and Wandering Albatrosses.

MOUNTAIN
A mountain is a geological landform that rises above the surrounding land.
Typically a mountain will rise at least 1,000 feet above sea level. Some mountains
exceed 10,000 feet above sea level with the highest mountain in the world, Mount
Everest, rising 29,036 feet. Small mountains (below 1,000 feet) are usually called
hills. They are most often formed by movement of the tectonic plates in the Earth's
crust. Great mountain ranges like the Himalayas often form along the boundaries
of these plates.

Tectonic plates move very slowly. It can take millions and millions of years for
mountains to form.

Types of Mountains
There are three main types of mountains: fold mountains, fault Block Mountains,
and volcanic mountains. They get their names from how they were formed.

Fold mountains: Fold mountains are formed when two plates run into each other
or collide. The force of the two plates running into each other causes the Earth's
crust to crumple and fold. Many of the world's great mountain ranges are Fold
Mountains including the Andes, Himalayas, and the Rockies.
Fault-block mountains : Fault-block mountains are formed along faults where
some large blocks of rock are forced upwards while others are forced down. The
Sierra Nevada Mountains in the western United States are fault block mountains.

Volcanic mountains: Mountains that are caused by volcanic activity are called
volcanic mountains. There are two main types of volcanic mountains: volcanoes
and Dome Mountains. Volcanoes are formed when magma erupts all the way to
the surface of the Earth. The magma will harden on the Earth's surface, forming a
mountain. Dome Mountains are formed when a large amount of magma builds up
below the Earth's surface. This forces the rock above the magma to bulge out,
forming a mountain. Examples of volcanic mountains include Mount Fuji in Japan
and Mount Mauna Loa in Hawaii.

Mountain Features and their

description(important):
Face: The side of a mountain that is very steep.

Glacier: A mountain glacier is formed by compacted snow into ice.

Leeward side: The leeward side of a mountain is opposite the windward side. It is

protected from the wind and rain by the mountain.

Horn: A horn is a sharp peak formed from multiple glaciers.

Moraine: A collection of rocks and dirt left behind by glaciers.

 Pass: A valley or path between mountains.

Peak: The highest point of a mountain.

Ridge: A long narrow top of a mountain or series of mountains.

Slope: The side of a mountain

Rivers- source- outflow:

 Nile - Tributaries of Lake Victoria - Africa Mediterranean Sea

 Amazon- Glacier-fed lakes- Peru Atlantic Ocean

 Mississippi-Missouri- Red Rock Source of Red Rock- Montana Gulf of Mexico

 Chang Jiang (Yangtze)- Tibetan plateau- China China Sea

 Ob- Altai Mts.- Russia Gulf of Ob

 Huang He (Yellow) -Eastern part of Kunlan Mts - West China Gulf of Chihli

 Yenisei Tannu-Ola Mts - western Tuva, Russia Arctic Ocean

 Zaire (Congo)- Confluence of Lualab and Luapula rivers- Congo Atlantic Ocean

 Heilong (Amur)- Confluence of Shilka (Russia) and Argun (Manchuria) rivers- Tatar
Strait

 Tigris- Taurus Mts.-Turkey Shatt-al-Arab

 Irrawaddy -Confluence of Nmai and Mali rivers- northeast Burma Bay of Bengal

 Orange- Lesotho- Atlantic Ocean

 Orinoco- Serra Parima Mts.-Venezuela Atlantic Ocean

 Ural- Southern Ural Mts -Russia Caspian Sea

 Ganges- Himalayas- Bay of Bengal

 Brahmaputra- Himalayas- Ganges River

 Indus- Himalayas- Arabian Sea

 Danube- Black Forest- Germany Black Sea

 Euphrates- Confluence of Murat Nehri and Kara Su rivers-Turkey Shatt-al-Arab

 Niger- Guinea-- Gulf of Guinea

 Mekong- Tibetan highlands- South China Sea

 Mississippi- Lake Itasc- Minnesota Gulf of Mexico

 Missouri- Confluence of Jefferson, Gallatin, and Madison rivers- Montana
Mississippi River

 Volga- Valdai plateau- Russia Caspian Sea

ATMOSPHERE OF THE EARTH

The atmosphere is a mixture of nitrogen (78%), oxygen (21%), and other gases
(1%) that surrounds Earth. High above the planet, the atmosphere becomes thinner
until it gradually reaches space.

It is divided into five layers.

The Troposphere: It begins at the Earth's surface and extends from 4 to 12 miles
(6 to 20 km) high. Its height varies from the equator to the poles. Weather related
activities occur in this layer.

The Stratosphere: It extends from 4 to 12 miles (6 to 20 km) to around 31 miles

(50 km) above the Earth's surface. This layer holds 19 percent of the atmosphere's
gases but very little water vapor. Aircrafts fly in this layer because it is very stable.
Also, the ozone layer absorbs harmful rays from the Sun in this layer.

The Meso sphere: This layer extends from around 31 miles (50km) to 53 miles
(85 km) above the Earth's surface. The gases, including the oxygen molecules,
continue to become more dense as one descends. Meteors or rock fragments burn
up in this layer.

The Thermosphere: This layer lies from 53 miles (85 km) to 375 miles (600
km). High energy ultraviolet and x-ray radiation from the sun begins to be
absorbed by the molecules in this layer and causes a large temperature increase.
The Exosphere: This is the outermost layer of the atmosphere. It extends from the
top of the thermosphere to 6,200 miles (10,000 km) above the earth. In this layer,
atoms and molecules escape into space and satellites orbit the earth. At the bottom
of the exosphere is the thermopause located around 375 miles (600 km) above the
earth.

VOLCANOES
The word volcano originally comes from the name of the Roman god of fire,
Vulcan. A volcano is a mountain that opens downward to a pool of molten rock
below the surface of the earth. When pressure builds up, eruptions occur. Hot
liquid rock under the Earth's surface is known as magma, it is called lava after it
comes out of a volcano. In an eruption, gases and rock shoot up through the
opening and spill over or fill the air with lava fragments. Eruptions can cause lava
flows, hot ash flows, mudslides, avalanches, falling ash and floods. An erupting
volcano can trigger tsunamis, flash floods, earthquakes, mudflows and rockfalls.
More than 80% of the earth's surface is volcanic in origin. The sea floor and some
mountains were formed by countless volcanic eruptions. There are more than 500
active volcanoes in the world. More than half of these volcanoes are part of the
"Ring of Fire," a region that encircles the Pacific Ocean. Some famous volcanic

eruptions of modern times include Mount Krakatoa in 1883, Novarupta in 1912,

Mount St Helens in 1980 and Mt Pinatubo in 1991. Many volcanoes have been in
continuous eruption for decades. Etna, Stromboli, and Yasur have been erupting
for hundreds or thousands of years. The four volcanoes, Kilauea (Hawaii), Mt Etna
(Italy), Piton de la Fournaise (Réunion), Nyamuragira, (D.R. Congo), emit the
most lava.
 World's Most Active Volcanoes
 Etna- Italy

 Stromboli- Italy

 Yasur- Vanuatu

 Ambrym- Vanuatu

 Tinakula- Solomon Islands

 Erta Ale- Ethiopia

 Manam- Papua New Guinea

 Langila- Papua New Guinea

 Bagana- Papua New Guinea

 Semeru- Indonesia

 Merapi- Indonesia

 Dukono- Indonesia

 Sakura-jima Japan

 Suwanose-jima Japan

 Santa Maria- Guatemala

 Pacaya- Guatemala

 Sangay- Ecuador

 Erebus- Antarctica
 Piton de la- Fournaise Reunion

 Kilauea- Hawaii

OCEAN CURRENTS
An ocean current is a continuous movement of ocean water from one place to
another. Ocean currents are created by wind, water temperature, salt content, and
the gravity of the moon. The current's direction and speed depend on the shoreline
and the ocean floor. They can flow for thousands of miles and are found in all the
major oceans of the world.

MAJOR SURFACE OCEAN CURRENTS

Name Ocean Type
 Agulhas Current Indian Warm

 Alaska Current North Pacific Warm

 Benguela Current South Atlantic Warm/Cool

 Brazil Current South Atlantic Warm

 California Current North Pacific Cool

 Canaries Current North Atlantic Cool

 East Australian Current South Pacific Warm

 Equitorial Current Pacific Warm

 Gulf Stream North Altantic Warm

 Humboldt (Peru) Current South Pacific Cool

 Kuroshio (Japan) Current North Pacific Warm

 Labrador Current North Atlantic Cool

 North Atlantic Drift North Atlantic Warm

 North Pacific Drift North Pacific Warm

 Oyashio (Kamchatka) Current North Pacific Cool

 West Australian Current Indian Cool

 West Wind Drift South Pacific Cool

GEOGRAPHY OF INDIA(all facts important)

Location
• India lies in the northern and eastern hemispheres of the globe between 8° 4’ N
and 37°6’ N latitudes and 68°7’ E and 97°25’E longitudes.

• The southern most point extent upto 6°45’ N latitude to cover the last island of
the Nicobar group of islands. The southern extreme iscalled Pygmalion Point or
Indira Point.

• The tropic of cancer passes through the middle part of ndia and crosses the states
of Gujarat, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, West Bengal,
Tripura and Mizoram.

Size and Shape

• India commands a total geographical area of 32,87,263 sq.km which is- roughly
0.57% of the area of the earth and 2.4% of the total area of the land hemisphere.

• The Indian states on international boundaries (other country/ countries within

brackets) are: Gujarat (Pakistan),
Rajasthan (Pakistan), Punjab (Pakistan), Jammu and Kashmir (China and
Pakistan), Himachal Pradesh (China), Bihar (Nepal), Uttarakhand (China and
Nepal), Uttar Pradesh (Nepal), West Bengal (Bhutan and Bangladesh), Sikkim

(China, Bhutan and Nepal), Arunachal Pradesh (Bhutan,China and Myanmar),

Nagaland (Myanmar), Manipur (Myanmar), Mizoram (Bangladesh and Myanmar),

Meghalaya (Bangladesh), Tripura (Bangladesh) and Assam (Bhutan, Bangladesh

and Myanmar).

• The states of Haryana, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattishgarh and Jharkhand are the
only land-locked states which are neither on the coast nor on an international
border.

Physical Features
• Out of the total area of the country, about 10.6% is occupied by mountains,
18.5% by hills, 27.7% by plateaus and 43.2% by the plains.

• India may be divided into four major physiographic regions, viz, 1. The Northern
Mountains, 2. The Great Plains, 3. The Peninsular Uplands, and 4. The Indian
Coasts and Islands.

The Northern Mountains

Himalayas represent the youngest and the highest folded mountains of the earth,
rising to over 8000 m above sea level and consisting of three parallel ranges : (a)
Himadri (Greater Himalaya), (b) Himachal (Lesser Himalaya), and (c) the
Shiwaliks (Outer Himalayas).

Principal Peaks of India(learn the location)

Peak Height (Mtrs) Location
1. Mt. Everest 8848 Nepal-Tibet

2. Mt. K2 8611 India

3. Kanchenjunga 8597 Nepal-India

4. Dhaulagiri 8172 Nepal

5. Nanga Parbat 8126 India

6. Annapurna 8078 Nepal

7. Gasherbrum 8068 India

8. Nanda Devi 7817 India

9. Mt. Kamet 7756 India

10. Gurla Mandhata 7728 Tibet

Valleys and its locations

• Araku Valley : Andhra Pradesh

• Damodar Valley : Jharkhand and West Bengal

• Darma Valley : Uttarakhand

• Dzukou Valley : North-eastern part

• Johar Valley : Uttarakhand

• Markha Valley : Ladakh

• Nubra Valley : Ladakh

• Sangla Valley : Himachal pradesh

• Saur Valley : Uttarakhand

• Suru Valley : Ladakh

• Tons Valley : Uttarakhand

• Yumthang Valley : Sikkim

Trans Himalayas
• The Trans-Himalayan Zone with a width of 40 km in its eastern and western ends
and a width of 222 km in its central part, it has important ranges such as the Zaskar
Range and the Great Karakoram range. The karakoram extends towards the south-
east to form the Kailash Range (Tibet). The highest peak in the Karakoram range is
K2 (8,611 m). The longest glacier is Siachen in the Nubra Valley which is more

than 72 km long.

MAJOR MOUNTAIN RANGES IN INDIA

The Himalayan Range: This is the world's highest mountain range and the tallest
peak of the world, Mt. Everest, is also a part of it. It acts as a barrier against the
frigid katabatic winds which flow down from Central Asia and protects India from
its effects.

Patkai Range: Patkai or Purvanchal lies on the east of India-Burma border. It

comprises three hill ranges- Garo-Khasi-Jaintia in Meghalaya, Lushai hills and
Patkai-Bum.

Karakoram Range: It lies in the disputed areas of Jammu and Kashmir and
comprises more than 60 peaks. K2, the second highest peak of the world, is also a
part of this range. Besides, the Hindu Kush range, Siachen and Biafo Glacier also a
part of this range.

Shivalik Hills: The literal meaning of Shivalik is 'tresses of India'.

It extends from Arunachal Pradesh to West Bengal and from Uttarakhand to
Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh. Jammu, Kangra and Vaishno Devi are a part of
this range.

Vindhya Range: This range spreads across central India and extends across 1,050
km. It is believed to be formed from the Aravalli Mountains. Due to its
geographical location in central India, it separates Northern and Southern India.

Aravalli Range: This is India's oldest mountain range and spreads across the parts
of Rajasthan, Delhi and Haryana. Guru Shikhar in Mount Abu is the highest peak
of this range, which rise to 1,722 m.

Satpura Range: This range stretches from Gujarat and runs to Maharashtra,
Madhya Pradesh and Chhattisgarh.

Western and Eastern Ghats: Western Ghats are also known as Sahyadri
Mountains and runs parallel to Indian peninsula's western coast. Eastern Ghats or
Purva Ghat is a discontinuous range of mountains which runs along the eastern
coast of India.

POLITICAL BOUNDARIES OF INDIA

• India shares its international boundaries with Pakistan in the West, Nepal, China
and Bhutan in the North-East. It is surrounded by Burma and Bangladesh to the
East. Sri Lanka is located in the South of India and Union territory of Andaman
and Nicobar Islands are located close to Thailand and Indonesia.

• Political borders of Pakistan and Bangladesh with India can be traced according
to the Radcliffe line.
• The line of control (LoC) defines the borders of India and Pakistan and serves as
a boundary between the administered areas of Kashmir in both countries.

• The Macmohan line is the border tha t separates India andChina and runs along
the States of Arunachal Pradesh, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Jammu and
Kashmir and Sikkim.

• India-Bangladesh border is one of the longest borders inthe world and concerns
of the Indian States like Assam, Meghalaya, Manipur, Tripura and Arunachal
Pradesh.

INDO-GANGETIC PLAIN
The Indo-Gangetic plain also known as the Great Plains and is dominated by three
major rivers - the Ganges, Indus and Brahmaputra. It covers a large area, about
7,00,000 sq km in Northern and Eastern India. The plain consists of four divisions:

The Bhabar Belt: It is a narrow belt, which is located in the foothills of the
Himalayas and consists of pebbles and rocks stones brought by the streams.

The Terai Belt:It is located in the southern part of the Bhabar region and and
made up of newer alluvium.

The Bangar Belt: It includes older alluvium and has a low hill in the Gangetic
plain, which is covered by the laterite deposits.

The Khader Belt: It is located on the lower side of the Bhabar belt and made up of
new alluvium, which is brought by the rivers which flow down the plain.
Peninsula plateau-plateau with its characteristic features include shallow valleys
and rounded hills. It is divided into three different plateau:

The Deccan Plateau: The plateau area is triangular in shape and surrounded by
the Vindhyas and the Western and Eastern Ghats. It stretches up to eight States of
India and occupies a total area of 1.9 million square kilometers

The Malwa Plateau: Malwa plateau is distributed in parts of Gujarat, Rajasthan

and Madhya Pradesh. Chambal and its tributaries to find your way in this plateau
and Mahi rivers also flow through its Western region.

The Chota Nagpur plateau: It is located in Eastern India, Chota Nagpur plateau
covers part of Jharkhand, Bihar, Odisha and Chhattisgarh.

THE COASTAL PLAINS

The Eastern coastal plains: It is lying between the Eastern Ghats and the Bay of
Bengal; and extends from Tamil Nadu to West Bengal. Rivers which flow through
it are Krishna, Kavery, Godavari and Mahanadi. It is divided into six different
areas - the southern state of Andhra Pradesh, Kanyakumari coast, Mahanadi Delta,
Coromondel coast and the sandy shores.

The Western coastal plains: It is sandwiched between the Western Ghats and the
Arabian sea and stretches from Gujarat in the North and covers the regions of
Maharashtra, Goa, Kerala and Karnataka. There are numerous rivers and creeks in
this region. It is divided into two parts - on the Malabar coast and Konkan.

THE THAR DESERT

 • The Thar desert extends across Gujarat, Haryana and Punjab and covers more
than 60% of the geographical area of Rajasthan. It also applies to Pakistan and is
known as the Cholistan desert.

• Luni is the only river in the desert, and it gets very little rainfall.

• Most of this desert consists of cliffs, sand dunes and compacted salt lake-bottoms.

• It has an arid climate and vegetation is sparse.

ISLANDS
Islands India has a number of islands (247) both in the Bay of Bengal, (204
islands) and the Arabian Sea (43 islands). The Andaman and Nicobar Islands in the
Bay of Bengal represent the elevated portions of submarine mountains. Mount
Harriet (460 m) in the South Andaman Island is the highest point.

States with the Longest Coastline

1. Andaman & Nicobar Islands 1,962

2. Gujarat 1,215

3. Andhra Pradesh 974

4. Tamil Nadu 907

5. Maharashtra 653

AGRICULTURE OF INDIA
Indian crops can be divided into following categories

 Food crops : Rice, wheat, maize, millets-jowar, bajra, etc.

 Cash crops : Cotton, jute, sugarcane, tobacco, groundnut, etc.

 Plantation crops : Tea, Coffee, spices, coconut, rubber, etc.

 Horticulture crops : Apple, mango, banana, citrus, etc.

Imortant Crops of India

Food Grains
 Rice In West Bengal, Punjab, U.P.

 Wheat In U.P., Punjab, Haryana

 Maize In Madhya Pradesh, A ndhra Prades h, Karnataka

 Bajra In Rajasthan, Gujarat, Maharashtra

 Jowar In Maharashtra, Karnataka, M .P., A .P.

 Total Pulses In U.P., M .P., Punjab

 Total Food Grains In U.P., Punjab, W es t Bengal

Oilseeds
 Groundnut In Gujarat, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh

 Repeseed & Mustard In Rajasthan, U.P., Haryana

 Soyabean In Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Rajasthan

 Sunflower In karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra

 Total Oil Seeds In M.P., Maharashtra, Rajasthan

Distribution of Minerals resources in India
Iron: India has deposits of high grade iron ore. The mineral is found mainly in
Jharkhand, Orissa, Chhattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh, Goa, Maharashtra and
Karnataka.

Bauxite: Major bauxite producing areas are Jharkhand, Orissa, Chhattisgarh,

Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu.

Mica: Mica deposits mainly occur in Jharkhand, Bihar, Andhra Pradesh and
Rajasthan. India is the largest producer and exporter of mica in the world.

Copper: It is mainly produced in Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Jharkhand,

Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh.

Manganese: India's manganese deposits lies in Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh,

Chhattisgarh, Orissa, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh.

Limestone: Major limestone producing states in India are Bihar, Jharkhand, Orissa,
Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Rajasthan, Gujarat and Tamil Nadu.

Gold: Kolar in Karnataka has deposits of gold in India. Thesemines are among the
deepest in the world which makes mining of this ore a very expensive process.

INDUSTRY IN INDIA
Agro-Based Industry
This group of industries depend on the raw material produced by agricultural
sector. The products comprise mostly of the consumer goods.
Cotton Textiles Industry
Cotton accounts for 70% of the total fabric produced.

Geographical distribution

Mumbai, Ahmedabad, Surat, Solapur, Pune, Nagpur (Maharashtra and Gujarat).

Coimbatore, Madurai and Chennai (Tamil Nadu), Ludhiana (Punjab), Bangalore
(Karnataka), Kolkata (West Bengal), Kanpur (Uttar Pradesh).

The first woolen textiles mill was set up in 1876 at Kanpur,because Kanpur was
the principal depot for the British Indian Army.

The woolen textiles industry in India is partly a cottage industry and partly, a
factory industry.

Geographical Spread

Kanpur (Uttar Pradesh), Dhariwal and Ludhiana (Punjab), Mumbai (Maharashtra),

Bangalore (Karnataka), Jamnagar (Gujarat), Srinagar (Jammu and Kashmir).

Jute Textiles Industry

The first modern jute mill was set up at Rishra near Calcutta in 1855.

After independence, this sector made rapid progress as an export-oriented industry.

Geographical Location

Nearly 90% of the manufacturing capacity is located in a narrow

belt about 100 km long and 3 km wide along river Hooghly.

Sugar Industry
Indian sugar industry is the second largest agro-based industry in India.
Geographical Distribution

Uttar Pradesh and Bihar alone account for 70% of the productive capacity and 75%
of the total employment of 30 lakh.

Silk Industry
India is the only country producing all the five known commercial varieties of silk,
viz. Mulberry, Tasar (Tropical), Oak Tasar, Eri and Muga.

India is the second largest producer of raw silk, accounting for 20% of the world
production, next to China.

Karnataka is the foremost silk producing state in India,which accounts for 50% of
Mulberry silk of the country.

Metallurgical Industries
These industries form the economic backbone of a developing country.

Iron and Steel Industry

The first iron and steel unit on modern lines was established in 1830 at Porto Novo
in Tamil Nadu. But the real beginning of modern iron and steel industry was made
in 1907 when TISCO was set up at Sakchi,

Jamshedpur.

IISCO was set up in 1919 at Burnpur.

Mysore steel works at Bhadravati came into existence in 1923.

Sail was established in 1973.

India is now the eighth largest producer of steel in the world.

 The first on-shore steel plant in India was set up at Vishakhapatnam (Andhra
Pradesh)

India is the leading country in the production of sponge iron.

Different steel plants and their location

 TISCO (Jharkhand)

 IISCO (West Bengal)

 Visweswaraya Steel Plant (Karnataka)

 Bhilai Steel Plant (Chhattisgarh)

 Bokaro Steel Plant (Jharkhand)

 Rourkela Steel Plant (Orissa)

 Durgapur Steel Plant (West Bengal)

Indian Towns on Rivers

Town River
 Allahabad At the confluence of the Ganga and Yamuna

 Patna Ganga

 Varansi Ganga

 Kanpur Ganga

 Haridwar Ganga

 Badrinath Alaknanda
 Agra Yamuna

 Delhi Yamuna

 Mathura Yamuna

 Ferozpur Satluj

 Ludhiana Satluj

 Srinagar Jhelum

 Lucknow Gomti

 Jaunpur Gomti

 Ayodhya Saryu

 Bareillly Ram Ganga

 Ahmedabad Sabarmati

 Kota Chambal

 Jabalpur Narmada

 Panji Mandavi

 Ujjain Kashipra

 Surat Tapti

 Jamshedpur Swarnarekha

 Dibrugarh Brahmaputra

 Guwahati Brahmaputra
 Kolkata Hooghly

 Sambalpur Mahanadi

 Cuttack Mahanadi

 Serirangapatnam Cauvery

 Hyderabad Musi

 Nasik Godavari

 Vijayawada Krishna

 Curnool Tungabhadra

 Tiruchirapalli Kaveri

Nick Name of Indian Places

Nick Name Place
 Golden City Amritsar

 Manchester of India Ahmedabad

 Twin City Hyderabad-Sikandarabad

 City of festivals Mudurai

 Deccan Queen Pune

 City of Buildings Kolkata

 Dakshin Ganga Godavari

 Old Ganga Godavari

 Egg bowls of Asia Andhra Pradesh

 Soya region Madhya Pradesh

 Manchester of the South Coimbator

 City of Nawabs Lucknow

 Venice of the east Kochi

 Queen of the Mountains Mussoorie (Uttarkhand)

 Sacred river Ganga

 Hollywood of India Mumbai

 City of Castles Kolkata

 State of five rivers Punjab

 City of weavers Panipat

 City of lakes Srinagar

 Steel city of India Jamshedpur (called Tatanagar)

 City of Temples Varanasi

 Manchester of the north Kanpur

 City of Rallies New Delhi

 Heaven of India Jammu & Kashmir

 Boston of India Ahmedabad

 Garden of spices of India Kerala

 Switzerland of India Kashmir

 Abode of the God Prayag (Allahabad)

 Pittsburg of India Jamshedpur

 City of seven islands Mumbai

 Blue Mountains Nilgiri

 Queen of Arabian Sea Kochi

 Space City Bengaluru

 Garden City of India Bengaluru

 Silicon valley of India Bengaluru

 Electronic City of India Bengaluru

 Pink City Jaipur

 Gateway of India Mumbai

Lakes of India
 Wular Lake Jammu & Kashmir

 Lonar Maharashtra

 Kolleru Andhra Pradesh

 Loktak Manipur

 Dal Lake Jammu & Kashmir

 Naini Tal Uttarakhand

 Salt Lake Kolkata

 Chilka Orissa

 Pulicut Andhra Pradesh

 Vembanad Kayal Kerala

 Ashtamudi s Kerala

The 12 Major Ports of India are:

Port State
 Kolkata  West Bengal
(including
Haldia)

 Paradip  Orissa

 Vishakhapat  Andhra
nam Pradesh

 Chennai  Tamil Nadu

 Ennore  Tamil Nadu

 Tuticorin  Tamil Nadu

 Cochin  Kerala

 New  Karnataka
 Mangalore

 Mormugao  Goa

 Jawaharlal  Maharashtra
Nehru

 Mumbai  Maharashtra

 Kandla  Gujarat

BOUNDRY LINES
LINES

Durand Line Pakistan &

Afghanistan

MacMohan India & China

Line

Radcliffe Line India &

Pakistan

Maginot Line France &

Germany

Oder Niesse Germany &

Line Poland
Hindenberg Poland &
Line Germany (at
the time of
First World
War)

38th Parallel North &

South Korea

49th Parallel USA &

Canada

Major Mountain Ranges of the World

Andes -South America

Himalayas-Karakoram-Hindukush -South Central Asia

Rockies -North America

Great Dividing Range-East Australia

Western Ghats-Western India-

Caucasus Europe-Asia

Alaska -USA

Alps -Europe

Apennines -Europe
Ural -Asia

Pennines -Europe

Pyrenees-Europe-

Appalachian -North America

TRIBAL GROUPS (plz edit on your own)

1. Abhors: People of Mongoloid stock living in the north-eastern parts of India.

2. Adivasis: Tribals of Bastar district, Chhattisgarh.

3. Angami: Tribals of Nagaland.

4. Apatanis: Tribals of Arunachal Pradesh.

5. Badagas: Tribals of Nilgiri region in Tamil Nadu.

6. Baiga: Tribals of Madhya Pradesh.

7. Bakkarwals: People of Jammu and Kashmir who rear sheep and goats.

8. Bhils: People of Dravidian stock now living in central India (MP) and Rajasthan.

9. Bhotias: Tribals of Garhwal and Kumaon region in Uttaranchal, Sikkim and West
Bengal.

10. Birhors: A tribal group of Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand and

Orissa.

11. Chenchus: Tribals of Andhra Pradesh.

12. Caddis: Tribals of Himachal Pradesh who rear sheep.

13. Garos: Hill tribe of Meghalaya and Assam.

14. Gonds: Tribals inhabiting forests in Madhya Pradesh, Jharkhand, Andhra
Pradesh and Orissa.

15. Gujjars: Animal rearers of Jammu and Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh.

16. Jaintias: Hill tribe of Meghalaya and Assam.

17. Jarawas: One of the oldest tribes of Andaman and Nicobar Islands inhabiting
Little Andamans.

18. Khasa: Tribals of Jaunsar Bhabar region in Uttaranchal.

19. Khasis: Hill tribe of Meghalaya and Tripura.

20. Khonds: Tribals inhabiting parts of Orissa.

21. Kol : Tribals of Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra.

22. Kotas: Tribals of Nilgiri Hills in Tamil Nadu.

23. Kuki: A tribe of Manipur, Assam, Nagaland and Tripura.

24. Lahaulas: Tribals inhabiting Lahaul region in Himachal

Pradesh.

25. Lepchas: Original tribal inhabitants of Sikkim.

26. Lushai: Tribals of Mizoram and Tripura.

27. Murias: Tribals of Bastar district of Madhya Pradesh.

28. Mikirs: A tribal group of Assam.

29. Moplahs: Muslims of the Malabar district in Kerala.

30. Munda: A tribe of Jharkhand, West Bengal, Orissa, Tripura and Chhattisgarh.
31. Nagas: Tribals of Nagaland.

32. Oraon: Tribals inhabiting parts of Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, Orissa and West
Bengal.

33. Onges: One of the tribes of Andaman and Nicobar Islands.

34. Santhals: Tribals living in West Bengal, Jharkhand and Orissa.

35. Scntinelcse: One of the small statured tribes of Andaman and Nicobar Islands.

36. Shompens: Another tribal group of Andaman and Nicobar Islands.

37. Todas: Tribals of the Nilgiri Hills.

38. Uralis: Tribals inhabiting parts of Kerala

39. Varlis: Tribals of Maharashtra, Gujarat and Dadra & Nagar Haveli.

IMPORTANT RIVER VALLEY PROJECTS IN

INDIA
 Bhakhra Nangal Project: On Satluj in Punjab. Highest in India. Ht 226 m.
Reservoir is called Gobind Sagar Lake

 Mandi Project: On Beas in H.P

 Chambal Valley Project: On Chambal in M.P & Rajasthan. 3 dams are there:
Gandhi Sagar Dam, Rana Pratap sagar Dam and Jawahar Sagar dam

 Damodar Valley Project: On Damodar in Bihar.

 Hirakud: On Mahanadi in Orissa. World's longest dam: 4801 m

 Rihand : On Son(river) in Mirzapur. Reservoir is called Govind Vallabh Pant
reservoir

 Mayurkashi Project : On Mayurkashi in W.B

 Kakrapara Project : On Tapi in Gujarat

 Nizamsagar Project: On Manjra in A.P

 Nagarjuna Sagar Project : On Krishna in A.P

 Shivasamudram Project: On Cauvery in Karnataka

 Tata Hydel Scheme : On Bhima in Maharashtra

 Sharavathi Hydel Project On Jog Falls in Karnataka

 Kundah & Periyar Project In TN

 Farakka Project: On Ganga in W.B. Apart from power and irrigation it

helps to remove silt for easy navigation

 Ukai Project : On Tapti in Gujarat

 Salal Project : On Chenab in J & K

 Mata Tila Multipurpose Project-On Betwa in U.P & M.P

 Thein Project : On Ravi, Punjab

 Pong Dam : On Beas, Punjab