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B.

A Program Year 2st ( Semester 3rd )

Written by Manish Verma
History of India from 1200 to 1700
Mr. Manish Verma as an UPSC Aspirant,
Youtuber, Problem Consultant, NIOS DU - SOL
Students Coordinator, Founder of Open schooling
Awareness Program, Founder of The Life Progress
Academy, Social worker.
I want to help you all in every way because we can
contribute in any way in the development of the
country which will be a true tribute to
the brave heroes and it will be my first priority to
take the country to a new height for which I have
tried to convert some of my ideas from
social media and from my educational academy into
basalis in which
the safety of women, the education of daughters, is the cause of terror
from the country. Protection of spirit and environment should be our
first priority! Hope you all get full support in this.

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Important Questions and Answer

Question 1: - What is iqta system, when and who started .

Answer: - Iltutmish "Iqta system" in 1260 A.D. iqta means to provide land in the form of salary
instead of money.

Under Iqta System, soldiers / state officers and employees were given land instead of money in
salary. Alauddin Khilji ended the Iqta system and again resumed cash payment as salary to the
state employees.

History of Iltutmish -

• Iltutmish was the de facto founder of the Delhi Sultanate.

• Iltutmish's reign lasted for 26 years from 1210 to 1236.

• He was the son-in-law and slave of Qutubuddin Aivak.

• Iltutmish was the Subedar of Badanyu before becoming the Sultan of Delhi.

• Iltutmish formed a group of forty rich subedars "Tikarn Echhalgani".

Beginning of iqta system -

Even before Iltutmish's Iqta system, it was in practice, it had started outside India in Persia (Iran)
and western Asia.

Examples -

(1) Qutubuddin Aibak was given the territory of Hansi (Haryana) by Muhammad Ghori of India
as iqt (it was the first ite of history).

(2) The area of Uchh (Sindh) was given to Naseeruddin Qubacha by Muhammad Ghori as iqta.

But at the administrative level, Iqtumish started it

Types of said -

(1) small section :- These were usually given to the soldiers in the form of salaries. The only
accountant related to this was revenue collection.

(2) big :- Important areas were given to the rich and military officers. These ekatears used to
collect revenue in the said land as well as soldiers and administrative duties.

 Requirement of the said system -

The said system started with the need of the early Turkish Sultans. The areas of the
Sultanate located away from the capital, from which revenue collection is not easy, were given
by the Sultan in the form of iqt. These instructions were provided in lieu of the Sultan's
administrative and military service. In this way, the sultans divided the lines and established the
influence of the sultanate in the border areas and regularly recovered the revenue. On the other
hand, the concerned officer got an area under him, in which he could get the revenue as per his
merit.

 Functions of Equator -

The Iqtadar used to complete administrative and military tasks in his iqta. He used to
deposit his salary and administrative and military expenses in the revenue received from Iqta
and deposit the remaining amount in the Sultan's treasury. The remaining amount was called
Fazil.

The Iqtadar ruled in his iqta under the name of Sultan, his position was not hereditary.
And the contractor did not even have the right to run the coin. The rank of the contractor was
transferred. From time to time, the Sultan transferred to the Iqtedars. Feroze Tughlaq had
hereditary as Iqtadar.

 Defective system faults –

Equator General: He used to corrupt corruption by rigging Iqta's income and expenses. Different
sultans took different steps to prevent this and to establish control over the equators-

(1) Balban appointed an officer named Khwaja, who used to assess the income of the said land.

(2) Ala-ud-din emphasized the transfer of the equators and did not keep any equator in a single
unit for more than 3 years. In addition, he increased the intervention of the central administration
in the iqta system.

(3) Determined separately the personal income of Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq and the salary of the
soldiers under him.

(4) Muhammad bin Tughluq imposed extreme control over the Iktedars. He appointed an officer
named Amir in Iqta area, who was the Iqtadar's administration, who operated the administration
of Iqtadar. While the right of recovery remained with the contractor.

Due to this excessive control, the Iqtadars revolted during the time of Muhammad bin Tughlaq.

 Key things -

• During the time of Feroze Tughlaq, the rank of Iktedars was hereditary.

• Iqtedar or Iqta system was given administrative form by Iltumish and he transferred the post.

• In Lodi period, the contractor was called the causer.

 Major buildings built by Iltutmish

(1) The first mausoleum in India was built by Iltutmish, who also built Swam Tomb in Delhi.
Which is believed to be India's first mausoleum built in the secret style.

(2) Iltutmish completed Qutub Minar and built Ajmer mosque.

(3) Iltutmish is called in India (the father of dome building), he built Sultangarhi.

(4) Iltutmish built Hauz-e-Khas in Badayu.

 Major Wars fought by Iltutmish

• Iltutmish saved the Turkish state from Mongol invasion.

• Iltutmish conquered Bengal in 1226 AD and made Bengal the province of Delhi Sultanate.

• Iltutmish conquered Ranthambhore in 1226 and captured the capital of Paramara at Mandore.

• Iltutmish's army was called Haram-e-Kalb.

• During the period of Iltutmish, Mongols attacked under the leadership of Genghis Khan.

Question 2: - With special reference to the Nayankar system, evaluate the

administrative system of the Vijay Nagar Empire.

Answer: -

In the context of the Vijayanagar period monarchy and the provincial system, it is
necessary to mention the Nayankar system. The biggest difference between the Chola era and
the Vijayanagara monarchy is this heroic system. There is a big controversy among historians
regarding the origin of this system, its actual form and interpretation. Some historians say that
the Vijayanagar-era generals were called 'Nayaks'. Some other historians think that these Nayaks
were objects: landowners who were given special land in exchange for king's salary or for
maintenance of their subordinate army Used to give the block, which was called 'Amaram'.

He was also called ‘Amar Nayak’ because of consuming Amaram land. In the middle of the
sixteenth century the number of these heroes was about two hundred and these heroes were the
most appointed in Tamil Nadu. Most of the land in Tamil Nadu was distributed to the heroes in

the form of 'Amaram'. The hero of this 'Amaram' land could not fully consume himself. He had
two major responsibilities regarding the consumption of 'Amaram' land.

The first obligation was that they had to deposit a fraction of the income derived from it in
the central treasury. Secondly, they had to maintain an army to help the king from the income of
this land. The king himself determined the army under each hero.
Generally, the number of army of heroes and the share of revenue to be sent to the center
depended on the size of the Amaram land. Apart from this, the heroes also had to bear the
responsibility of maintaining peace and security in their 'Amaram' land and to prevent crimes, if
there was a theft or loot incident in their jurisdiction, they also had to compensate them.

If the 'Nayaks' were not able to fulfill their obligations, then the plot given to them could be
confiscated. Sometimes heroes were punished physically as well, but we do not find any
evidence to punish them.

 Nayak's position is lower than that of Provincial Governor -

1. The provincial governor was the king's representative in the province and he ruled in the name
of the king, while the hero was only a soldier-feudal and he was only given some districts or
territories to fulfill his military and financial obligations. Were

2. Nayak had more freedom in his state than the governor. State Normality: Nayakar did not
interfere in the internal affairs of the territories and the hero could be removed only if he was
completely incapacitated in the case of any particular situation or governance.

3. We do not find evidence of transferring the heroes from one 'Amaram' region to another
'Amaram' region whereas the Governor could also be transferred or removed as per
administrative requirement.

4. Nayak had more responsibilities than the governor. Clearing the forests, expanding arable
land, protecting agriculture and common prosperity were some of its main responsibilities.

5. Governors were often called 'Dandanayaks' and were mostly Brahmins, but we have very few
instances of being a Brahmin hero.

6. We do not find any instance of provincial governors making their posts genetic, but the
positions of the heroes gradually became genetic.

Question3. In the context of Mughal Rajput relations, discuss the

consolidation of royal power under Akbar.

Answer: -

At the time when Akbar took power, Mughal rule was very weak at that time. Akbar took
several steps to consolidate power after assuming office. One of these steps was also about the
structure of the rich class. Till now the structure of the rich class was dominated by people
belonging to certain classes. Due to this structure of the rich the Sultan also had control of the
rich. This situation remained almost always till the time of Delhi Sultanate. After assuming
power, Akbar tried to change this structure of the rich class so that his dependence would not
remain on the same class of the rich. Therefore, he started to include the new class people in the
rich class.

Rajput and Indian Muslims were the most prominent among these new classes. By joining
the Rajputs in the rich class, Akbar made his main rival his friend. Babur and Humayun had to
face resistance from the Rajputs. Akbar was well aware of this, so he extended the hand of
friendship towards the Rajputs and ensured their participation in the rule by including them in
the rich class. Akbar ensured the participation of different classes in the rich class by including
Indian Muslims who were not considered to be upper class till now.

Question4. Describe the rise of Marathas as new political power under Deccan
Sultanates.

Answer: -

Maratha Empire or Maratha Federation was an Indian imperialist power which existed
from 1674 to 1818. Shivaji laid the foundation of Maratha Empire in 1674. He struggled for
many years with the Mughal empire of Aurangzeb. Later Peshwas extended it to North India,
this empire lasted till 1818 and spread almost all over India. Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj or
Shivaji Raj Bhosle (1630–1680) was a great warrior and strategist of India who laid the
foundation of the Maratha Empire in Western India in 1674. He fought the Mughal Empire of
Aurangzeb for many years. In 1674, he was crowned at Raigad and became Chhatrapati.

Shivaji provided a qualified and progressive administration with the help of his disciplined
service and well organized administrative units. He made many innovations in summer and
developed a new style of guerilla warfare (Shivasutra). He revived ancient Hindu political
practices and courtesy etiquette and replaced Marathi and Sanskrit as the language of royalty in
place of Persian. The term "Maratha" is originally used for speakers of Marathi language.

In the 17th century, it emerged as a post for soldiers serving in the armies of the Deccan
Sultanate and later in Shivaji's armies. Many Maratha warriors, including Shivaji's father
Shahaji, originally worked in those armies. By the mid-1660s, Shivaji had established an
independent Maratha kingdom. After his death, the Marathas fought under his sons and defeated
Aurangzeb in a 27-year war.

It was further expanded into a vast empire by the Maratha Confederacy, including the
Peshwas, which stretched from central India in the south to Peshawar in the north to the
Afghanistan border, and east to the 19th century with campaigns for Bengal, with empire
Maratha chiefs such as Gaekwad of Baroda , Had become a federation of different states
controlled by Holkar of Indore, Scindia of Gwalior, Purs of Dhar and Dewas, and Bhonsle of
Nagpur. It remained the dominant force in India until its defeat by the British East India
Company in the Third Anglo-Maratha War (1817–1818).

By the 19th century, there were many interpretations of the word Maratha in British
administrative records. The term was used in the Thane district gadgetier of 1882 to denote elite
layers in various castes. For example, "Maratha-agriculture" in the agricultural caste was
synonymous with "Maratha-Koli" within the Koli caste and similarly in Pune district, giving rise
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9

to the Kunbi and Maratha-Kunbi caste complexes. The Pune District Gazetteer of 1882 divided
the Kunbis into two classes: Marathas and other Kunbis. The 1901 census listed three groups
within the Maratha-Kunbi caste complex. To the Marathas proper "Maratha Kunbis" and
"Konkani Marathas".

The Kanabi class consisted of agricultural laborers and soldiers. The upper class "justified
Marathas" claimed Rajput clan with Kshatriya status and included rulers, officials and
zamindars. Some Maratha families claiming Rajput dynasty include Bhonsle, Chavan and Pawar.

Question 5: - Outline the development of Qutub campus during the Sultanate

period.

Answer: -

Qutub complex refers to a series of monuments and buildings standing as the most famous
in Delhi, India. Qutub-ud-din Aibak and his successor Iltutmish (aka Altamash) first built the
Qutub complex in their new city called Qila-Rai-Pithora, near the old city of Prithviraj Chauhan,
and many rulers including Iltutmish and Alauddin Khilji followed this complex. Built | Apart
from the most famous monument in the complex, Qutub Minar, other important buildings and
structures including Kutawat-ul-Islam Mosque, Ala-e-Darwaza, Alai Minar and Pillar.

 Qutub Minar -

Qutub Minar is an important example of Indo-Islamic architecture. The construction of

this beautiful tower was used as a high place to call people for daily prayers in the mosque.
Historians believe that Qutub Minar was named after the first Sultan of Turkey, Qutub-ud-din
Aibak. Qutb-ud-din Aibak. He was the first Muslim ruler of Delhi. 1193 A.D. Started
construction of Qutub Minar. His successor, Iltutmish, added three more storeys and in 1368 AD,
Feroz Shah Tughlaq built the fifth and final floors. The tower prominently displays the
development of architectural styles from Aibak to Tughlaq. Curved red sandstone ones

The tower was covered with intricate carvings and verses from the Quran by Muslim artists.
Qutub Minar stands on Lal Kot, the city of Lalgarh in Dhilika, the capital of Jat Tomar and the
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10

ruins of the last Hindu rulers of Chauhan, Delhi. According to inscriptions on its surface, Feroz
Shah Tughlaq and Sikander Lodi restored the structure.

 Kutwat-ul-Islam Mosque -

Qutb-ud-din Aibak built the Kutva-ul-Islam Mosque (also conceived of Islam) (also known
as Qutub Mosque or Great Mosque of Delhi). Mosque construction started in 1190s It happened
when Aibak, serving as commander in Muhammad Ghori's army, occupied Delhi. Historical
documents state that the mosque was built with the remains of Hindu and Jain temples destroyed
by the Muslim rulers.

Prithviraj built the first Jain temple, which was demolished to make way for the first
mosque built in Delhi, 'Kutwat ul-Islam'. Parts of the Jain temple were kept outside the mosque.
The best example of Islamic conquest and Ghurid architecture was the first mosque built in
Delhi.

Question 6: - Evaluate the contribution of Mirabai in contemporary socio-

religious life.

Answer –

Meerabai was born in 1564 at Merta in Samvat, in the house of Ratan Singh, the fourth son
of Duda ji. Kudki is mentioned in many books which is absolutely wrong because Kurki was
found on Jagir Ratan Singh ji on the 11th birthday of Meera Bai. From her childhood, she started
taking interest in Krishna devotion. Meera was born in a Rathore Rajput family and was married
in Sasodia Raj family of Mewar.

His husband was Maharana Kunwar Bhojraj of Udaipur, who was the son of Maharana
Sanga of Mewar. Shortly after marriage, her husband died. After the death of her husband,
Meera was tried to sati with her husband, but Meera was not ready for this. She became

disenchanted with the world and started spending her time in harmony with the company of
saints.

Her devotion to her husband grew from day to day. She used to go to temples and dance in
front of the devotees of Krishnaji in front of the devotees present there. The Raj family did not
like Meerabai to dance and sing in Krishnabhakti. He tried to kill Meera several times by
poisoning her. Troubled by this type of family behavior, she went to Dwarka and Vrindavan. On
going there, he was respected by the people. People loved and respected her like a goddess.

Meera's time has been a time of great political upheaval. Babur's invasion of India and the
famous Khanwa battle which took place between Babur and Rana Sanga Singh, in which Rana
Sanga was defeated and the Mughal suzerainty began in India. The days of the decline and the
end of Hindutva began. Political instability arose in the country in which defense of religion and
culture was a big challenge. In the midst of all these circumstances, Meera's mysticism and
devotional mixed virtue of devotion became universally accepted.

Question 7: - With reference to 'Chakki Nama' and 'Charkha Nama', discuss

the Dhanni Sufi literature.

Answer :-

Some Sufis, such as Hashim Pir, were close to the Adil Shahis court during the reigns of
Ibrahim Adil Shah and Muhammad Adil Shah. Sufi poetry is simple in language and easy to
understand. Jesus Daraj composed many simple but beautiful and lyrical poems. If a woman
sings a song during milling of millet or any other grain, it is called 'Chakki Naama'. 'Chakki'
means flour grinding machine and 'Naama' means poetry.

Sufi saints composed many hymns for every different occasion and poems were called after
them. Thus it was the mill for women who grind grains. 'Charaka Nama' was used for the songs
of women who spinned cotton and silk on a spinning wheel or wheel. If women sang their
children to sleep, it was called 'lullaby'. If the women were married and they sang, it was
'Suhagan Nama'. Thus there were many varieties of such names. Gesu Dara was probably the

first musician of India who composed Chakki Nama. He was an eminent personality of
Gulbarga, an expert in Deccani who gave knowledge of this to hundreds of students and fellow
Sufis.

Domestic activities included a steady movement, which supported these names and
composed in verses of music, they were fully contemporary with the works. Very soon 'Chakki
Nama' and 'Charkha Nama' became the most widely composed, read and sung of poetry. Today

The works of Chakki-nama and Charkha-nama have also been published in Kannada and
Marathi. Amin was an important Sufi saint of Bijapur. Another Sufi Shah Hashim Khudavand
Hadi is credited for the compositions of this category. Other compositions are published in
Bijapur on Chakki Nama by Ghousi and Phil-Hal-Quadri. Shah Kamal-al-Din, the Sufi writer of
Belgaum, wrote the Chakki Nama on the orders of his wife. One of the best compositions of
Suhagan Nama by Sufi saint is 'Shah Raj'. Notable Sufi writers such as Sheikh Mahmud Khush
Dahan (1617), Shah Burhan Janam (1597) and Shah Miranji Shams al-Ushq (1499) composed
their names. His followers played an important part in popularizing the names of these great
Sufis.

‘Arif is al-Wuzud, and those who see that power is at hand witness to light; Thus, we see
behavior, which is God. ”Shah Hashim Khudavand Hadi’s Chakki Nama also speaks of a close
bond between God and works. Charkha nama is even more imaginative.

Question 8: - Underline the development of trade and commerce between the

16th and 17th centuries?

Answer: -

The United East India Company is a trading company of the Netherlands, founded in 1602
and allowed to trade arbitrarily for 21 years. It was the first European company to visit India.
The Dutch East India Company was founded in India in 1602, before Cornelis Dehmann was the
first Dutch citizen to visit India in 1596. The Dutch struggled with the Portuguese and gradually
they occupied all the spice producing regions of India.

In 1639, they besieged Goa and two years later, in 1641, captured Malacca. In 1658 he
captured the last Portuguese settlement of Ceylon. The Dutch opened Coromandel beaches in
Gujarat, Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa in their trading houses. Dutch people usually traded spices,
neem, raw silk, glass, rice and opium from India. After the defeat of the British in the 'Battle of
Vedra' in 1759 AD, the Dutch finally fell in India. The Dutch came here in the early 17th century
with the intention of entering the spice markets of Southeast Asia. In 1605, the Dutch took
Anuvaina from the Portuguese and gradually established their dominance by defeating them in
the Masala island of Punj. The Dutch won Jakarta in 1619 AD. In its ruins, a city called Batavia
was built. During the journey to reach India and Indonesia, VOC established a 'catering colony'
in South Africa.

Even after this, the people associated with VOC laid the foundation of the first settlements
of South Africa and later these areas were put into the colony in the Dutch Empire. The British
East India Company was founded on 31 December 1600 AD. Took place in It was also
sometimes known as John Company. The Queen of Britain gave it up to 21 years to do business
with India. Later the company established its military and administrative suzerainty over almost
all areas of India.

Question 9: - Describe the approach of historians to study the Mughal

Empire.

Answer: -

After the fall of the Lodi dynasty, the Mughal Empire was established in India, which was
founded by Babur, and which culminated in the reign of Akbar the Great. During this period, the
Mughal emperors took keen interest in history, he himself was the author of high-quality
literature, autobiography and events. Tabat-e-Akbari Babur, who laid the foundation of the
Mughal Empire, wrote his autobiography Babarnama or Tujuk-e-Babri in Turkish language. It is
one of the best literary works of the world. It was translated into Persian in 1583 as per Akbar's
order. Translation in English in 1826 and Smt. S. in 1905. Waveridge translated it into two parts.

Babur's life gives a description of Babar's life and the details of the wars fought in
Hindustan - Punjab, Panipat Chanderi, Khanwa's war, the war with the Afghans and the wars
fought with Nusrat Shah of Bengal. Etc. mentioned.

"Tithi-e-Rasiidi" is a major source to know the history of the Mughals and the Turks of
Central Asia, written by Babar's brother Hyder Dogalat. After the father's death, Babur brought
it up with love. It continued to progress with its ability and justice. The date-e-receipt has a
beautiful description of the politics of Central Asia, Babur's early life of ancestors.

Kan-ne-Humayun which is the final creation of Khodmir. It is related to the events that
happen before him. In it, Humayun's description of his eyes, governance experience, rules of
court, law and order and court rituals are described in it. Humayunama was composed by
Gulbadan Begum. 30 years after Himayun's death, Tajkirat-ul-Waqayat was composed by his old
servant Jauhar Afta Vachi under the orders of Emperor Akbar.

Afghan historian Abbas Khan Sarwani created the gift-a-Akbarshahi at the behest of
Akbar, describing Sher Shah's system of governance, its reforms, his siege of Kalinjkar and Sher
Shah's death. Ahmad Yadgar composed Date-i-Shahi with the permission of Dawood Shah, the
ruler of Bengal. This book, written during the reign of Jahagir, starts from the reign of Bahlol
Lodi and ends at the murder of Hemu.

Question 10: - Write short comment on any two -

1) Alauddin Khalji's Market Reforms

The most amazing and important among Alauddin's economic reforms is his pricing plan or
market control policy. Information about this scheme has been obtained from the following
books Tithi-e-Firozshahi, Khujaanul Futuh, Fatwa Jahedari. It is known from the account of
Barney that Alauddin passed seven economic regulations.

i. Determination of prices of all types of grains.

ii. Appointment of market or grain market shehna.

iii. Recovery of rent through grain in Doab region.

iv. Arrangement to bring food grains to Delhi.

v. Stricter penalties against selling grains by buying cheaper.

vi. Proper arrangement of revenue collection and facility of government officials to buy food
grains at fixed price.

vii. Appointment of officials and detectives related to the daily functioning of the market or grain
market.

Purpose - This plan is said to be inspired by military objectives. Alauddin organized a large
army for the expansion of the empire, which was based on about 4.75 lakh soldiers. During the
time of Alauddin, there were constant invasions of Mongols. The purpose of Alauddin was to
provide relief to the common people.

2) Kabir -

Kabir was a 15th century Indian mystic poet and saint. He was the promoter of the poetry
of the Jnanasraya-Nirgun branch in the devotional era of Hindi literature, his compositions
influenced the Bhakti movement of the Hindi state to a deep level. He was a critic of Hindu and
Islam religions, he described Yagyopaveet and circumcision as meaningless. Scholars differ
about the place of birth of Kabir. Some scholars consider his birth in Kashi. Kabir considered
Ramananda as his guru. But Ramananda refused to make him a disciple. But Kabir decided in his
mind to make Swami Ramanand his master at all costs. Kabir used to work as a weaver to earn a
living.

Kabir strongly believed that according to deeds, speed is achieved only because of the
particular place. In order to prove this belief, Kabir went to Maghar in his last time, because
people believed that one dies in Maghar and hell is found in Kashi. He breathed his last in

Maghar. Even today, the tomb and mausoleum of Kabir is located there. The language of Kabir
is Sadhukkadri.

The disciples collected their consorts in a book named "Bajik" which has three main parts -

i. Friend

ii. Sabd (post)

iii. Ramani

3) Mansabdari system -

Mansabdari system introduced by Akbar was an important feature of the administrative

system of the Mughal Empire. In Mughal administration, the word mansab was indicative of the
reputation of its holder in the government hierarchy. Mansabdari system originated in Central
Asia. Mansabdars used to be in the ruling group in the Mughal Empire. The entire rich class,
bureaucracy and military officers used to get mansab. As a result, the number of Mansabdars in
various periods and its organization materially affected not only politics and administration, but
also the economy of the empire. Mansabdars of the Mughal Empire used to get their salaries
either in cash or as jagirs. This enabled them to recover land revenue and all other taxes allowed
by the emperor, Mansabdari system was also an integral part of agriculture and Jagirdari system.
The Mansabdari system provided the presence of the necessary troops and the ambitious people
under the control of the Mughal Emperor on far-flung areas of the empire.

Some changes and modifications were made in the mansabdari system from time to time.
For example, in the reign of Jahangir, the two Aspa and Singh Aspa posts were linked with
Mansab. During the reign of Shah Jahan, some new rules regarding new pay scales, allowances,
number of army to be formed by them etc. were formulated. During the reign of Aurangzeb, the
number of Mansabdars, especially of the higher laborers, increased greatly. There were no

remaining jagirs to provide them. The crisis became so severe that the emperor and his ministers
repeatedly thought of stopping new recruitments, but circumstances did not allow them to do so.
Growth and absence of jagirs led to the wagering and agrarian crisis. Mansabdari system also
became pathetic during the changing days of Aurangzeb's rule.

4) Mughal Miniature Art -

The development of painting in India started during Humayun's reign. When he was
residing in Iran after being defeated by Sher Shah, he obtained the service of Iranian painters to
illustrate the manuscript of Tith-e-Khanidani Timuriya. Indian painters mostly depicted religious
themes, while Iranian painters depicted the life, battle scenes, etc. of the courts. The use of paper
started becoming popular in India since the Sultanate period. According to Abul Fazl, Akbar
gave him the title of Sirin-i-Kalam. 'Hamzanama' has a live depiction of Akbar's youth.

5) Chishti series

The Chisti Silasila gained the most fame and popularity among all the Sufi Silsilos who
came to India at the end of the 12th century, due to this Chistiyo adapted himself well to the
local surroundings and also acquired many characteristics of the Indian devotional tradition. The
founder of Chishti Silsilo in India was Khwaja Mayuddin Chishti. He came to India in 1192 AD
and after some time living in Lahore and Delhi, went to Ajmer. From childhood, he used to do
devotion to God and his faith was to serve the unhappy people, which gave him more popularity
among the masses. Even today thousands of travelers go to Ajmer Sarif with reverence where
their dargah is. Amongst Chisti saints in India, more fame was Nizamuddin Auliya and
Nasuruddin Chiragdehli. These early Sufi saints lived a life of simplicity.

Question 11 . Alauddin Khilji's price control policy was an innovation'. What

was its impact on the producers and consumers ?

Ans.

Alauddin's policy of storing grains in royal granaries, besides serving as a hedge against
famines, was vital to his price control strategy. Since the Sultan wanted to maintain a large army
on relatively modest pay, he had to ensure that essential commodities were available at low
prices. He therefore, fixed the maximum price of a number of goods such as wheat, barley, rice,
pulses, cloths, sugar, sugarcane, fruit and animal fat, besides slaves, horses and livestock.
Ferishta states that the price regulations were meant for the greater part of the Sultan's
dominions. Some scholars however, argue that they were implemented only in the capital city. In
Delhi, a central grain market (mandi) was setup with subsidiary shops in every quarter (mohalla)
of the city. A separate bazaar (serai-i-adl) dealth with cloth, sugar, herbs, dry fruits, butter and
lamp oil while there was, one for horses, slaves and cattel and another for all other commodities.

To ensure effective implementation of state-determined prices, Alauddin appointed a

superintendent of the market (shahna-i-manai ) who was assisted by an intelligence office. A
network of spies informed the

Sultan of any violation of his orders and has imposition of fine imprisonment. It is said to
policies was to transfer a significantly larger share o from the countryside to the towns and from
the Hindu ch governing class. Historians have noted the essentially militaris Alauddin's
economic ventures. There was a clear li ventures. There was a clear link, scholar remark between
the assertion of Muslim paramountcy through the greater part of wanneer continent and
Alauddin's administrative reforms, which enabled the Sultan to raise a larger number of troops
on lower pay. his orders and harsh punishment, including the imprisonment. It is said that the
overall effect of Alauddin gnificantly larger share of the agricultural surplus the towns and from
the Hindu chiefs to the Muslim

Question 12. Discuss the growth of Sufi movement. How did the Suhrawardi
and chisti Sufi differ in their attitudes towards state and society ?

Ans.
The philosopher's objective was Being, while the ‘Kalam' scholars were transcendence. On
the other hand, sufi of divine unity by arousing intuitive and spiritual for rational argument and
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plunge into contemplation were overpowered by ecstasy and frenzy, but sobrietu essential to
sufism. Shah Wali Ullah divides sufis ini the four historical epochs were not mutually exclusive.
There w overlap. The first epoch began with the prophet and his companions and extended until
the time of Junaid of Baghdad. According to Yusuf Hussain, the Sufis of the first two centuries
of Hijrah were ascetics, who laid great stress on the principles of Tauba and Tawakkul. Their
contemplation remained confined within the limits of the Quran and the practice of the prophet.
The second epoch started during Junaid's time. The Sufis of this period lived in a state of
continued meditation and contemplation. This resulted in intuitive insights and intense spiritual
experiences that could be expressed only symbolically or in unusual phrases. They were so
emotionally affected by “sama” that they swooned or tore their clothes in ecstasy. In this period,
the Sufis were better organized and were divided into sects. Sufi masters now began to send their
disciples to distant lands. Many eminent Sufis also moved to India.

The third epoch started from the advent of Shaikh Abu Said, Ibn Abdul Khair and Shaikh
Abul Hasan Kharaqani. The Sufis of the period live in a state of ecstasy which led to 'Tawajjuh'
(spiritual telepathy) In contemplating the union of temporal and eternal their individuality
dissolved and they even ignored their regular religious practices. The fourth began with the birth
of Shaikh Akbar Muhiyuddin Ibn al-Arabi (1165-1240 AD), when the sufis discovered the
theory of the five stages of the descent from “Wajibul Wujud” (Necessary Being), i.e., Ahadiyya
(Essence of Primal One), Wahdaniyva ( Unity of God), sphere of Arwah, sphere of Misal
(Similitude or Angelic Forms), sphere of Ajsam (Bodies of Physical World).

Before reaching India, the movement of Tasawwuf had reached the highest point of its
development in the twelfth century. After the conquest of northern India by the Muslims, various
Sufi orders were established, in particular, the Chisti and Suhrawardiyya orders. The orders of
Qadiri, Naqshabandi, Shuttari, Madari etc., also represented and functioned on more or less the
same lines. The Sufi who left an indelible mark both on India and on the history of sufism was
Abul Hasan Ali, Ibn Usman al-Hujwiri, known as Data Ganj Bakhsh, who reached Lahore in
1035 AD. He wrote Kashful Mahjub in Persian, contains biographies, thought and practices of
Sufis from the Prophet Muhammad's day to his own time. The order of the Chistis, founded by
Khwaja Abdal Chisti (d 966 AD), was introduced into India by Khwaja Muinuddin Chisti. He

was borr in Sistan in 1143 AD. He travelled widely in Islamic countries and came to Harun, a
town in Nishapur, and became the disciple of Khwaja Usman Haruni a famous saint of the Chisti
order, who directed him to settle in India. Khwaja Muinuddin arrived in India in 1190 AD and
first proceeded to Lahore, where he spent some times in meditation at the tomb of Ali Hujwiri.
The surviving sayings of the Khwaja show that his life's mission was to inculcate piety, humility
and devotion to God.

Question 13 . Critically examine the causes responsible for the decline of the
Mughal empire.
Ans.

The death of Alamgir (Aurangzeb) in 1707 is generally regarded as the beginning of the
gradual decline and ultimately fall of the once extensive, prosperous and powerful Mughal
empire. Although, it took nearly 150 years before the House of Babur finally disappeared from
the scene, the cracks that had appeared at Laager’s death widened.

His son Muazzam, who ruled from 1707 to 1712, succeeded Aurangzeb Alamgir. He took
for himself the title of Bahadur Shah. He ruled for five years and momentarily revived the
Mughal empire. But the Maratha power increased and they became the unchallenged rulers of
Deccan. In the province of Punjab

The Sikhs under Guru Govind Singh became a force to reckon with. One of the reasons
that power centers kept springing up outside Delhi, was the frequent change in the succession of
empires. Nearly 17 kings were crowned during the period spanning from 1707 to 1857. The
weakened Mughal empire invited havoc in the form of the Persian king Nadir Shah, in 1738-39.
On his orders a general massacre of the citizens of Delhi was carried out, resulting in the death of
30,000 people. Another threat to the Mughal empire came from the Afghans of Rohilkhand,
lying north-east of Delhi. By the middle of 18th century, the Rohillas became independent of the
Mughal rule. At the same time, the Jats also raised their heads against the central rule. Taking
advantage of this chaotic situation, the East India Company began strengthening its military
capabilities. They conspired with Hindu traders and moneylenders against Nawab Sirajuddaullah
of Bengal to take over his principality. The Battle of Plassey of 1757 is considered a major

breakthrough for the British in the sub-continent. It paved the way for the Company's role in
Bengal and hence the whole of India ultimately came under the Company's rule.

In the 19th century, Muslims like Syed Ahmad Barelvi and shah Ismail carried out Jihad
against the Sikhs, as did Haider Ali and Tipu Sultan, in Deccan against the British. However,
they failed in their efforts to stop the downfall of the Muslim rule. The final crunch came after
the war of 1857 when the Mugal rule officially came to an end and India came under the direct
rule of Biritish crown. Mughal empire reached its greatest extent in the time of Aurangzeb
Alamgir, but it collapsed with dramatic suddenness within a few decases after his death.
The Mughal empire owes Its decline and ultimate downfall to a combination of factors;
firstly,Aurangzeb’s religious policy is regarded as a cause for the decline of the Mughal empire
as it led to disunity among the people. Although, the policy did lead to weakening of the empire
but the major cause of decline was the lack of worthy and competent successors after him. The
character of Mughal kings had deteriorated over a period of time. The successive rulers after
Aurangzeb were weak and lacked the character, motivation and commitment to rule the empire
strongly. They had become ease loving and cowardly. They totally disregarded their state duties
and were unable to detain the declining empire from its fall.

The absence of any definite law of accession was another important factor. The war of
succession not only led to bitterness, bloodshed and loss of money and prestige of the empire
over a period of time, but to its eventual fall. The degeneration of the rulers had also led to the
moral degeneration of the nobility. Under the early Mughals, the nobles performed useful
functions and distinguished themselves both in war and peace. But the elite under the later
Mughals was more interested in wordly pursuit and self-enhancement. The nobles who had once
been talented men with integrity, honesty and loyalty, turned selfish and deceitful. Growth of
hostile and rival clique in the court also

undermined the strength of the government. Widespread corruption in the aaministration

started and taking bribes became common. One of the most potent causes of the fall of the
Mughal empire was the deterioration and demoralization of the army. The military had not only
become inefficient but also lacked in training, discipline and cohesion. The army was outdated in
regard to equipment. It consisted of contingents maintained by various nobles, which was the
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main source of Army's weakness. As the weakening of the nobles occurred, so did the army. This
was because of the soldiers, instead of identifying and uniting as Mughal Indians, identified
themselves with different ethnic groups like Persian, Afghans and Central Asians.

The Mughals had no navy and only maintained small ships that were no match for the
well-equipped ships of the foreign traders. It was this weakness that the French and the British
used to their advantage and were eventually able to establish their control over India. Another
factor contributing to the decline was the financial position of the Mughals, which had become
deplorable. The war of successions, rebellions and luxurious style of living had depleted the
once enormous treasury and had led to financial bankruptcy. During the time of Aurangzeb, the
Mughal empire had expanded to reach its maximum size. This vast area had become impossible
for one ruler to control and govern from one center. It was during the later Mughals that Deccan,
Bengal, Bihar and Orissa declared their independence. The raids by Nadir Shah, and repeated
invasions of Ahmad Shah Abdali, resulted in further weakening of the empire. The already
weakened empire faced further encroachment by the British and the French, which proved to be
the last nail in the already drowning empire's coffin.

Question 14. Discuss the main teachings of Bhakti Saints with special
reference to Kabir and Nanak.

Ans.
Kabir was influenced by prevailing religious mood such as old Brahmanic Hinduism,
Hindu and Buddhist Tantrism, teachings of Nath yogis and the personal devotinalim from South
India mixed with imageless God of Islam. The influence of these various doctrines is clearly
evident in Kabir's verses. Even though he is often presented to be synthesizer of Hinduism and
Islam: the observation is held to be a false one. The basic religious principles hé espouses are
simple. According to Kabir, all life is an interplay of two spiritual principles. One is the personal
soul (Jivatma) and the other is God (Paramatma).

It is Kabir's view that salvation is the process of bringing into union these two divine principles.
The social and practical manifestation of Kabir's philosophy has rung through the ages. It
represented a synthesis of Hindu and Muslim. concepts. From Hinduism he accepts the concept
of reincarnation and the law of Karma. From Islam, he takes the outer practices of Indian Sufi
ascetics and Sufi mysticism. Not only has Kabir influenced Muslims and Hindus but he is one of
the major inspirations behind Sikhism as well. Despite legend that claims Kabir met with Guru
Nanak, their lifespans do not overlap in time.

The presence of much of his verse in Sikh scripture and the fact that Kabir was a
predecessor of Nanak has led some western scholars to mistakenly describe him as a forerunner
of Sikhism. His greatest work is the Bijak (that is, the seedling), an idea of the fundamental one.
This collection of poems demonstrates Kabir's own universal view of spirituality. His vocabulary
is replete with ideas regarding Brahman and Hindu ideas of Karma and reincarnation. His Hindi
was a vernacular, straight forward, kind, much like his philosophies. He often advocated leaving
aside the Quran and Vedas and to simply follow Sahaja path, or the Simple/Natural Way to
oneness in God.

He believed in the Vedantic concept of atman, but unlike earlier orthodox Vedantins, he
followed this philosophy to its logical end by spanning the Hindu societal caste system and
worship of murti, showing clear belief in both bhakti and sufi ideas. The major part of Kabir's
work as a Bhagat was collected by the fifth Sikh guru, Guru Arjan Dev and forms a part of the
holy Sikh scripture "Guru Granth Sahib”.

Question15 . Give an account of internal and overland trade from 15th to 18th
centuries.

Ans.
The Mughal Empire was a Persian-speaking Islamic imperial power which ruled most of
the Indian sub-continent from the early 16th to the mid-19th centuries. The Mughal Shahanshahs
were originally of Turkish origin. At the height of its power, around 1700, it controlled most of
sub-continent extending from present day Bangladesh to Kashmir and part of what is now
Afghanistan. Its population at that time has been estimate as between 110 and 130 million, over a
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territory of over 4 million km2. Following 1725 it declined rapidly. Its decline has been
variously explained as caused by wars of succession, agrarian crises fueling local revolts, the
growth of religious intolerance, and British colonialism.

The contact between Western Europe and the Mughal empire was put into practice in the
very beginning of the 17th century. The Portuguese, English and later on, the Dutch were the
ones to communicate with the Mughal Empire. As the first Islamic power on the Indian sub-
continent, the Mughal empire was more interested in assimilating the land, studying the history,
customs and religion of the people occupying this area, and communicating with the other two
Islamic empires-the Saffavid and the Ottoman empires The Mughal empire was blessed with
very strong leaders, however, very different in approach and strategy. Akbar the Great was
known for his tolerance towards unorthodox Muslims and Hindus.

The Akbarnama, a book written by Abu'l Fazl on the ļife and rule of Akbar, gives a lot of
evidence on how Hinduism was viewed and explained by the Muslims. Along with being
tolerant towards his Hindu and Muslim subjects, Akbar welcomed Portuguese Jesuits, which
allowed Portugal to enter the trade with Indian goods. At the very end of his rule, the British,
Dutch, and Portuguese started trade with the Mughal empire as well. Even though the trade
started during the reign of Akbar the Great, his son Jahangir was the one to strengthen this
economic activity in the Indian sub-continent. The trade in India was implemented mainly on the
coast. During the 17th century, there were two big Islamic empires between Western Europe and
the Mughal empire- the Saffavid and the Ottoman Empires – their trade was implemented only
by ships.

Therefore, the main posts were on the coast of both the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal
with the small exception of Calcutta, located on the bank of river Hooghly, yet still accessible by
water. Bombay and Surat on the Arabian sea coast and Madras (today's Chennai) or-as the
British named it-Fort St. George, were the four main locations of Indo-European trade during the
17th century. Trade as a tool for the early world globalization was very prosperous and prontable
for both the European and the Indian merchants. Consequently, the local Indian landlords gained
a lot of power and money. Since the emperor's power was not as centralized and certainly was
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not recognized by all of the people of different origin living within the borders of the Mughal
empire, the local potentates stood against the emperor and formed autonomous or
semiautonomous states. This separation made it easy afterwards for the already penetrated
British powers to put the end of the Mughal empire in the mid-19th century.

Question 16. Account for the rise of Bhakti movement in India from the 13th
to 10th centuries. What were its effect on the social and religious life of the
people?

Ans.
The notion of 'Bhakti' is of antiquity. A nascent conception of Bhakti is to be found in the
earliest Vedas, especially in relation to deities such as Varuna. A clearer expression of Bhakti
began to be formed during the Epic and the Puranic periods of Hindu history. Texts such as the
Bhagavad Gita and the Bhagavata Purana clearly explore Bhakti Yoga, or the Path of Devotion,
as a means to Moksha. The Bhakti movement is a historical-spiritual phenomenon that
crystallized in South India during Late Antiquity. It was spearheaded by devotional mystics (later
revered as Hindu saints) who extolled devotion and love to God as the chief means of spiritual
perfection.

The sixty-three Nayanars (Shaivite devotees) and the twelve Alvars (Vaishnavaite devotees)
spearheaded the Bhakti movement. Among the earliest Shaivite mystics was Karaikkal Amaiyar,
who probably lived around the late 5th century CE or perhaps the early 6th century. She was said
to be a contemporary of the Vaishnavaite saints Bhuttalwar and Peialwar. Kannapa Nayanar was
another early Shaiva Bhakti saint. But most famous among the Shaiva Bhakti saints were the
Nalvar (The Four Eminent Ones), Sundarar, Appar, Sambandar and Manikkavasagar. Their
devotional hymns are ecstatic, lyrical and moving.

The Vaishnavaite Bhakti movement was probably early or mostly contemporaneous with
the Shaiva Bhakti movement. The hymns of the twelve Alvars are known as the Nalayira Divya
Prabandham and recited in temple rituals. While all the saints are held, in great reverence,
Aandaal (or Goda-devi) in particular holds a special place among the Vaishnava saints. Not only
is she the only female Vaishnava saint but also her hymns are among the best expressions of
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bridal mysticism, in the Hindu religion. Nammalvar alias Sadagopan is considered the greatest of
all Alwars for his rendering of the Dravida vedas called Thiruvaimozhi (literally Sacred Chants
of the mouth). The twelve Alvars and the sixty-three Nayanars nurtured the incipient Bhakti
movement in South India under the Pallavas and Pandyas in the fifth to seventh centuries AD.
They constitute South India's 75 Apostles of Bhakti and were greatly influential in
determining the expression of faith in South India. The path of devotion as expounded by these
mystics would later be incorporated into the Sankara, Ramanuja and Madhva philosophical
systems. It is very important to note that the above Apostles of Bhakti, came from across the
social strata and had greater impact and reach on the masses. Many were social reformers in their
own right. Probably, the earliest seeds of social reforms were sown by them.

During the 12 and 13th centuries CE, the Virashaiva movement and, during the rule of the
vijayanagra empire in south india, the Haridasa movement spread from present day Karnataka.
The Virashaiva movement spread the philosophy of Basavanna, a Hindu reformer. The seeds of
Carnatic music were sown and The philosophy of Madhvacharya was propagated by the
Kannada Haridasad. The Haridasa movement, like the Virashaiva movement, presented another
strong current of Bhakti, pervading the lives of million. The Haridasas presented two groups-
Vyasakuta and Dasakuta. The former were required to be proficient in the Vedas, Upanishads
and other Darshanas, while merely Dasakuta merely conveyed the message of Madhvacharya
through the Kannada Language to the people.

The philosophy of Madhvacharya was preserved and perpetuated by his eminent disciples
like Vyasatirtha or Vyasaraja Naraharitirtha, Vadirajatirtha, Sripadaraya, Jayathirtha and others.
In the fifteenth century Haridasa movement took shape under Sripadaraya of Mulbagal; but his
disciple Vyasatirtha provided it a strong organizational base. He was intimately associated with
the Vijayanagata empire, where he became a great moral and spiritual force. His eminent
disciples were Purandaradasa and Kanakadasa. Yakshagana, as a theater form emerged as an
offshoot of this movement in Karnataka.

The late Bhakti movement led to the proliferation of regional poetic literature in the
various vernacular languages of India. The Bhakti movement in what is now Karnataka resulted
in a burst of poetic Kannada literature, in praise of Vishnu. Some of its leaders include
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Purandaradasa and Kanakadasa, whose contributions were essential to Carnatic music. The later
Carnatic Trinity is also no doubt a product of this long Bhakti movement. The Bhakti movement
began to spread to the north during the late medieval ages when North India was under Muslim
domination. There was no grouping of the mystics into Shaiva and Vaishnava devotees as in the
south. The movement was spontaneous and the various mystics had their own version of
devotional expression. Unlike in the south, where devotion was centered on both Shiva and
Vishnu (in all his forms), the northern devotional movement was more or less centered on Rama
and Krishna, both of whom were incarnations of Vishnu. Though this did not mean that the sect
of Shiva or of the Devi went into decline.

In fact for all of its history the Bhakti movement co-existed peacefully with the other
movements in Hinduism. It was initially considered unorthodox, as it rebelled against caste
distinctions and made disregarded Brahmanic rituals, of time however, owing to its its immense
popularity among the masses (and even of time however, owing tot 'orthodox' and continues to
be one of the most royal patronage) it became ‘orthodox’ and continues to be one of the most
Important modes of religious expression in modern India. In the period between the 14-17th
centuries, a great Bhakti movement swept through Central and Northern India, initiated by a
loosely associated group of teachers or sants.

Chaitanya, Vallabha, Surdas, Meerabai, Kabir, Tulsidas, Ravidas, Namdeo, Tukaram and
other mystics spearheaded the Bhakti movement in the north. Their teachings were that people
could cast aside the heavy burdens of ritual and caste and the subtle complexities of philosophy
and simply express their overwhelming love for God. This period was also characterized by a
spate of devotional literature in vernacular prose and poetry in thevf ethnic languages of the
various Indian states or provinces. While many of the Bhakti mystics focused their attention on
Krishna or Rama, it did not necessarily mean that the sect of Shiva was marginalized.

In the thirteenth century, Basava founded the Vira-Shaiva school or Virashaivism. He

rejected the caste system, denied the supremacy of the Brahmins, condemned ritual sacrifice and
insisted on Bhakti and the worship of the one God, Shiva. His followers were called Vira-
Shaivas, meaning "Stalwarnt Shiva-worshippers”. The Saiva-Siddhanta school is a form of
Shaivism found in the south and is of hoary 'antiquity. It incorporates the teachings of the Shaiva
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Nayanars and espouses the belief that Shiva is Brahman and his infinite love is revealed in the
divine acts of the creation, preservation and destruction of the universe, and in the liberation of
the soul.

Question 17. Examine the main features of land revenue system under
Mughals.
Ans.

The land revenue system of the Mughal empire was largely the work of Akbar, for the
early two Mughal kings (Babur and Humayun) did not really get the chance to implement much
of a system. Akbar's task was simplified as he inherited some measurses of Sher Shah's system of
organization. During Akbar's time, the system worked very well, but it began to deteriorate
during the time line of his successors. As mentioned earlier, all officers were members of the
army. Each officer was assigned a specific responsibility and was paid a monthly salary. He was
also required to maintain a certain strength of troops, with senior officers commandind larger
units and drawing greater salaries. The system was very flexible and an officer could be assigned
to any office.

During Akbar’s time, the system worked very well because of Akbar’s remarkable ability
to pick the right man for the right job, though such efficiency slowly deteriorated during the
reign of his successors. The officers were either paid their salaries in cash or were granted land
for short periods of time, on which they could obtain revenue who was responsible for the Wazir
(Chief Minister), followed by the Bakslai who was responsible for the salaries of all the
employees of the state. He was also involved in recruitment for the army as well as recruiting
officers for the administration. There were various other departments and officers like Auditor
General, the head of the Imperial workshop, the superintendent of forests, the news reporters etc.

The revenue system is an important part of any government and the Mughals had a fairly
well organized system of revenue collection. Land revenue continued to remain an important
source of income for the state. Other sources were trade, industry, transport, etc. Around the time
Akbar ascended the throne the land revenue system was fairly disorganized with a mix of nobles,
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landlords etc. involved in land ownership and revenue collection. Akbar realized the importance
of an efficient land revenue policy for an expanding empire. Initially, he tried out a disastrous
experiment which eventually had to be cancelled. He attempted a new system, in which he first
abolished all current land holdings. The empire was then divided into a series of land holdings,
each yielding a fixed amount of revenue every year.

These areas were then allotted to an officer called a Karori, whose job was the collection of
revenue and encourage cultivation (which in turn would boost revenue). However, the Karori's
turned out to be corrupt tyrants at whose hands the cultivators went through tremendous
suffering. The system was quickly abolished and the earlier system restored.

In 1852 AD, an important new development took place in the re-organizational effort of
land revenue. Todar Mall was appointed to the post Dian-i-Ashraf. A new system was
established which had three divisions. The system was essentially fair, as the land would be only
assessed for the portion where to cultivation was done. The tax was one third of the produce, and
the crops varied depending on the type of crop and the prevailing market conditions. To assist in
the purposes of administration and revenue collection, the Mughal empire was divided into
hierarchical system of areas. The empire was first divided into a number of subas. The subas
were then divided into paraganas. Aparagana was a union of several villages. At each stage there
were several officers who supervised operations like revenue assessment and collection etc.
Their orders were to collect revenue in a just and efficient manner and not put undue pressure on
villagers, especially if they had suffered a natural disaster. Apparently, there was tremendous
accountability, because we have records, even high ranking official, provincial governors being
dismissed after complaints were made against them by the citizens. The entire system worked
fairly well The landlords now had a sense of security with a developed system and were given a
fair amount of flexibility in paying their dues. Although, the tax rate was on the higher side (one-
third of the total produce) it was pretty reasonable considering the emperors abolished various
other taxes.

Question 18. Critically evaluate the growth of Akbar's religious policy.

Ans.

Akbar as well as his mother and other members of his family are believed to have been
Sunni Hanafi Muslims. His early days were spent in the backdrop of an atmosphere in which
liberal sentiments were encouraged and religious narrow-mindedness was frowned upon. From
the 15th century, a number of rulers in various parts of the country adopted a more liberal policy
of religiou tolerance, attempting to foster communal harmony between Hindus and Muslims.

These sentiments were further encouraged by the teachings of popular saints like guru nanak,
kabir and Chaitanya, the verses of the Persian poet Hafez which advocated human sympathy and
a liberal outlook, as well as the Timurid ethos of religious tolerance that persisted in the polity
right from the times of timur to Humayun, and influenced Akbar’s policy of tolerance in matters
of religion.

Further, his childhood tutors, who included two Irani Shias, were largely above sectarian
prejudices and made a significant contribution to Akbar’s later inclination towards religious
tolerance. One of Akbar’s first actions after gaining actual control of the administration was the
abolition of jizya, a tax which all non-Muslims Were required to pay, in 1562. The tex was
reinstalled in 1575 a move which has been viewed as being symbolic of vigorous Islamic policy,
but was again repealed in 1580. Akbar adopted the Sulh-e-Kul (or reace to All) concept of
Sufism as official policy, integrated many Hindus inton high positions in the administration and

removed restrictions on non-Muslims, thereby bringing about a composite and diverse character
to the nobility. As a mark of his respect for ail religions, he ordered the observance of all
religious festivals of different communities in the Imperial court

During the early part of his reign, Akbar adopted an attitude of suppression towards
Muslim sects that were condemned by the orthodoxy asheretical. In 1567, on the advice of
Shaikh Abdul Nabi, he ordered the exhumation of Mir Murtaza Sharifi Shirazi - a Shia buried in
Delhi – because of the grave's proximity to that of Amir Khusrau, arguing that a "heretic" could
not be buried so close to the grave of a Sunni saint, reflecting a restrictive attitude towards the
Shia, which continued to persist till the carly 1570s. He suppressed Mahdavism in 1573 during
his campaign in Gujarat, in the course of which the Mahdavi leader Bandagi Miyan Shiek
Mustafa was arrested and brought in chains to the court for debate and released after eighteen
months.
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However, as Akbar increasingly came under the influence of pantheistic Sufi mysticism
from the early 1570s, it caused a great shift in his outlook and culminated in his shift from
orthodox Islam as traditionally professed, in favour of a new concept of Islam transcending the
limits of religion. Consequently during the latter half of his reign, he adopted a policy of
tolerance towards the shias and declared a prohibition on Shia-Sunni conflict, and the empire
remained neutral in matters of internal religious conflict within Islam.

The Din-i-ilahi was a syncretic religious doctrine propounded by the Mughal emperor
Jalal-ud-Din Muhammad Akbar ("Akbar the Great"), who Mughal emperor Jalal-ud-Din
Muhammad Akbar ("Akbar the Great” ), Who ruled the Indian sub-continent from 1556 to 1605,
Intending to merge the best elements of the religions of his empire and thereby reconcile the
differences that divided his subjects. The elements were primarily drawn from Islam and
Hinduism, but some others were also taken from Christianity, Jainism and Zoroastrianism. Akbar
promoted tolerance of other faiths. In fact, not only did he tolerate them, he encouraged debate
on philosophical and religious issues.

This led to the creation of the Ibadat Khana ("House of Worship") at Fatehpur Sikri, From the
discussions he led there in 1575, Akbar concluded that no single religion could claim the
monopoly of truth. This inspired him to create the Din-i-Ilahi in 1581. Various pious Muslims,
among them the Qadi of Bengal and the seminal Sufi personality Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi,
responded by declaring this to be blasphemy to Islam. Din-i-llahi appears to have survived Akbar
according to the Dabestan-e-Mazaheb of Mubad Shah(Mohsin Fani).

However, the movement never numbered more than 19 adherents. Din-i-Ilahi was more of
an ethical system. It prohibits lust, sensuality, slander and pride, considering them sins. Piety,
prudence, abstinence and kindness are the core virtues. The soul is encouraged to purify itself
through yearning of God. Celibacy is respected and the slaughter of animals is forbidden. There
are neither sacred scriptures nor a priestly hierarchy in this religion.

Question 19. Discuss the steps taken by Iltutmish and Balban in consolidating
the Delhi Sultanate.

Ans.
Shams-ud-din Iltutmish, or Altamast was the third Muslim Turkish Sultan of the Sultanate
of Delhi and the third ruler of the Mamluk dynasty or Slave dynasty Shams-ud-din raised his
status step by step until he was made Governor of Badaun and was married to a daughter of
Qutub-ud-din. In recognition of his services during the campaign of Muhammad of Ghur against
the Khokhars, he was, by the Sultan's order, manumitted and elevated as Amir-ul-Umara. On his
accession, Iltutmish was faced with an embarrassing situation. The New Sultan faced the
situation boldly.

He first effectively suppressed a rebellion of the Amirs in the plain of Jud near Delhi, and
then brought under his control the different parts of the kingdom of Delhi with its dependencies
like Badaun, Benares and Siwalik. The ambitious designs of his rivals were also frustrated.
Qubacha, who had meanwhile advanced to Lahore, was expelled from that city by Iltutmish in
1217. He was completely subdued in 1228 and was accidentally drowned in the Indus. Sindh was
annexed to the Delhi Sultanate. The Khalji Maliks of Bengal were reduced to complete
submission in the winter of circa 1231 and Ala-ud-din Jani was appointed Governor of
Lakhnauti.

Ghiyasuddin Balban was a Turkish ruler of the Delhi Sultanate during the Mamluk
dynasty from 1266 to 1286. He was a slave of Iltutmish who at the orders of his own master
Qutubuddin Aibak released him from slavery and brought him up in a manner befitting a prince.
During his reign, Balban ruled with an iron fist. He broke up the Chihalgani, a group of the forty
most important nobles in the court. He tried to establish peace and order in the country of India.
He built many outposts in areas where there was crime and garrisoned them with soldiers.
Balban wanted to make sure everyone was loyal to the crown by establishing an efficient
efficient espionage system. He ruled as the Sultan from 1266 until his death. His successors were

weak and incompetent and the throne was eventually captured by Jalal-ud-din Firus Khilji in
1290, bringing an end to the Slave dynasty.

Question20. Critically analyze the evolution of the Iqta system in the Delhi
Sultanate.

Ans.
Evolution of the Iqta System: First Stage (1206-1290): The System started with the
assignment of different regions as Iqtas (territorial areas or units whose revenues were assigned
to officials in lieu of salaries) to military commanders, out of whose revenues they could
maintain themselves and the troops as well. Iqta in this stage stood for not only a revenue unit
but also an administrative unit. Transfer of iqtas from one person to another was done rarely in
this period.

Second stage (1290-1351): Modification of the system was done under the Khaljis and the early
Tughlaqs. They resorted to frequent transfer of iqtas. They insisted on the submission of
accounts of collection and expenditure by the iqtadars or muqtis (holders of iqtas) regularly and
sending the balance (fawazil) to the treasury. Estimation of the revenue paying capacity of each
area, fixation of the salaries of the officers in terms of cash and assignment of the iqtas of the
same revenue paying capacity were the main developments.

Third stage (1351-1526) : It began with the reversal of the trend of the previous phase by Froze
Tughlaq who granted as series of concessions to the officers. Fixation of the estimated revenues
of the iqtas was done permanently, thus allowing the muqtis to appropriate all the increases of
revenue. The posts and the assignments were made practically hereditary. These changes,
introduced by Firoz, were continued by all his successors.

All the above developments in the iqta system were basically due to the changes in the
composition of the nobility under the Delhi Sultans. The nobility was initially monopolished by
the Turks, but gradually others like the Persians, Afghans, Abyssinians, and Indian Muslims,
entered the nobility, thus making it more cosmopolitan and heterogeneous. The entry of new
elements into the nobility under the Khaljis and early Tughlaqs enabled the Sultans to increase
their control over the iqta system, but once the new elements got themselves strengthened they
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demanded more powers and privileges, thus resulting in the liberalisation and decentralisation of
the iqta system by Firoz Tughlaq.

Question 21. The economic and administrative reforms of Mohammad-bin

Tughlaq were an attempt to streamline a rapidly growing sultanate Discuss,

Ans.

Mahammad Tughlaq was a scholar versed in logic, philosophy, mathematics, astronomy

and physical sciences. He had knowledge of medicine and was skilful in dialectics. He was also a
calligrapher. Ibn Battuta (Moroccan traveller) visited him during his reign. Tughlaq was
committed to maintaining the Sultanate's expansion into the newly conquered provinces of
peninsular India. To strengthen the Sultanate's hold on its southern parts, Tughlaq early in his
reign moved the capital from Delhi to Devagiri, 700 miles (1500 km) south in the Deccan,
renaming Devagiri as Daulatabad. Instead of moving just his government offices there, he
forcibly moved the entire population of Delhi to the new capital. The plan proved disastrous due
to Mongol attack on north.

Inadequate water supply arrangements in Daulatabad; after only two years, the capital had
to be shifted back again to Delhi. Multitudes died during the two moves, and it was said that
Delhi was a ghost town for years after the move back. “When I entered Delhi, it was almost like
a desert,” wrote the famed North African travel writer, Ibn Battuta. Mohamedebin Tughlaq also
introduced token currency for the first time in India, modeled after the Chinese example, using
brass or copper coins, backed by silver and gold kept in the treasury. However, very few people
exchanged their gold or silver coins for the new copper ones. Moreover, the tokens were easy to
forge, which led to losses. It is said that after the plan failed, there were heaps of copper coins
lying around the royal offices for years.

Mohammad-bin Tughlaq is known for his active interesting experimenting with coinage.
He memorialized himself and his activities through his coinage and produced more gold coins
than had his predecessors. The coins boasted fine calligraphy. He issued a number of fractional
denominations. The large influx of gold from his plundering of south Indian campaign led him to
increase coinage weights. He enlarged the gold dinar from 172 grmns to 202 grmns.
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He introduced a silver coin, the adlis, which was discontinued after seven year due to lack
of popularity and acceptance among his subjects. All his coins reflect a staunch religiosity, with
such inscriptions as: “The warrior in the cause of God", "The trustier in support of the four
Caliphs-Abubakkar, Umar, Usman and Ali”. The Kalimah appeared in most of his coinage. Both
at Delhi and at Daulatabad coins were minted in memory of his father. There were also mints at
Lakhnauti, Salgaun. Darul-I-Islam, Sultanpur (Warrangal), Tughlaqpur (Tirhut), and MulkI-I-
Tilang. More than thirty varieties of billion coins are known so far, and the types show his
numismatic interests.

Unique among his coinage was the “forged currency". Tughlaq had two scalable versions,
issued in Delhi and Daulatabad The currency obeyed two different standards, probably to satisfy
the local standard which pre-existed in the north and in the south respectively. Tughlag's skill in
forging the tw o standard of currency is remarkable. He engraved, "He who obeys the Sultan
obeys the compassionate" to fascinate people in accepting the new coinage. Inscriptions were
even engraved in the Nagari legend, but owing to the alloy used, the coinage underwent
deterioration. As well, the copper and brass coins could easily be forged, turning every house
into a mint. Tughlaq subsequently withdraw the forged currency by exchanging it with bulls etc.

Question 22. Briefly discuss the emergence of the Bhakti movement in

medieval period. What role did it play in transforming society?

Ans.
The notion of 'Bhakti' is of antiquity. A nascent conception of Bhakti is to be found in the
earliest Vedas, especially in relation to deities such as Varuna. A clearer expression of Bhakti
began to be formed during the Epic and the Puranic periods of Hindu history. Texts such as the
Bhagavad Gita and the Bhagavata Purana clearly explore Bhakti Yoga, or the Path of Devotion,
as a means to moksha. The Bhakti Movement as a historical-spiritual phenomenon that
crystallized in South India during Late Antiquity. It was spearheaded by devotional mystics (later
revered as Hindu saints) who extolled devotion and love to God as the chief means of spiritual
perfection.
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The sixty three Nayanars (Shaivite devotees) and the twelve Alvars (Vaishnavite devotees)
spearheaded the Bhakti Movement. Among the earliest Shaivite mystics was Karaikkal Amaiyar,
who probably lived around the late 5th century CE or pemap" early 6th century. She was said to
be a contemporary of the Vaishnavite saints Bhuttalwar and Peialwar. Kannapa Nayanar was
another early Shiva Bhakti saint. But most famous among the Shaiva Bhakti saintswere the
Navar Four Eminent Ones), Sundarar, Appa, Sambandar and Manikkavasagar. The hymns of the
twelve Alvars are Known as the Nalayira Divya Prabandham and recited in temple rituals. While
all the saints are held in great reverence, Aandall (or Goda-devi) in particular holds a special
place among the Vaishnava saints. She was the only female Vaishnava Saint. Nammalvar alias
Sadagopan is considered the greatest of all Alwars for his rendering of the Dravida Vedas called
Thiruvaimozhi (literally sacred chants of the mouth).

The twelve Alvars and the sixty-three Nayanars nurtured the incipient Bhakti Movement in
South India under the Pallavas and Pandyas in the fifth to seventh centuries AD. They constitute
South India's of gold Karnataka. The Virashaiva movement spread the philosophy of Basavanna,
a Hindu reformer. The seeds of Carnatic music were sown, and the philosophy of Madhvacharya
was propagated by the Kannada Haridasas. The Haridasa movement, like the Virashaiva
movement, presented another strong current of Bhakti, pervading the lives the millions. The
Haridasas presented two groups – Vyasakuta and Dasakuta. The former were required to be
proficient in the Vedas, of the path of devotion as expounded by these mystics would later be
incorporated into the Sankara, Ramanuja and Madhva's philosophical systems. It is very
important to note that the above Apostles of Bhakti, came from across the social strata and had
greater impact and reach on the masses.

Many were social reformers in their own right. Probably the earliest seeds of social reforms were
sown by them. During the 12th and 13th centuries CE, the Virashaiva movement and during the
rule of the Vijayanagara Empire in South India, the Haridasa movement spread from present-
day.

In the fifteenth century, the Haridasa movement took shape under Sripadaraya, but his
disciple Vyasatirtha provided it a strong organizational base. He was intimately associated with
the Vijayanagara Empire, where he became a great moral and spiritual force. His eminent
disciples were Purandaradasa and Kanakadasa.

Question 23. Discuss the importance of the Nayankara system in the

Vijayanagara empire.

Ans.
There has been a good debate among scholars about the nature of the vijayanagara state.
Nilkanth Shastri considered it the nearest to a war state. He traces this to the view put forward by
Vijayanagara ruler that half of the income of the state should be kept for warfare. He also laid
emphasis on the amaram system. But Satish Chandra says that Vijayanagara was a war state only
in the sense that all medieval states had to be constantly ready for war.

There is a difference of opinion whether the Vijayanagara state was a loose association of
semi-autonomous military and territorial leaders, the nayaks or was a centralised state on the
model of the Delhi Sultanate. In this context, it should be remembered that the amaram cannot be
equated to the Turkish iqta system. The nayaks were hereditary territorial lords in their own
right. Satish Chandra says that the area administered directly by the Vijayanagara rulers must
have been much smaller than the size of the empire.

Some historians say that the Vijayanagara State was a citadel of Hindu orthodoxy and
conservatism. But it can be said that in matters of religion the Vijayanagara rulers were not
narrow. They were tolerant towards Christian missionaries and Muslims.

Question 24.The creation of a composite nobility was central to Akbar's

success in establishing the Mughal empire. Discuss.

the Deccanis (Bijapuris, Hyderabadis and Marathas). Thus, it was an international ruling class;
for recruitment 'nationality' was no bar. However, mere fulfillment of certain criteria of merit and
competence was not the sole requirement to gain entry into it. Clan or family links were the most
important considerations for recruitment and ordinary people, with whatever merit to their credit,
were normally not admitted to this aristocratic class of the society.

The khanazads (the house-born ones), who were the sons and descendants of those officers
(mansabdars) who were already in the Mughal service, were the best and foremost claimants.
They constituted almost half of the ruling class throughout the Mughal period and the remaining
half of the ruling class comprised of valley of persons not belonging to the families already in
service.

The zamindars or the chieftains were one of them. Though they had been in the state
service ever since the time of Delhi Sultans, they attained great importance under Akbar who
granted them high mansabs and jagirs in various parts of the empire. These jagirs were in
addition to their ancestral domains which were now treated as their watan jagir.

Nobles and high officers of other states were also taken into the Mughal ruling class on
account of their experience, status and influence. Leading commanders of the enemy state, in
particular, were offered tempting ranks to make them desert their masters. A very small portion
of the Mughal ruling class consisted of persons belonging to the accountant castes, that is,
Khatris, Kayasthas, etc. They were usually appointed in the financial departments on low ranks,
but they could rise to higher ones. Todar Mal under Akbar and Raja Raghunath under Aurangzeb
betlonged to this category. They served as diwan and received high ranks.

Scholars, saints/sufis and theologians, etc. also received ranks and offices in the Mughal
service. Abul Fazl under Akbar, Sadullah Khan and Danish Khan during Shah Jahan's reign, and
Hakim Abul Mulk in Aurangzeb's period are some of the noteworthy examples of this class.

Question 25. Briefly outline the changes in the Mansabadari system from
Akbar to Aurangzeb.

Ans.

The term Mansabdari is derived from Mansab, meaning ‘rank'. Hence, Mansabdar
literally means rank-holder. Instituted by the Mughal emperor Akbar, Mansabdari was a system
common to both the military and the civil departments. Basically, the Mansabdari system was
borrowed from Persia. It was prevalent during the reign of Babur and Humayun. Akbar made
some important changes to the system and made it more efficient. Mansabdar was referred to as
the official rank, or the dignity. Two grades delineated the Mansabdars. Those mansabdars
whose rank was one thousand (hazari) or below were called the Amir.

Those Mansabdars whose rank was above 1000, were called the Amirmal Kabir (Great
Amir). Some Great Amirs whose rank were above 5000 were also given the title of Amir-al
Umara. The Mansabdars were differentiated by the Zat and the Sawar rank. The Zat referred to
the number of troops maintained by the Mansabdar and the Sawar referred to the number of
horses maintained by the Mansabdar. It was totally dependent on the king if he orders the
mansabdar to maintain more number of horses than his rank.

Appointment, promotion, suspension or dismissal of Mansabdars rested entirely with the

emperor. No portion of a Mansabdar's property was hereditary, a Mansabdar's children had to
begin life a new. A Mansabdar did not always begin at the lowest grade, the emperor, if satisfied,
could and actually did grant higher or even highest grade to any person. There was no distinction
between civil and military departments, officers both civil and military held Mansabs and were
liable to be transferred from one branch of the administration to another. Each Mansabdar was
expected to maintain prescribed number of horses, elephants, equipment, etc., according to his
rank and dignity.

These though initially strictly enforced, were later slackened. Senior Mansabaars war
awarded a jagir (personal fief) rather than a salary. Rates of remuneration, which included both
the Mansabdar's salary and so much per sawar, were matched by jagirs affording a similar

aggregate yield. If their specified yield came to more, the surplus was due to the imperial
treasury; if the Jagirdar extracted more than the specified yield, he kept it.

Question 26. Describe the evolution of the Mughal architecture from Akbar to
Shah Jahan.

Ans.

Mughal art and architecture was a characteristic of Indo-Islamic-Persian style that

flourished on the Indian subcontinent during the Mughal Empire (15261857). This new style
combined elements of Islamic art and architecture, which had been introduced to India during the
Delhi Sultanate (1192-1398) and had produced great monuments such as the Qutab Minar, with
features of Persian art and architecture. Mughal monuments are found chiefly in north India, but
there are also many remains in Pakistan. This article discusses these distinctive forms of art and
architecture as. they developed under a succession of Mughal emperors. The School of Mughal
painting began in 1549 when Humayun (1530-56) invited two Persian painters to his court, then
at Kabul.

They came to direct the illustration of the Amir Hamza, a fantastic narrative of which some
1,400 large paintings were executed on cloth. In architecture, the first great Mughal monument
was the mausoleum of Humayun, erected during the reign of Akbar (1556-1605), 'The tomb
which was built in, 1560s, was designed by a Persian architect Mirza Ghiyas. Set in a garden at
Delhi, it has an intricate ground plan with central octagonal chambers, joined by an archway with
an elegant facade and surmounted by cupolas, kiosks, and pinnacles. At the same time Akbar
build his fortress-palace in his capital, Agra.

Native, red sandstone was inlaid with white marble, and all the surfaces were ornately
carved on the outside and sumptuously painted inside. Akbar went on to build the entire city of
Fatehpur Sikri (City of Victory) in which extensive use was made of the low arches and bulbous
domes that characterize the Mughal style. Built in 1571, the choice of the site of Sikri reflected
Akbar's gratitude to a Muslim saint at Sikri for the birth of his courtiers soon followed suit and
built homes surrounding the palace and mosque. The new city became the capital of the empire,
but in 1585 it was abandoned.
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41

Under Akbar, Persian artists directed an academy of local painters. The drawings,
costumes, and ornamentation of illuminated manuscripts by the end of 16th century illustrate the
influence of Indian tastes and manners in the bright coloring and detailed landscape
backgrounds. Modelling and perspective also began to be adopted from Western pictures.
Basawan, Lal, and Daswanth were Akbar's most famous painters. Jahangir (1605-27) favoured
paintings of events From his own life rather than illustrated fiction.

He encouraged portraiture and scientific studies of birds, flowers, and animals, which were
collected in albums. Mansur and Manohar were among his famous painters. Jahangir, who
resided at Lahore, built less than his predecessors but effected the significant change from
sandstone to marble. It was Shah Jahan (1628-58) who perfected Mughal architecture and
erected at Agra its most noble and famous building, the tomb of his favourite wife, which is
known as the Taj Mahal. A huge white marble building of simple, symmetrical plan, it is inlaid
with colourful semiprecious materials and is set in an equally beautiful and symmetrical garden.

The Taj Mahal continues the tradition of Mughal garden tombs, of which Humayun's tomb
was the first. Shah Jahan established (1638) Delhi as his capital and built there the famous Red
Fort, which contained the imperial Mughal palace. Painting also flourished during Shah Jahan's
reign. Portraiture was most highly developed at his sophisticated court, and ink drawings were of
high quality. Under the orthodox Aurangzeb (1659-1707) the decline of the arts began, although
his ornate Pearl. Mosque at Delhi is worthy of mention. During his reign the Mughal academy
was dispersed. Many artists then joined Rajput courts, where their influence on Hindu painting is
clearly evident.

Question 27. Outline the emergence and organization of the Maratha Stata
under Shivaji.

Ans.
Shivaji was the founder of the Maratha polity. The accomplishments of this extra-
ordinarily capable and charismatic leader must always be set against the complex context. The
most important features of this context were as follows:

(1) The near devastation of much of Maharashtra

(2) Warfare between the major states of Bijapur and the Mughal empire

(3) His father's deep involvement in Bijapur

(4) The presence in Maharashtra, of powerful Deshmukh families whose authority was as
legitimate as his.

Shivaji started his rise to power in what is now the state of Maharashtra in the coastal
Deccan or central western regions, close to the power centres of South-Central India. Thus
Shivaji started his career as an independent young prince of a small kingdom on a mission.
Shivaji used the title of Raja (King) only after Shahaji's death. Shivaji learned much from his
father's failed attempts at political independence: his exceptional military capabilities and
achievements, his knowledge of Sanskrit, Hindu ethos, patronage of the arts, his war strategies
and peacetime diplomacy.

He was inspired and informed by his family's vision of independence and freedom. Shahaji's
vision, Jijabai's and Dadoji Konddeo's teachings and motivation, and the able training by military
commanders such as Gomaji Naik Pansambal and Baji Pasalkar were the main influences which
groomed Shivaji into a brave and fearless military leader as well as a responsible administrator.
Shivaji along with his Maratha friends took a blood oath to fight against the Mughal empire at
Rohideshwara temple. And young Shivaji energetic and enthusiastic as he was, wasted no time in
setting off on a path of freedom and glory.

The Peshwa were Brahmin Prime Ministers to the Maratha Chattrapatis (Kings), who
began commanding Maratha armies and later became the hereditary rulers of the Maratha empire
of central India from 1749 to 1818. Prior to 1700 one Peshwa received the status of king for 8-9
years. They oversaw the greatest expansion of the Maratha empire around 1760 with the help of
Sardars (Generals) like Holkar, Shinde, Bhonsle, Pantpratinidhi, Gayakwad, Panse, Vinchurkar,
Pethe, Raste, Phadke, Patwardhan, Pawar, Pandit and Purandare, and also its eventual annexation
by the British East India Company in 1818. Balaji Vishwanath Bhat (1680 - April 2, 1719),
better known as Peshwa Balaji Vishwanath, was the first of a series of hereditary Peshwas
(Marathi for Prime Minister) hailing from the Brahmin family who gained effective control of

the Maratha empire during the eighteenth century. Balaji Vishwanath assisted young Shahu to
consolidate his grip on an empire that had been racked by civil war and persistent attack by the
Mughals under Aurangzeb.

Shrimant Baji Rao Balaji Bhat (August 18, 1699-April 25, 1740), also known as Baji Rao I
was a noted general who served as Peshwa (Prime Minister) to the fourth Maratha Chhatrapati
Shahu from 1719 until Baji Rao's death. He is also known as Thorala Baji Rao. Baji Rao is
famous for rapid tactical movements in battle using his cavalry hence he is often called a cavalry
general. Two examples are the Battle of Palkhed in 1728 when he out maneuvered the Mughal
Governor of the Deccan province and again in the battle against the Mughal Emperor,
Muhammad Shah at Delhi during 1739.

Nanasaheb Peshwa, also known as Balaji Bajirao (born 1720 or 1721-died 1761) was the
son of Bajirao from his marriage with Kashibai and one of the Peshwas of the Maratha Empire.
He contributed heavily to the development of the city of Pune, India. He was appointed as
Peshwa by Chattrapati Shahu himself. At time of his death in 1749 the issueless Shahu made the
Peshwas the rulers of the Maratha empire. The decline of the Mughal empire had led to territorial
gains for the Maratha confederacy. The main reason for the failure of Marathas was that they
went to war without good allies. Though their infantry was based on European style contingent
and had some of the best French made guns of the times, their artillery was static and lacked
mobility against the fast moving Afghan forces.

They had failed to acquire allies in North India. Their earlier hegemonistic behavior and
their political ambitions, which led them to loot and plunder had antagonized all the other
powers. Nanasaheb lost his cousin, Sadashivrao Bhau and his eldest son Vishwasrao at the
disastrous Third Battle of Panipat. He could not recover from the shock, and died soon after the
debacle. He was succeeded by his second son. Madhavrao Peshwa. The period after his reign
1767-1768 was an unsteady period for the Maratha empire.

Question 28. Write short notes on any two of the following:

1. Market Regulations of Alauddin Khalji

Alauddin's policy of storing grains in royal granaries, besides serving as a hedge against
famines, was vital to his price control strategy. Since the Sultan wanted to maintain a large army
on relatively modest pay, he had to ensure that essential commodities were available at low
prices. He therefore, fixed the maximum price of a number of goods such as wheat, barley, rice,
pulses, cloths, sugar, sugarcane, fruit, and animal fat, besides slaves, horses and livestock.
Ferishta states that the price regulations were meant for the greater part of the Sultan's
dominions. Some scholars however argue that they were implemented only in the capital city. In
Delhi, a central grain market (mandi) was set up with subsidiary shops in every quarter (mohalla)
of the city.

A separate bazaar (serai-i-adl) deal with cloth, sugar, herbs, dry fruits, butter and lamp oil,
while there was one for horses, slaves and cattle, and another for all other commodities. To
ensure effective implementation of state-determined prices, Alauddin appointed a superintendent
of the market (Shahna-i-mandi) who was assisted by an intelligence office. A network of spies
informed the Sultan of any violation of his orders, and harsh punishment, including the
imposition of fines, imprisonment. It is said that the overall effect of Alauddin's policies was to
transfer a significantly larger share of the agricultural surplus from the countryside to the towns
and from the Hindu chiefs to the Muslim governing class. Historians have noted the essentially
militaristic thrust of Alauddin's economic ventures. There was a clear evidence that -

 Even the limited trading activities were confined to the ruling elite.
 The miserable conditions of the common man are reflected in the meaning of the word
vangali (literally, a resident of Bengal) which denoted somebody "very poor and miserable".
2. Chishti Silsila -
3. Shershah –

4. Zamindars in the Mughal Empire –

Zamindari system was employed by the Mughals to collect Islamic taxes from peasants. The
Zamindari system used the existing structure of the bhuiyan land tenure system of the pre-
Mughal era by the Mughals as a key economic and political institution to implement the Shariat-
based Islamic rule over the "Zimmis”, hence the term “Zimmidari”. In the Mughal era, the
Zamindari system was begun to ensure proper collection of taxes during a period when the
power and influence of the Mughal emperors was in decline. With the Mughal conquest of
Bengal, “Zamindar" became a generic title embracing people with different kinds of
landholdings, rights and responsibilities ranging from the autonomous or semi-independent
chieftains to the peasant-proprietors.

All categories of Zamindars under the Mughals were required to perform certain police,
judicial and military duties. Zamindars under the Mughals were, in fact, more the public
functionaries than revenue collecting agents. Although Zamindaris were allowed to be held
hereditarily, the holders were not considered to be the proprietors of their estates. The territorial
Zamindars had judicial powers. Naturally, judge-magistracy, as an element of state authority
conferred status with attendant power, which really made them the lords of their domains. They
held regular courts, called Zamindari adalats. The courts fetched them not only power and status
but some income as well by way of fines, presents and perquisites. The petty Zamindars also had
some share in the dispensation of civil and criminal justice. The Chowdhurys, who were
Zamindars in most cases, had authority to deal with the complaints of debts, thefts and petty
quarrels and to impose paltry fines.

Question 29. Analyze the evolution of the Iqta system under the Sultans of
Delhi.

Ans.
The revenue resources were distributed among the Sultans of Delhi and his nobles. Territories
whose revenues went directly to the Sultan's treasury were called iqtas.Historians have identified
three stages in the history of the iqta in the case period.

First Stage (1200-1290): The system started with the assignment of different regions as iqtas
(territorial areas or units whose revenues were assigned to officials in lieu of salaries) to military
commanders, out of whose revenues they could maintain themselves and their troops as well.
Iqta in this stage stood for not only a revenue unit but also an administrative unit. Transfer of
iqtas from one person to another was done rarely in this period.

Second Stage (1290-1351): Modification of the system was done under the Khaljis and the early
Tughlaqs. They resorted to frequent transfer of iqtas. They insisted on the submission of
accounts of collection and expenditure by the iqtadars or mugtis (holders of iqtas) regularly and
sending the balance (fawazil) to the treasury. Estimation of the revenue paying capacity of each
area, fixation of the salaries of the officers in terms of cash and assignment of the iqtas of the
same revenue paying capacity were the main developments.

Third Stage (1351-1526): It began with the reversal of the trend of the previous phase by Firoz
Tughlaq who granted as series of concessions to the officers. Fixation of the estimated revenues
of the iqtas was done permanently, thus allowing the muqtis to appropriate all the increases of
revenue. The posts and the assignments were made practically hereditary. These changes,
introduced by Firoz, were continued by all his successors.

demanded more powers and privileges, thus resulting in the liberalisation and decentralisation of
the iqta system by Firoz Tughlaq.

Question 30. Describe the emergence of the Marathas as a new political force
the Deccan Sultanates.

Ans.
Important factors responsible for the phenomenal rise of the Marathas: Several prominent
leaders in the religious and social fields of Maharashtra inspired the people to unite by preaching
faith and Bhakti in one God and by condemning the caste system which had divided the society.
The most famous of these reformers were: Tuka Ram, Ram Das, Vaman Pandit and Eknath.
Guru Ram Das exercised a tremendous influence by underlying the philosophy of 'Karma'
(action) in his famous book ‘Das Bodh'. Swami Ram Das's message to the Marathas was,
"Mother and mother country are dearer than heaven itself. Gods and cows, Brahmans and the
faith, these are to be protected. Therefore, God has raised you up; when faith is dead, death is
better than life: why live when religion has vanished? Gather ye, therefore, the Marathas
together; make the dharma live again! For otherwise our forefathers will laugh at us from
heaven.”

Elphinstone has observed in this regard. "They (Marathas) are all active, laboriousy hardy
and preserving. If they have none of the pride and dignity of the Rajput's, they have none of their
indolence or want of worldly wisdom too. And all these traits were due to the peculiar physical
features of their country." Shivaji made the best use of these characteristics of the Marathas. The
broken ranges of the hills provided natural forts and the people were inspired to regard these
forts as their mother the seats of their protection. Eknath taught the Marathas to take pride in
their mother tongue which helped in bringing about a sense of commonness and unity among the
Marathas. As remarked by J.N. Sarkar, "A remarkable community of language, creed and life
was attained in Maharashtra in the 17th century even before political unity was conferred by
Shivaji". The location of Maharashtra and its physical feature hysical features helped in the rise
of Maratha power.

The large part of Maratha land is a plateau where the Marathas had to struggle hard for
their existence. This made the Marathas courageous and hard working. The Marathas a spirit of
self-respect Crich. There was no class of economic exploiters. This gave people to be accepted
as rich. There the Marathas a spirit of self-respect and unity. The mountainous areas made it
possible for the Marathas to adopt guerilla warfare very successfully. The scattered areas in
the villages pro provision for soldiers. The invaders were prone to

sudden attacks from forts located on the tops of hills. Means of communication. Tor the large
armies to move freely were not easily available.

Question 31 . Outline evolution of the Outub Complex during the Sultanate

period

Ans.
The Qutub complex refers to an array of monuments and buildings in Delhi, India, the
Qutub Minar standing out as the most famous. Qutb-ud-din Aibak, the first ruler of the Slave
Dynasty, and his successor lltutmish (aka Altmash) first constructed the complex in their new
city, called the Qila-Raj-Pithora, near Prithivraj Chauhan's older city.

In addition to the most famous monument in the complex, Qutub Minar, other important
buildings and structures stand in the complex, including the Quwwat-ul-Islam Islam mosque, the
Ala-I-Darwaza, the Alai Minar, and the Iron Pillar.

Qutub Minar
Qutub Minar, constitutes an important example of Indo-islamic Architecture. The purpose
for building this beautiful monument, apart from the usual function of a minaret as a high place
to call people for daily prayers in a mosque (the Quwwat-ul-Islam mosque in this complex).
Controversy surrounds the origins for the name of the tower. Many historians believe that the
Qutub Minar had been named after the first Turkish sultan, Qutb-ud-din Aibak. Others speculate
that tower had been named in honour of Khwaja Qutb-ud-din Bakhtiar Kaki.

According to the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI), approximately twenty Jain temples once
occupied the place where Qutub Minar stands today, Islamic rulers demolished them, reusing the
stones to build the present complex.The ASI placed an inscription stating that ten meters from
the base of the minaret. Jain tirthankar figurines can be found on many pillars and walls of the
complex.

Qutb-ud-din Aibak, the first Muslim ruler of Delhi, inspired by the Minaret of Jam in
Afghanistan and wishing to surpass it, commenced construction of the Qutub Minar in 1193
C.E., only completing its basement. His successor, Iltutmish, added three more stories and, in
1368 C.E., Firoz Shah Tughlaq constructed the fifth and the last story. The minaret prominently
displays the development of architectural styles from Aibak to Tughlak. Like earlier towers
erected by the Ghaznavids and Ghurids in Afghanistan, the Qutub Mahal comprises several
superposed flanged and cylindrical shafts, separated by balconies carried on Muqarnas corbels.

The minaret, comprised of fluted red sandstone, had been covered with intricate carvings
and verses from the Quran by Muslim artists. The Qutub Minar stands on the ruins of Lal Kot,
the Red Citadel in the city of Dhillika, the capital of the Jat Tomars and the Chauha the last
Hindu rulers of Delhi. According to the inscriptions on its surton Shah Tughlaq (1351-88 C.E.)
and Sikandar Lodi (1489–1517 C.E.) restored the

Quwwat-ul-Islam Mosque
Outb-ud-din Aybak built Quwwat-ul-Islam mosque (Might of Islam) ( also known as the
Qutb Mosque or the Great Mosaue of Delhi). The mosque construction started in the 1190s,
when Aibak, serving as the commander of Muhammas Ghori's garrison, occupied Delhi.
Historical documents state that the mosque had been built with the remnants of twenty-seven
Hindu and Jain temples destroyed by Muslim rulers. Historical records compiled by Muslim
historian Maulana Hakim Saiyid Abdul. He attest to the iconoclasm of Qutb-ud-din Aibak.

Prithvi Raj previously built the Jain temple, which had been demolished to make way for
the "Quwwat ul-Islam," the first mosque built in Delhi. Parts of the Jain temple had been left
outside the mosque proper. That pattern of iconoclasm had been common during his reign,
although an argument goes that such iconoclasm had been motivated more by politics than by

religion. It was the first mosque built in Delhi after the Islamic conquest of India and the best
surviving example of Ghurid's architecture.

Expansion of the mosque continued after the death of Qutub. His successor, Iltutmish,
extended the original prayer hall screen by three more arches. By the time of Itutmish, the
Mamluk empire had stabilized enough that the Sultan could replace most of his conscripted
Hindu masons with Muslims. That explains why the arches added under Itutmish appear
stylistically more Islamic than the ones erected under Qutb's rule.

The mosque stands in ruins today but indigenous corbelled arches, floral motifs, and
geometric patterns can be seen among the remainin Islamic architectural structures To the west
of the Quwwat-ul-Islam mosque stand the tomb of Iltutmish, built by the monarch in 1235 C.E.
About the Delhi Sultanate, the monuments of the Qutub complex as considered important in
various forms. Jain temple used in Masjid-e-Jamiin and provides evidence of victory, struggle
and loot by the religious people.

The availability of the remains of temple is evidence of the establishment of Mughal rule in
India. This not only declares victory over Delhi by Qutbuddin Aibak in 1192, but also illustrates
the victory of Islam on idol worship.

The significance of the Qutub complex is also because other Muslim generals have accepted
the superiority of the Qutbuddin as its superiority. Because despite all the rivalries and conflicts
between the all the generals of the Gori, the Qutbuddin ensured the claim of being the Chief
General.

Syed Ahmed Khan mentions one of the different names of the minar as a "surge of sahib”.
Eventually, it can be said that Qutub campus represents their time with different methods. His
Mughal rulers of Delhi are relating to power and propagate, and their ideology.

Question 32. Evaluate Mira Bai's contributions to the socio-religious life of the
contemporary period.

Ans.

Meera also known as Meera Bai or Mirabai (1498-1546) was a Hindu mystic poet devotee
of Lord Krishna. She is a celebrated Bhakti saint particularly in the North Indian Hindu tradition.

Meera Bai was born into a Rajput royal Rathore family of Merta, Rajasthan, India. She is
mentioned in Bhaktamal, confirming that she was widely known and a cherished figure in the
Bhakti movement culture by about 1600 CE. Most legends about Meera mention her fearless
disregard for social and family conventions, her devotion to god Krishna, her treating Krishna as
her husband, and she being persecuted by her in-laws for her religious devotion. She has been the
subject of numerous folk tales and hagiographic legends, which are inconsistent or widely
different in details.

Thousands of devotional poems in passionate praise of Lord Krishna are attributed to

Meera in the Indian tradition, but just a few hundred are believed to be authentic by scholars,
and the earliest written records suggest that except for two poems, most were written down only
in the 18th century. Many poems attributed to Meera were likely composed later by others who
admired Meera. These poems are commonly known as bhajans, and are popular across India.
Hindu temples, such as in Chittorgarh fort, are dedicated to Mira Bai's memory. Legends about
Meera's life, of contested authenticity, have been the subject of movies, comic strips and other
popular literature in modern times.

Scholars acknowledge that Meera was one of the central poet-saints of the Bhakti
movement, during a difficult period in Indian history filled with HinduMuslim religious
conflicts. Yet, they simultaneously question the extent to which Meera was a canonical
projection of social imagination that followed, where she became a symbol of people's suffering
and a desire for an alternative

The continued influence of Meera, in part, has been her message of freedom. her resolve
and right to pursue her devotion to deity Krishna and her spiritual belief as she felt drawn to
despite her persecution. Her appeal and influence in Indian culture, writes Edwin Bryant, is from

her emerging, through her legends and poems, as a person "who stands up for what is right and
suffers bitterly for holding fast to her convictions, as other men and women have”, yet she does
so with a language of love, with words painting the full range of emotions that mark love,
whether between human bei, and divine.

Question33 . Discuss the Deccani Sufi literature to Chakki Nama and

Charkha Nama.

Ans.
Some of the Sufis like Hashim Pir were close to the court of the Adll Shahis during the
kingship of Ibrahim Adil Shah, the second, and Muhammad Adil Shah. Sufi poetry is simple in
language and easy to understand. Gesu Daraz composed many simple but beautiful and lyrical
poems. If a woman sang while grounding millet or any other food grain, it came to be called as
Chakki Nama. Chakki means the grindstone and Nama means a poem.

The Sufi saints composed several hymns, each for an occasion and the namas Or poems
came to be called after them. Thus it was Chakki Nama for women grinding away on the
grindstone. Charaka Name of the women were spinning cotton and silk on the Charkha or wheel.
If the women sang to make their children go to Sleep, it was called Lori Nama. Marriages were a
special occasion and songs sung then were called Shaadi Nama. If the women were married and
they sang, it was Suhagan Nama. There were thus many varieties of such Namas, each catering
to a particular chore.

Gesu Daraz is perhaps the first composer of Chakki Namn. A master of | Dekkani, he was
an eminent personality of Gulbarga who commanded hunar of students and fellow sufis
Household activities involved a steady movement of the hands which these namas assisted. The
metres in which they were composed synchronized perfectly with the chores. Very soon, the
Chakki Nama and the Charkha Nama, became the most widely composed, recited or sung form
of poetry. Even today, books containing chakki-namas and charkha-namas have been printed in
Kannada and Marathi.

Amin was an important sufi saint of Bijapur. Another sufi who is credited with this
category of compositions is Shah Hashim Khudawand Hadi. Other compositions of Bijapur on
Chakki Nama are by Ghausi and Fi'l Hal Quadri. A sufi from Belgaum, Shah Kamal-al-Din, has
written Chakki Namas at the behest of his wife. One of the best compositions of Suhagan Nama
is by a sufi saint of the Chisti order. Shah Raj. Some of the notable sufi writers such as Shaikh |
Mahmud Khush Dahan (1617), Shah Burhan al-Din Janam (1597) and Shah Miranji Shams al-
Ushshaq (1499) did not compose many namas. Their followers and devotes did but these sufi
greats did play their part in popularizing the Namas,

That hand is arif al-wujud (God), and those who see that the power is in the hand are
witnesses of the light; thereby they witness the essence, which is God. The Chakki Nama of
Shah Hashim Khudawand Hadi also speaks of the close bond between God and the chores. The
Charaka Nama is even more imaginative.

Question 34. Trace the development of trade and commerce in India between
16th and 17th centuries.

Ans.
The Portuguese East India Company was a short-lived ill-fated attempt by Philip III of
Portugal to create a national chartered company, to look after interests in Portuguese India in the
face on encroachment by the Dutch and English following the personal union of the Portuguese
and Spanish Crowns. The Companhia do commercio da India finally came into existence in
August 1628, when it was granted a charter by King Philip III. The Companhia was to be
governed by a Camara de Administracao Geral, composed of a president (Jorge Mascarenhas)
and six administrators, elected by the investors, with full powers, although its judicial acts,
administrative practices and finances were subject to review by an advisory Conselho do
Comercio (Board of Trade) in the king's court in Madrid. The charter

Envisaged a two-year transition period, during which the royal Conselho da Fazenda
would continue to supervise the India fleets, the Casa da India and the Armazem da India, before
passing them all over to the Companhia's administration. The Companhia would be in charge of
running & collecting the customs dues payable at the Casa. The Companhia was established with
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a joint-stock block of six years, renewable for another six with a minimum subscription of 100
cruzados, The Companhia was granted a monopoly on trade in coral, pepper, cinnamon, ebony
and cowrie shells, and could be extended to other items upon request. It had full administrative
and juridical privileges, including the right to keep all spoils from seizures of Dutch and English
ships (after deducting the royal fifth).

The crown was the largest investor, committing 1,500,000 cruzados for the first three years.
Although some municipalities (esp. Lisbon) also invested, private individuals were less
interested. To make it attractive, subscribers were guaranteed an annual return of 4% plus
dividends and the subscriptions were laced with various privileges (e.g. title in king's household,
protection from debt seizure, even the capital of New Christians convicted by the Portuguese
Inquisition, had a measure of protection). Although there were provisions against allowing any
other East Indies company to be formed in Habsburg territories, investment in the Companhia
was open to all subjects of Philip III and his allies (thus Spaniards, Italians, Flemings, etc.)
Nonetheless, none of this was enough to garner much enthusiasm from private individuals.

The company was launched with only around half the capital it originally sought to raise.
The Companhia proved unsuccessful. Investors remained skeptical, overseas Portuguese
merchants rejected the new Companhia's authority, and the Anglo-Dutch breach of the old
Portuguese empire in Asia had become. irreparable, squeezing margins on the spice trade. The
Companhia proved. unprofitable, and soon ceased operating and was liquidated in April, 1633.
The Casa da India and the India trade was brought back under the supervision of the Conselho da
Fazenda (royal finance council).

Question 35. Describe the approach of historians to the study of the Mughal
empire.

Ans.
History is always written by the winning side, though a cliche is an expression which points
out imperfectness and dubiety of history that we learn today. In this respect, though history
provides us with academic interest from its intrinsic from its intrinsic attractiveness,
historiography, a study of historical records, gives a different kind of scholarly amusement by
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focusing on the historical records themselves, analyzing them, and broadening the scope of our
awareness of history. With historiography, this paper aims to investigate historical records
written by historians of the Mughal Empire, one of the most prosperous countries in South Asia
throughout the history. A wide range of aspects about historical records will be dealt: historians
who wrote the records, sources they used for historical records. purpose of historical writing,
historical records in context of the time they were written and the time they are concerned with,
and other different ten concerned with historical records such as perspectives, bias, etc. With in-
depth analysis of historical records and comparing it with society or cultural background of the
Mughal Empire, this paper will try to find either individual historical approach used by Mughal
historians or common tendencies regarding historical records of the Mughal Empire.

Writing history of a country is meaningful in many aspects for great leaders of a country,
history can be used as a mean to boast of their achievement to their descendants. For future
generation, historical records are useful source to trace their origins and learn from the past. In
addition, since writing his scholarly work which needs much academic efforts and a cultural task
intended for descendants, a quality and a quantity of historical records are often considered as
criteria which determine the cultural level of a country.

The Mughal Empire, once an economically and culturally prosperous country, also left
many historical works. It is during the Mughal dynasty when Indian - historiography reached its
highest point of its growth and development. Historical books written in this period are great
sources from which today's people can learn the history of South Asia and some other regions
such as Afghanistan. Mughal historians were often patronized by emperors or nobles and many
of them had other original occupations such as courtiers under emperors, or poets, scholars. For
example, Abul Fazl, the author of Akbarnama, was a close vizier of Emperor Akbar. Similarly,
Jawahar Aftabci, the writer of Sah Jahahnama; was an intimate friend of Shah Jahan. Mir
Masoom Shah Bakhri (Mir Muhammad Masum), who wrote Tarikh-i Sind, did his service under
Akbar.

Nimat Allah al-Harawi (NimatAllah ibn Habib-Allah Haravi), although he served Khan
Jahan Lodi later, was a historian under Jahangir. Those historians were encouraged to write
history of emperors themselves or history of the past including not only Mughal history but also
history of other ethnicities. For example, Abbas Khan Saryani (Abbas Han Sarvani), written at
the request of Akbar, wrote history of Sher Shah in Tuhfah-yi: Akbar Sahi (A Gift to Akbar
Sah), a sultan of Suri Dynasty, who ruled South Asia from 1540 to 1545 when the Mughal
Empire retreated. Sayh Rizq-Allah ibn Sad Allah Dihlavi in the name of Mustaqi wrote Vaqiat-i
Mustaqi which contains the Afghan sultan. Some emperors who were learned themselves even
wrote history by themselves.

The founder of the Mughal Empire Babur wrote his autobiography Vagiat-i Baburi.
Jahangir, the fourth emperor, also wrote his autobiographical memoir called Tuzuk-i Jahangiri.
In addition, Gulbadan Begam, the daughter of Emperor Babur, wrote Humayun-namah which is
an account of her brother, Humayun.While in the earlier period of Mughal dynasty historians are
often under the service of emperors, in the latter period during which the Mughal Empire
declined, historians often served local government or East India Company. Although there were
also historians serving local government in the earlier periods, there are less famous historians
who served the emperors during the declining period of Mughal dynasty.

For instance, Muhammad Ali ibn Muhammad Sadiq Husayni Nisaburi Najafi Burhanpuri
was a historian supported by the governor of Oudh and Muhammad Ali Han Ansari served the
deputy governor of Bengal during the reign of Mughal ruler Shah Alam II in the 18th century.
Hayr al-Din Muhammad Ilahabadi and Gulam Husayn Zaydpuri are historians who were
employed in the East India Company. Gulam Basit is a historian whose ancestors had been in the
service of the Mughal Empire, tried to enter the service of the empire and who himself tried to
serve the empire. However, in the periods of decline of the empire, he sought for employment
under English who supported him greatly. Additionally, writing a historical book was often a
cooperated work done by many different writers but led by one chief writer.

Tuzuk-i-Baburi or Babarnama written by Babur, the founder of the Mughal power as

autobiography in his mother tongue, Chagtai Turki occupies the first place. It is a true reflection
of his account of India and it gives information from Babur’s birth to AD 1529. Humayuu Narma
written by Gulbadan Begum, the daughter of Babur and sister of Humayan records a brief
account of Babur and a detailed account of Humayun. This was written at the instance of Akbar.

The Tuhfa-i-Akbari Shahi (Tarikh-i-Shershahi) of Abbas Khan Sarwani provides details of

the life and works of Shershah. Abdul Qadir Badauni's Muntakhab-ut-Tawarikh is not dedicated
to Akbar as Badauni was very critical of the innovations' of Akbar. It is written in three volumes.
It deals in detail with various important matters mentioned in Akbarnama of Abul Fazl. Abul
Fazl's Akbarnama consists of three volumes; the third volume is the Ain-i-Akbari. While the first
two volumes cover the period of Akbar up to the close of his 46th year, the third volume 'Ain-i
Akbari' gives an account of the various imperial departments and also of the revenue and
administrative officials, revenue rates of measured land and revenue statistics of Subas, Sarkars
and Paraganas. Khwaja Nizamuddin Ahmad Harawi's Tabaqueti-Akbari was completed in the
year 1593-94 and it was composed in nine parts from the advent of Islam up to AD 1593-94.

Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri was the autobiography of Jahangir. It is also called Tarikh-iSalim Shahi

and Jahangirnama. Muhammad Qasim Shah Astrabadi's Tarikh-i-Firishtah, deals with the
history of the Sultans of the Deccan. Padshanama of Abdul Hamid Lahori is a biographical
account of Shahjahan from his childhood to AD 1649. It is rated as the first-rate authority on the
reign of Shahjahan. Besides this biography, Muhammad Amir Khan Qazyni and Muhammad
Waris, a pupil of Lahori also wrote two biographies with the name Padshahnama. Of these two,
the first one gives an account of the first 10 years and the other the last ten years' rule of
Shahjahan. Inayat Khan, a high official of Shahjahan also wrote Shahjahannama and another
Shahjahannama was written by Muhamad Sadiq Khan.

This covers the historical events from the death of Jahangir to the accession of Aurangzeb.
Muhammad Saki Mustaid Khan was the author of Maasir-e-Alamgiri. This was written after the
death of Aurangzeb with the help of state records. Mirza Muhammad Qazim was the author of
Alamgirnama. This is a good detailed history of the first ten years of Aurangzeb's reign.
Muhammad Hashim Khafi Khan’s
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Muntakhab-ul-Lubab Muhammad Shahi is voluminous history from the Muslim conquest

of India up to the Mughal emperor Muhammad Shah. Besides these histories written in Persian,
administrative and accountancy manuals, statistical tables, Firmanas, Mishans or Parwanas,
letters and dictionaries also serve useful purpose as primary source material. A number of books
based on primary sources written in the last sevent- five years provide useful insights into the
Mughal rulers. Further, the contemporaneous Portuguese Dutch, English and French records and
accoun various aspects of Indian life.

Memoirs, travelogues, letters of the Jesuit fathers, factory records come under the above
category. Antorio Monserette, a Jesuit in his commentary published in 1597 written in
Portuguese, provides a graphic account of the court of akbar. William Hawkins' work graphically
describes Jahangir's court. Sir Thomas Roe's embassy (1015-1619) of Jahangir's offers political
and economic information Similarly, the Dutch factor, Pelsaert's account, the travels of Peter
Mundy, and Fray Sebastian Manrique, the travels of Francois Bernier and Storia do Mogor of
Niccolo Manucci also throw very useful light on the contemporary Indian society.

Question 36. Write short notes on any two of the following;

(a) Alauddin Khalji's Market Reforms

Alauddin's policy of storing grains in royal granaries, besides serving as a hedge against
famines, was vital to his price control strategy. Since the Sultan wanted to maintain a large army
on relatively modest pay, he had to ensure that essential commodities were available at low
prices. He therefore, fixed the maximum price of a number of goods such as wheat, barley, rice,
pulses, cloths, sugar, sugarcane, fruit, and animal fat, besides slaves, horses and livestock.
Ferishta states that the price regulations were meant for the greater part of the Sultan's
dominions. Some scholars however argue that they were implemented only in the capital city in
Delhi, a central grain market (mandi) was set up with subsidiary shops in every quarter (mohalla)
of the city. A separate bazaar (serai-i-adl) deal with cloth, sugar, herbs, dry fruits, butter and
lamp oil, while there was one for horses slaves and cattle, and another for all other commodities.

To ensure efe implementation of state-determined prices, Alauddin appointe

superintendent of the market (Shahna-i-mandi) who was assisted by intelligence office. A
network of spies informed the Sultan of any violati his orders, and harsh punishment, including
the imposition of fines, imprisonment. It is said that the overall effect of Alauddin's policies
transfer a significantly larger share of the agricultural surplus from the countryside to the towns
and from the Hindu chiefs to the Muslim governing class. Historians have noted the essentially
militaristic thrust of Alauddin’s economic ventures. There was a clear evidence that –

 Even the limited trading activities were confined to the ruling elite
 The miserable conditions of the common man are reflected in the meaning of the word
vangali (literally, a resident of Bengal) which denoted somebody "very poor and miserable".

Similarly, those who talk about India's trade with South-east Asia may also do well to keep
in view the position of metal money in that region. Detailed study of Cambodia, for example,
shows that during the two centuries of post Gupta times (A.D. 600-800) Southeast Asia failed to
evolve any system of coinage and barter (largely based on paddy and only marginally on cloth)
provided essentials of the Khmer economy. Even when such early medieval coin types as the
Indo-Sassanian, Shri Vigraha, Shri Adivaraha, Bull and Horseman, Gadhaiya, etc. emerged in
Western and North-Western India and to some extent in the Ganga valley, they could not make
much dent in the overall economy.

Apart from the doubts about the period of emergence of these coins, their extremely poor
quality and purchasing power also indicate the shrinkage of their actual role. Further, in relation
to the rising population and expanding area of setirement, the overall volume of money
circulation was negligible. Hence, we can say that the case for the relative decline of metallic
money during the first phase is based on convincing empirical evidence. This was bound to have
an impact on India's trading activities.

(b) Kabir –
Kabir (born 1440, Varanasi, Jaunpur, India-died 1518, Maghar), iconoclastic Indian poet-
saint revered by Hindus, Muslims, and Sikhs. The birth of Kabir remains shrouded in mystery
and legend. Authorities disagree on both when he was born and who his parents were. According

to one of the legend, his mother was a Brahman who became pregnant after a visit to a Hindu
shrine. Because she was unwed, she abandoned Kabir, who was found and adopted by a Muslim
weaver. That his early life began as a Muslim there is little doubt, but he was later strongly
influenced by a Hindu ascetic, Ramananda. Although Kabir is often depicted in modern times as
a harmonizer of Hindu and Muslim belief and practice, it would be more accurate to say that he
was equally critical of both, often conceiving them as parallel to one another in their misguided
ways. In his view, the mindless, repetitious, prideful habit of declaiming scripture could be
visited alike on the sacred Hindu texts, the Vedas, or the Islamic holy book, the Quran.

What really counted, for Kabir, was utter fidelity to the one deathless truth of life, which
he associated equally with the designations Allah and Ram- the latter understood as a general
Hindu name for the divine, not the hero of the Ramayana. But when one goes back to the poetry
that can most reliably be attributed to Kabir, only two aspects of his emerge as truly certain: he
lived most of his life in Banaras (now Varanasi), and He was a weaver (julaha), one of a low-
ranke caste that had become largely Muslim in Kabir's time.

Kabir's principal media of communication were couplets (dohas) sometimes called "words”
(shabdas) or "witnesses" (sakhis). A number of those couplets, and others attributed to Kabir
since his death, have come to be commonly used by speakers of north Indian languages. poetic
personality has been variously defined by the religious traditions that revere him, and the same
can be said for his hagiography.

For Sikhs he is a precursor and interlocutor of Nanak, the founding Sikh Guru ( spiritual
guide ). Muslims place him in Sufi (mystical) lineages, and for Hindus he becomes a vaishnavite
(devotee of the god Vishnu) with universalist leanings. His humble social station and his own
combative reaction to any who would regard it as such have contributed to his celebrity among
various other religious movements and helped shape the Kabir Panth, a sect found across
northern and central India that draws its members especially, but not exclusively, from the Dalits
(formerly known as untouchables). The Kabir Panth regards Kabir as its principal guru or even
as a divinity- truth incarnate.

The broad range of traditions on which Kabir. has had an impact is testimony to his massive
authority, even for those whose beliefs and practices he criticized so unsparingly. From early on,
his presence in anthologies of North Indian bhakti (devotional) poetry is remarkable.

(c) Manasabdari System

(d) Mughal miniature paintings

This art of painting developed as a blending of Persian and Indian ideas. There was already a
Muslim tradition of miniature painting under the Turko-Afghan Sultanate of Delhi which the
Mughals overthrew, and like the Mughals, and the very earliest of Central Asian invaders
into the subcontinent, patronized foreign culture. Although the first surviving manuscripts are
from Mandu in the years either side of 1500, there were very likely earlier ones which are
either lost, or perhaps now attributed to southern Persia, as later manuscripts can be hard to
distinguish from these by style alone, and some remain the subject of debate among
specialists. By the time of the Mughal invasion, the tradition had abandoned the high
viewpoint typical of the Persian style, and adopted a more realistic style for animals and
plants. No miniatures survive from the reign of the founder of the dynasty, Babur, nor does
he mention commissioning any in his diaries, the Baburnama. Copies of this were illustrated
by his descendents, Akbar in particular, with many portraits of the many new animals Babur
encountered when he invaded India, which are carefully described. However some surviving
un-illustrated manuscript may have been commissioned by him, and he comments on the
style of some famous past Persian masters. Some older illustrated manuscripts have his seal
on them; the Mughal came from a long line stretching back to Timur and were fully
assimilated into persianate culture, and expected to patronize literature and the arts.

Mughal painting immediately took a much greater interest in realistic portraiture than was
typical of Persian miniatures. Animals and plants were also more realistically shown.
Although many classic works of Persian literature continued to be illustrated, as well as
Indian works, the taste of the Mughal emperors for writing memoirs or diaries, begun by
Babur, provided some of the most lavishly decorated texts, such as the Padshahnama genre of
official histories. Subjects are rich in variety and include portraits, events and scenes from
court life, wild life and hunting scenes, and illustrations of battles. The Persian tradition of
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richly decorated borders framing the central image was continued. The style of the Mughal
school developed within the royal atelier. Knowledge was primarily transmitted through
familial and apprenticeship relationships, and the system of joint manuscript production
which brought multiple artists together for single works.

Question 36. What was the contribution of women Bhaktas towards transforming socio-
religious life? Discuss it with reference to Mira Bai.

Ans.
Bhakti movement took place in between mediocrity and inertia. Consciousness exploitation
in society came against caste system and how was the situation of women and society among
them all. At this time, the woman was stopped in four walls and was considered as an object of
luxury. From the small landowner to the king-Maharaja, many women were made up of
tradition. That is why child marriage and Sati practice also developed.

Mirabai is the only one in the anti-medieval anti-society, who, after abandoning social
values and family beliefs, declared independence. Mirabai was in the great saints of sixteenth
century India. Mirabai was born in 1498 AD in the village of Kadki in Medta district. They were
married to Prince Bhojraj, eldest son of Rana Sanga in 1516. Mirabai became a widow in a
young age. After the death of her husband, she was fully involved in religious acts. Immediately
afterwards, there was a flurry of other disasters, and the heart of Mira became disturbed by
earthly relations. Mirabai had a very religious attitude.

She now began to live a devotional life altogether, and became enamoured with devotion.
Rana Vikramaditya did not like the meeting of the princess Mira of the Sisoudia dynasty with
any other people, no matter how many devotees there was. He opposed it. But when the
opposition did not have any effect on Mira, it is said that he wanted to get rid of Mira with
poison. But fortunately, poison did not have any effect on Mira. Mira used to perform kirtan with
other saints and women's congregation When King Maldew of Jodhpur invaded Malta and won
it, then Mira decider to make a pilgrimage to Dwarka. In Dwarka, he spent his entire life as
dovotee, and she died in 1547 AD. Although the opposition of Mira is indicative of the female

rebellion. In that era, other women were also done in Taj, Swarnalali, but there was no challenge
in their life nor their struggle, so it is not even alive which is in verse of Mira.

Scholars acknowledge that Mira was one of the central poet-saints of the Bhakti movement,
during a difficult period in Indian history filled with Hindu-Muslim religious conflicts. Yet, they
simultaneously question the extent to which Mira was a canonical projection of social
imagination that followed, where she became a symbol of people's suffering and a desire for an
alternative.

The continued influence of Mira, in part, has been her message of freedom, her resolve and
right to pursue her devotion to deity Krishna and her spiritual beliefs as she felt drawn to despite
her persecution. Her appeal and influence in Indian culture, writes Edwin Bryant, is from her
emerging, through her legends and poems, as a person "who stands up for what is right and
suffers bitterly for holding fast to her convictions, as other men and women have", yet she does
so with a language of love, with words painting the full range of emotions that mark love,
whether between human beings or between human and divine.

Question 37. Evaluate the importance of the Chisti silsila in the medieval
period.

Ans.

Chishti silsila - In India, Chishti and Smriti ideologies (Silsila) were prominent among
various Sufi thinkers. The Chishti ideology in India was established by Muinuddin Chisthi
which reached India in 1192 and established center in Ajmer. The Sufis of the Chishti sect
established relations with the Hindus of the lower castes, but they lacked the universal lack of
electoral religion. High cast Hindus remained separate from Sufi saints for a long time. Believing
in the simplicity and poverty of the Chisthi sect, they considered personal property as a
hindrance in the development of their spiritual life. Although many of them had

adopted a householder life and had children, there were only a few of them living in their home.
In general, they did not take any stipend from the state, but the rich people willingly gave some
donations and used to live their life. Sometimes they also become debtors. It is said that Sheikh
Farid Ganj-e-Hunt used to die of hunger but did not ask for food and money from anyone. The
Sufi seekers of the Chishti community wanted to relinquish Islam's conservative ideology and
relate to Hindu-Muslim relations. This is their biggest contribution to Indian society. They
opposed the policy of the Muslim rulers' conversion and said it was unnecessary.

Question 38. Describe the approach of historians to the study of the Mughal empire.

Ans.
History is always written by the winning side, though a cliche is an expression which points
out imperfectness and dubiety of history that we learn today. In this respect, though history
provides us with academic interest from its intrinsic attractiveness, historiography, a study of
historical records, gives a different kind of scholarly amusement by focusing on the historical
records themselves, analyzing them, and broadening the scope of our awareness of history. With
historiography, this paper aims to investigate historical records written by historians of the
Mughal Empire, one of the most prosperous countries in South Asia throughout the history.

A wide range of aspects about historical records will be dealt: historians who wrote the
records, sources they used for historical records, purpose of historical writing, historical records
in context of the time they were written and the time they are concerned with, and other different
tendencies concerned with historical records such as perspectives, bias, etc. With in-depth
analysis of historical records and comparing it with societal or cultural background of the
Mughal Empire, this paper will try to find either individual historical approach used by Mughal
historians or common tendencies regarding historical records of the Mughal Empire.

Writing history of a country is meaningful in many aspects. For great leaders of a country,
history can be used as a mean to boast of their achievement to their descendants. For future
generations, historical records are useful source to trace their origins and learn from the past. In
addition, since writing history is both a scholarly work which needs much academic efforts and a

cultural task intended for descendants, a quality and a quantity of historical records in one
country are often considered as criteria which determine the cultural level of a country.

The Mughal Empire, once an economically and culturally prosperous country, also left
many historical works. It is during the Mughal dynasty when Indian historiography reached its
highest point of its growth and developinent. Historical books written in this period are great
sources from which today's people can learn the history of South Asia and some other regions
such as Afghanistan. Mughal historians were often patronized by emperors or nobles and many
of them had other original occupations such as courtiers under emperors, or poets, scholars. For
example, Abul Fazl, the author of Akbarnama, was a close vizier of Emperor Akbar. Similarly,
Jawahar Aftabci, the writer of Sah Jahannama, was an intimate friend of Shah Jahan. Mir
Masoom Shah Bakhri (Mir Muhammad Masum), who wrote

Tarikh-i Sind, did his service under Akbar. Nimat Allah al-Harawi (Nimat-Allah ibn
Habib-Allah Haravi), although he served Khan Jahan Lodi later, was a historian under Jahangir.
Those historians were encouraged to write history of emperors themselves or history of the past
including not only Mughal history but also history of other ethnicities. For example, Abbas Khan
Sarvani (Abbas Han Sarvani), at the request of Akbar, wrote history of Sher Shah in Tuhfah-yi
Akbar Sahi (A Gift to Akbar Sah), a sultan of Suri Dynasty, who ruled South Asia from 1540 to
1545 when the Mughal Empire retreated. Sayh Rizq-Allah ibn Sad Allah Dihlavi in the name of
Mustaqi wrote Vaqiat-i Mustaqi which contains the Afghan sultan. Some emperors who were
learned themselves even wrote history by themselves. The founder of the Mughal Empire Babur
wrote his autobiography Vaqiat-i Baburi. Lahangir, the fourth emperor, also wrote his
autobiographical memoir called Tuzuk-i Labowoiri. In addition, Gulbadan Begam, the daughter
of Emperor Babur, wrote Humayun-nama which is an account of her brother, Humayun.

While in the earlier period of Mughal dynasty historians are often under the service of
emperors, in the latter period during which the Mughal Empire declined, historians often served
local government or East India Company. Although there were also historians serving local
government in the earlier periods, there are less famous historians who served the emperors
during the declining period of Mughal dynasty. For instance, Muhammad Ali ibn Muhammad
Sadiq Husayni Nisaburi Najafi Burhanpuri was a historian supported by the governor of Oudh
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and Muhammad Ali Han Ansari served the deputy governor of Bengal during the reign of
Mughal ruler Shah Alam II in the 18th century. Hayr-al-Din Muhammad Ilahabadi and Gulam
Husayn Zaydpuri are historians who were employed in the East India Company. Gulam Basit is
a historian whose ancestors had been in the service of the Mughal Empire, tried to enter the
service of the empire and who himself tried to serve the empire. However, in the periods of
decline of the empire, he sought for employment under English who supported him greatly.
Additionally, writing a historical book was often a cooperated work done by many different
writers but led by one chief writer.

Tuzuk-i-Baburi or Babarnama written by Babur, the founder of the Mughal power as

autobiography in his mother tongue, Chagtai Turki occupies the first place. It is a true reflection
of his account of India and it gives information from Bohur's birth to AD 1529. Humayun Nama
written by Gulbadan Begum the daughter of babur and sister of Humayun Nama written by
Gulbadan Begum, and a detsiled account of Humayaun. This was written at the instance of
Akbar.

Tuhfa-i-Akbar Shahi (Tarikh-i-Shershahi) of Abbas Khan Sarwani provides details of the

life and works of Shershah. Abdul Qadir Badauni's Muntakhab- ut-Tawarikh is not dedicated to
Akbar as Badauni was very critical of the 'innovations' of Akbar. It is written in three volumes .
It deals in detail with various important matters mentioned in Akbarnama of Abul Fazl. Abul
Fazl's Akbarnama consists of three volumes; the third volume is the Ain-i-Akbari. While the first
two volumes cover the period of Akbar up close of his 46th year, the third volume 'Ain-i-Akbari
gives an account of the various imperial department and also of the revenue and administrative
officials, revenue rates of measured land and revenue statistics of Subas, Sarkars and Paraganas.
Khwaja Nizamuddin Ahmad Harawi’s Tabaquat-i-Akbari was completed in the year 1593-94
and it was composed in nine part from the advent of Islam up to AD 1593-94

Tuzuk-i-jahangir was the autobiography of Jahangir, it is also called Tarikh-i-salim shahi

and jahangirnama. Muhammad Qasim Shah Astrabadi’s Tarikh-firishtah, deals with the history
of the Sultans of the Deccan. Padshanama of Abdul Hamid Lahori is a biographical account of
Shahjahan from his childhood to AD 1649. It is rated as the first-rate authority on the reign of
Shahjahan. Besides this biography, Muhammad Amir Khan Qazyni and Muhammad Waris, a
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pupil of Lahori also wrote two biographies with the name Padshahnama. Of these two, the first
one gives an account of the first 10 years and the other the last ten years rule of Shahjahan.
Inayat Khan, a high official of Shahiahan also wrote Shahjahannama and another
Shahjahannama was written by Muhamad Sadiq Khan.

This covers the historical events from the death of Jahangir to the accession of Aurangzeb.
Muhammad Saki Mustaid Khan was the author of Maasir-e-Alamgiri. This was written after the
death of Aurangzeb with the help of state records. Mirza Muhammad Qazim was the author of
Alamgirnama. This is a good detailed history of the first ten years of Aurangzeb's reign.
Muhammad Hashim Khafi Khan's Muntakhab-ul-Lubab Muhammad Shahi is a voluminous
history from the Muslim conquest of India up to the Mughal emperor Muhammad Shah.

Besides these histories written in Persian, administrative and accountancy manuals,

statistical tables, Firmanas, Mishans or Parwanas, letters and dictionaries also serve useful
purpose as primary source material. A number of books based on primary sources written in the
last seventy-five years provide useful insights into the different reigns of the Mughal rulers.
Further, the contemporaneous Portuguese, Dutch, English and French records and accounts
provide useful information of the various aspects of Indian life.

Memoirs, travelogues, letters of the Jesuit fathers, and factory records come under the
above category. Antorio Monserette, a Jesuit in his commentary published in 1597 written in
Portuguese, provides a graphic account of the court of Akbar. William Hawkins' work
graphically describes Jahangir's court. Sir Thomas Roe's embassy (1615-1619) of Jahangir's time
offers political and economic information. Similarly, the Dutch factor, Pelsaert's account, the
travels of Peter Mundy, and Fray Sebastian Manrique, the travels of Francois Bernier and Storia
do Mogor of Niccolo Manucci also throw very useful light on the contemporary Indian society.

Question 39. Discuss the impact of European maritime trade on South Asia
between 15th and 17th centuries.

Ans.
India has been in a business and a political relationship since the ancient times. This
relation was established mainly by the land route from the north-west border of India and by the
sea route to the south. The Mughals had made a proper arrangement for the security of the
border, but they could not pay enough.

attention to the safety of the maritime route. There mistake became the cause of disaster
for Indians in the end. In fact, the neglect of the sea route by the Mughals gave inspiration to the
European nations to come to India and establish them here. It was also necessary to establish a
direct trade relationship with India because the commercial domination of the Arabs was causing
economic damage to the Europeans. Indeed, there are huge losses from Arab traders to Indian
and European traders. Consequently, European traders began exploring new routes to establish a
direct trade relationship with India, to eliminate or reduce the business domination of the Arabs.
Inspired by this desire, courageous sailors paid their attention to discovering new waterways.

The most important incident in this direction was the arrival of Portuguese sailor Vasco Da
Gama on 17 May, 1498, reaching Calicut. The ruler of Calicut welcomed this enthusiastic sailor
and provided him with business facilities. The arrival of Vasco Da Gama to India was an
extremely important event. Commenting on the importance of this incident, a historian has
correctly written that the arrival of Vasco Da Gama on the Indian land is undoubtedly a lifelong
phenomenon from the point of view of European history, because it first entered Europeans as
traders, followed by colonization as the founder, he settled in Indian land and ultimately
established the British as the ruler here.

Capitalism and commercialism developed in this era. This led to the process of discovering
new countries and it was necessary for the development of commercialism. Consequently,
adventurous businessmen and sailors went out in search of far and unknown countries. When
Vasco Da Gama came back to Portugal after taking spices from India, the Portuguese King
welcomed it, because the value of the spices taken from India was very high; estimated that India

and Portugal are eight times more than the amount spent on the oceans. The biggest thing was
that Portuguese was the first European nation which had the facility of settling and trading on the

Indian coastline. Portugal's maritime power was very rich at this time. By the end of the 16th
century, Portugal had the monopoly to trade by the eastern seas only after receiving the support
of the Pope. Thus, only the Portuguese could establish their business relationship with India till
the 16th century, but when the Reformation movement weakened the power of the Pope, after
seeing the commercial advantage of India, other powers of Europe were also started taking
interest in Indian business.

Question 30. Write short notes on any two of the following:

i. Balban's theory of Kingship

Ghiyas-ud-din Balban was a Turkish ruler of the Delhi Sultanate during the Mamluk dynasty (or
Slave dynasty) from 1266 to 1286. He was a slave of Iltutmish who at the orders of his own
master

Qutbuddin Aibak released him from slavery and brought him up in a manner befitting a prince.
He was liberally educated. He became the head of the ‘Chalissa’ or 'Forty' a group of forty leadin
Turkish nobles of the state. After the overthrow of Razia Sultana he ,adde rapid strides in the
subsequent reigns. He was initially the in Prime Minister from 1246 to 1266. but Balban declared
himself the Sultan of Delhi after the previous Sultan Nasir-ud-din Mahmud's death. Though he
was the father in law of the Sultan. During his reign, Balban ruled with an iron with an iron fist.
He broke up the Chihalgani, a group of the forty most important nobles in the court. He tried to
establish peace and order in the country of India. He built many outposts in areas where there
was crime and garrisoned them with soldiers. Blban wanted to make sure everyone was loyal to
the crown by establishing an efficient espionage system. He ruled as the Sultan from 1266 until
his death. His successors were weak and incompetent and the throne was eventually captured by
jalal-ud-din Firuz Khalji in 1290, bringing an end to the Slave dynasty.

ii. Mughal-Rajput relation

When Akbar took over the power, the Mughal state was very weak. After becoming the emperor,
Akbar took many steps to consolidate his power. One of these steps was regarding the
organization of the nobility. Till now the nobility was composed of the people from higher
classes only. Due to the structure of the nobility. The nobles had a control over the ruler also.
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This was true during time of Delhi Sultanate. Akbar tried to change this structure of the nobility.
He did not want to depend on the nobles beyond a point.He started recruiting new people into the
nobilities.

Among the new people the Rajputs as well as the Indian Musalmans were the most
important. By recruits the Raiputs in the nobility, his greatness opponents became his friends.
Babur and Humayun had to face the opposition from the Rajputs. Akbar was well aware of this
fact and that's why he extended the offer of friendship to the Rajputs and recruited them into the
nobility. The Indian Musalmans who were no considered of high origin, were also recruited into
the nobility and thus different classes of people were inducted into nobility.

iii. Fatehpur Sikri

Fatehpur Sikri is situated 26 miles away from Agra. Akbar tried to establish a new capital at
Sikri. At this new capital new palaces, residential houses, government and religious buildings
were constructed. Sikri was very important for Akbar as it was a saint of Sikri Shaikh Salim
Chisti who had predicted the birth of son of Akbar. Sikri was also situated as a secure corridor
between Ajmer and Agra. By building a new capital at Sikri, Akbar also tried to justify a specific
religious ideology of his times. Thus the buildings of different religions were constructed
together. At Sikri Akbar did not adopt that architectural traditions in which different buildings
were joined together by lanes. At Sikri a new style was adopted where in place of lanes and by
lanes there were courtyards and varandahs. All along the courtyards and varandah's there were
many palaces and rooms. The town of Sikri was built on a hill of sandstone in the direction of
north-east to south-east. Almost all the buildings are in the direction of northsouth. Only the
Jama Masjid is in the direction of east-west. The buildings like water reservoirs, Sarai, Diwan-i-
aam etc. were built in the backyard of the public space. At the top of hill, the palaces of the
Queens and Diwan-i-khas were built The Jama Masjid surrounds these buildings. Infact, Sikri
represents the architectural form by which Akbar was trying to establish unity among different
elements of his state.

iv. Kabir
v. Chakkinama and Charkanama

Question 31. Critically examine the role of nobility during 13th and 14th
centuries.

Ans.
After its first phase of development during the reign of Babur and Humayun and the early
years of Akbar, the Mughal ruling class came to consist of certain well-recognised racial groups.
The important ones were Turanis Iranis Afghans, Shaikhzadas, Rajputs and also the Deccan is
(Bijapuris, Haiderabadis and Marathas). Thus, it was an international ruling class; for
recruitment 'nationality' was no bar. However, mere fulfillment of certain criteria of merit and
competence was not the sole requirement to gain entry into it dan or family links were me most
important considerations for recruitment and ordinary people, with whatever merit to their credit,
were normally not admitted to this aristocratic class of the society.

The khanazads (the house-born ones), who were the sons and descendants of those officers
(mansabdars) who were already in the Mughal service, were the best and foremost claimants.
They constituted almost half of the ruling class throughout the Mughal period and the remaining
half of the ruling class comprised of persons not belonging to the families already in service.

The zamindars or the chieftains were one of them. Though they had been in the state service ever
since the time of Delhi Sultans, they attained great importance under Akbar who granted them
high mansabs and jagirs in various parts of the empire. These jagirs were in addition to their
ancestral domains which were now treated as their watan jagir.

Nobles and high officers of other states were also taken into the Mughal ruling class on
account of their experience, status and influence. Leading commanders of the enemy state, in
particular, were offered tempting ranks to make them desert their masters. A very small portion
of the Mughal ruling class consisted of persons belonging to the accountant castes, that is,
Khatris, Kavasthas, etc. They were usually appointed in the financial departments on low ranks,
but they could rise to higher ones. Todar Mai under Akbar and Raja Raghunath under Aurangzeb

belonged to this category. They served as diwan and received high ranks. Scholars, saints/sufis
and theologians, etc. also received ranks and offices in the Mughal service. Abul Fazl under
Akbar, Sadullah Khan and Danish Khan durir Shah Jahan's reign, and Hakim Abul Mulk in
Aurangzeb's period are some of the noteworthy examples of this class.

Question 32. To what extent was the Nayankara system central to the
administration of the Vijayanagara Empire ? Discuss.

Ans.
There has been a good deal of debate among scholars about the nature of the Vijayanagara
state. Nilkanth Shastri considered it the nearest to a war state He traces this to the view put
forward by Vijayanagara ruler that half of to Income of the state should be kept for warfare. He
also laid emphasis on he amaram system. But Satish Chandra says that Vijayanagara was a war
state only in the sense that all medieval states had to be constantly ready for war.

There is a difference of opinion whether the Vijayanagara state was a loose association of
mi-autonomous military and territorial leaders the nayaks or was a, centralised state on the
model of the Delhi Sultanate. In this context, it should be remembered that the amaram cannot be
equated to the Turkish igta system The nayaks were hereditary territorial lords in their own right.
Satish Chandra says that the area administered directly by the Vijavancora rulers must have been
much smaller than the size of the empire.

Some historians say that the Vijayanagara State was a citadel of Hindu orthodoxy and
conservation. But can be said that in matters of religion the Vijayanagara rulers not narrow. They
were tolerant towards Christian missionaries and Muslims.

Question 33. Discuss the importance of the Jagirdari system under the
Mughal rule.

Ans.

Assignment of a piece of lend to an individual for the purpose of collection of revenue in

lieu of cash salary is an old-age practice in India. In the Delhi Sultanate period such practice
were called Igtas and the holder Igtas. The Mughal empire also implanted this system and the
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areas assigned were called jagirs and their holders, jagirdars. The framework of Mughal jagirdari
system began during the reign of Akbar and in course of time it underwent modifications. Babur
and Humayun continued the collection of revenue from the assigned territories through
Wajahders by fixing 'wajah'. In the time of Akbar, the territory was broadly divided as Khalisa
and jagir.

The revenue of Khalisa territory was collected and deposited in the imperial treasury.
Depending on the rank of the jagirdars was assigned the collection of revenue in lieu of salary in
cash. The maximum area of territory was assigned to Mansabdars on the basis of their rank. The
collected revenue from the territory was called “jama jamadari" as it was calculated in dam.

The jagirdar collected the revenue through his own official like Karkun Amir and Fotedar.
The imperial bureaucracy kept a vigilant watch over the jagirdars. The Diwan of the subha saw
to it that the jagirdars never harassed the peasants for excess payment. From the 20th year of the
reign of Akbar, an Amir was posted in the Subha to see that jagirdars strictly implemente the
royal orders. In terms of difficulty, the jagirdar took the help of faujdar for collection of revenue.
During the later period of Aurangzeb's reign, ac arose a crisis in jagirdar's system and this in turn
led to a crisis in the Muga empire.

Question 34. Explain the main stages in the Mughal-Maratha conflict.

Ans.
Between the deaths of Shivaji and Aurangzeb (1680-1707), the Mughals and Marathas
constantly met with strife over and territory that each wanted in the name of their religion. Both
had large armies of men that would in the 30 year war continue to establish and re-establish
dominance in the area. Traditionally, the Narmada river was the dividing line between Deccan,
the Marathas, stronghold, and the North, the Mughals. Shivaji left the son Sembhaiji in a strong
position to continue developing the empire, which he did. He led the troops to victory time and
time again, was executed in 1689. His half brother, Rajaram took up leadership for the next 11
years. He continued the legacy that his father and brother set, but nearly two decades of fighting,
spoke with Aurangzeb about a cease-fire. The indicative Mughal emperor refused and the wards
continued.

It would appear that even Aurangzeb in his later years realized that the was fruitless, but
he maintained his position. With every defeat, the Mughal reputation and authority both took
hits. While, to the contrary the Marathas were seen as a guiding light for many people. Upon
invading certain areas; for example Hyderabad, they established a Protection racket against the
Mughal armies and revenue collectors. In this way, Marathas were highly regarded among the
citizens for their ability to same them from violence and poverty, while the Mughals were
increasingly painted in a villainous image. Despite having given up hope of winning the wars.
Aurangzeb prolonged them for many years, then later planned his retreat.

Aurangzeb died in 1707 an event which completely changed the dynamics of the war
because all of his approximate 17 heirs were of age to ascend the throne. It is rumoured that
Aurangzeb requested that his empire be divided among his sons. But instead, succession wars
ensured among Mughals, royalty diverting their attentions from the external threats whereby the
Marathas were able to cross the Narmada river and successfully take a large amount of Mughal
territory. On the similar way to home Aurangzeb took the throne. Bahedur Shah I defeated his
brother on the some battle ground. The new Mughal emperor, Bahadur Shah I, released Shivaji,
grandson of Shivaji, from prison, who boldly took the Maratha throne. Bahadur Shah I began
attempts to unify the empire contrary to Aurangzeb's decentralized system. But he was
unsuccessful.

Question 35. The city of Hampi was a reflection of imperial power. Discuss.

Ans.
The armies of the Delhi Sultanate, particularly those of Alauddin Khilji and Muhammad
bin Tughlaq, invaded and plunged south India. The Hoysale empire and its capital Dvarasamudra
on Southern Karnataka wae plundered and destroyed in the early 14th century by the armies of
Alauddin Khilji, and again in 1326 CE by the army of Muhammad bin Tughlaq.

The Kempili kingdom in north central Karnataka followed the collapse of Hoysale Empire.
It was a short lived Hindu kingdom with its capital about 33 km. from Hamipi. The Kempili
kingdom ended after an invasion by the Muslims armies of Muhammed bin Tughlaq. The Hindu
women of Kempili committed Jauehar when the Kempili soldiers faced defeat by Tughlaq's

army. In 1330, the Vijaynagara Empire arose from the ruins of the Kempili kingdom. It grew
into one of the famed Hindu empires of South India that ruled for over 200 years.

The Vijaynagara empire built its capital around Hampi, called it Vijaynagara. The
founders of the empire, Harihara and Bukke I, were Kannadigas and commanders in the army of
the Hoysala empire stationed in the Tughbhandra region By 1500 CE Hampi-Vijayanagara was
the worlds second largest medieval era city after Beijing and India's richest. Its wealth attracted
16th century traders from the across the Decean area, Persia and the Portuguese colony of Goa.
The Vijayanagara rulers fostered development in intellectual pursuits and the arts, maintained a
strong military and fought many wars with Sultanate to its north and east. The city was of
metropolitan proportions they called it "one of the most beautiful cities, while prosperous and in
infrastructure, Muslim-Hindu was between Muslim Sultanates and Vijaynagara empire
continued. In 1565, at the battle of Taalikote a coalition of Muslim Sultanates entered into a war
with the Vijaynagara empire. The captured the empire followed by a massive destruction of the
infrastructure fabric of Hampi and metropolitan Vijaynagara.

Question 36. Write short notes on any two of the following:

(1) Iqta system

The revenue resources were distributed among the Sultan and his nobles. Territories whose
revenues went directly to me treasury were called Kialisa, while those parceled out among his
nobICs were called igtas. Historians have identified three stages in the history of the main the
Sultanate period. In the first phase, the Sultans assigned different regim as igtas to their
commanders, who had to maintain themselves and their troops from its revenues. At this point,
the iqtadars (holders of iqtas) also served as Governors and were responsible for both revenue
collection and the administration of the igtas. However, the iqtas were subject to transfer from
one person to another.

In the second phase, under the Khilzi's and Tughlaqs, an attempt was made to check the
freedom the iqtadars had hitherto enjoyed in revenue matters. They were now required to submit
accounts of the revenues collective as well as their own expenses and remit the balance to the
imperial treasury. In the third and final stage under Firoz Tughlaq, the centralizing tendencies of

the second phase were reversed and several concessions made to the iqtadars. Igtas also in all
probability became hereditary. Firoz Shah's measures continued under the Lodis.

(2) Market Control policy

(3) Mughal Painting

By the time of the Mughal invasion, the tradition had abandoned the high viewpoint typical
of the Persian style, and adopted a more realistic style for animals and plants. No miniatures
survive from the reign of the founder of the dynasty, Babur, nor does he mention commissioning
any in his diaries, the Baburnama. Copies of this were illustrated by his descendents, Akbar in
particular, with many portraits of the many new animals Babur encountered when he invaded
India, which are carefully described. However some surviving un-illustrated manuscript may
have been commissioned by him, and he comments on the style of some famous past Persian
masters. Some older illustrated manuscripts have his seal on them; the Mughal came from a long
line stretching back to Timur and were fully assimilated into persianate culture, and expected to
patronize literature and the arts.

Mughal painting immediately took a much greater interest in realistic portraiture than was
typical of Persian miniatures. Animals and plants were also more realistically shown. Although
many classic works of Persian literature continued to be illustrated, as well as Indian works, the
taste of the Mughal emperors for writing memoirs or diaries, begun by Babur, provided some of
the most lavishly decorated texts, such as the Padshahnama genre of official histories. Subjects
are rich in variety and include portraits, events and scenes from court life, wild life and hunting

scenes, and illustrations of battles. The Persian tradition of richly decorated borders framing the
central image was continued. The style of the Mughal school developed within the royal atelier.
Knowledge was primarily transmitted through familial and apprenticeship relationships, and the
system of joint manuscript production which brought multiple artists together for single works.

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