Second Language Acquisition

Language acquisition does not require extensive use of conscious grammatical rules, and
does not require tedious drill. Acquisition requires meaningful interaction in the target
language - natural communication - in which speakers are concerned not with the form of
their utterances but with the messages they are conveying and understanding.

The 5 hypotheses of Krashen's Theory of Second Language Acquisition

Krashen's theory of second language acquisition consists of five main hypotheses:

 the Acquisition-Learning hypothesis;

 the Monitor hypothesis;
 the Input hypothesis;
 and the Affective Filter hypothesis;
 the Natural Order hypothesis.

The Acquisition-Learning distinction is the most fundamental of the five hypotheses in

Krashen's theory and the most widely known among linguists and language teachers.

According to Krashen there are two independent systems of foreign language performance:

'the acquired system' and 'the learned system'. The 'acquired system' or 'acquisition' is the

product of a subconscious process very similar to the process children undergo when they

acquire their first language. It requires meaningful interaction in the target language - natural

communication - in which speakers are concentrated not in the form of their utterances, but in

the communicative act.

The "learned system" or "learning" is the product of formal instruction and it comprises a

conscious process which results in conscious knowledge 'about' the language, for example

knowledge of grammar rules. A deductive approach in a teacher-centered setting produces

"learning", while an inductive approach in a student-centered setting leads to "acquisition".

The Monitor hypothesis explains the relationship between acquisition and learning and

defines the influence of the latter on the former. The monitoring function is the practical result

of the learned grammar. According to Krashen, the acquisition system is the utterance

initiator, while the learning system performs the role of the 'monitor' or the 'editor'. The

'monitor' acts in a planning, editing and correcting function when three specific conditions are

met:

 The second language learner has sufficient time at their disposal.

 They focus on form or think about correctness.
 They know the rule.

It appears that the role of conscious learning is somewhat limited in second language

performance. According to Krashen, the role of the monitor is minor, being used only to

correct deviations from "normal" speech and to give speech a more 'polished' appearance.

Krashen also suggests that there is individual variation among language learners with regard

to 'monitor' use. He distinguishes those learners that use the 'monitor' all the time (over-users);

those learners who have not learned or who prefer not to use their conscious knowledge

(under-users); and those learners that use the 'monitor' appropriately (optimal users). An

evaluation of the person's psychological profile can help to determine to what group they

belong. Usually extroverts are under-users, while introverts and perfectionists are over-users.

Lack of self-confidence is frequently related to the over-use of the "monitor".

The Input hypothesis is Krashen's attempt to explain how the learner acquires a second

language – how second language acquisition takes place. The Input hypothesis is only

concerned with 'acquisition', not 'learning'. According to this hypothesis, the learner improves

and progresses along the 'natural order' when he/she receives second language 'input' that is

one step beyond his/her current stage of linguistic competence. For example, if a learner is at

a stage 'i', then acquisition takes place when he/she is exposed to 'Comprehensible
Input' that belongs to level 'i + 1'. Since not all of the learners can be at the same level of

linguistic competence at the same time, Krashen suggests that natural communicative input is

the key to designing a syllabus, ensuring in this way that each learner will receive some 'i + 1'

input that is appropriate for his/her current stage of linguistic competence.

The Affective Filter hypothesis embodies Krashen's view that a number of 'affective

variables' play a facilitative, but non-causal, role in second language acquisition. These

variables include: motivation, self-confidence, anxiety and personality traits. Krashen claims

that learners with high motivation, self-confidence, a good self-image, a low level of anxiety

and extroversion are better equipped for success in second language acquisition. Low

motivation, low self-esteem, anxiety, introversion and inhibition can raise the affective filter

and form a 'mental block' that prevents comprehensible input from being used for acquisition.

In other words, when the filter is 'up' it impedes language acquisition. On the other hand,

positive affect is necessary, but not sufficient on its own, for acquisition to take place.

Finally, the less important Natural Order hypothesis is based on research findings which

suggested that the acquisition of grammatical structures follows a 'natural order' which is

predictable. For a given language, some grammatical structures tend to be acquired early

while others late. This order seemed to be independent of the learners' age, L1 background,

conditions of exposure, and although the agreement between individual acquirers was not

always 100% in the studies, there were statistically significant similarities that reinforced the

existence of a Natural Order of language acquisition. Krashen however points out that the

implication of the natural order hypothesis is not that a language program syllabus should be

based on the order found in the studies. In fact, he rejects grammatical sequencing when the

goal is language acquisition.