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Laboratory Manual
Applied Physics-I Lab (DBS09006)
____________________________________________________________________________________________

Table of Contents
Experiment/Lab Name of the Experiment/Activity/Exercise Page
Exercise/Activity Number(s)
No.
1 Determination of volume of the material of a hollow cylinder by 1-4
using slide callipers: Data analysis and error calculation.

2 Determination of area of cross-section of a wire/thin solid rod by 5-7

using a screw gauge. Estimate the maximum proportional error in
the measurement.
3 Determination of acceleration due to gravity by simple pendulum. 8-11
4 Determination of Young’s modulus of the material by method of 12-16
flexure.
5 Determination of rigidity modulus of the material of a wire by 17-21
dynamical method.
6 Determination of surface tension of water by capillary rise method. 22-25

7 Determination of coefficient of viscosity of given liquid by 26-29

Capillary tube method.
8 Determination of specific gravity of a solid, insoluble in water and 30-32
heavier than water, by using balance.
9 Drawing of n-l curve by using a set of tuning forks of known 33-36
frequencies and a sonometer and hence to determine the unknown
frequency of a tuning fork.
10 Verification of laws of refraction of light and determination of 37-39
refractive index of the material of the transparent slab used.
11 Determine the focal length of a thin convex lens by U-V method & 40-43
hence find its power.

Students need to write sections 5, 8, 9, 10 & 7 for each experiment in their laboratory note book .

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Experiment No. 1: Determination of volume of the material of a hollow

cylinder by using slide callipers: Data analysis and error calculation.

1. Aim/Purpose of the Experiment

Use of slide calipers to measure the internal diameter and length and hence the volume of the
material of a hollow cylinder.

2. Learning outcomes
Students will learn how to measure thickness/diameter of cylindrical objects using a slide caliper.

3. Prerequisites
Students should have basic idea about measuring length and calculating volume of elementary
geometrical shapes.

4. Materials/Equipment/Apparatus/Devices/Software required
Slide calipers and hollow cylindrical object like, a tube.

5. Introduction and Theory

Volume (𝑉) of a hollow cylinder is given by

𝜋
𝑉= 𝐿(𝐷22 − 𝐷12 )
4
where 𝐿 = length of the cylinder, 𝐷1 = internal diameter, and 𝐷2 = external diameter of the

cylinder.

6. Operating procedure
i. Keep the jaws of slide calipers closed. Observe the zero mark of the main scale. It must perfectly
coincide with that of the vernier scale. If this is not so, account for the zero error for all
observations to be made while using the instrument.
ii. Look for the division on the vernier scale that coincides with a division of main scale. Use a
magnifying glass, if available and note the number of divisions on the vernier scale that
coincides with the one on the main scale. Position your eye directly over the division mark so
as to avoid any parallax error.

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iii. Adjust the upper jaws of the slide calipers so as to touch the wall of the cylinder from inside
without exerting undue pressure on it. Tighten the screw gently to keep the slide calipers in this
position.
iv. Gently loosen the screw to release the movable jaw. Slide it enough to hold the cylindrical body
gently in between the lower jaws. The jaws should be perfectly perpendicular to the diameter of
the body. Now, gently tighten the screw so as to clamp the instrument in this position to the
body.
v. Carefully note the position of the zero mark of the vernier scale against the main scale. Usually,
it will not perfectly coincide with any of the small divisions on the main scale. Record the main
scale division just to the left of the zero mark of the vernier scale.
vi. Start looking for exact coincidence of a vernier scale division with that of a main scale division
in the vernier window from left end (zero) to the right. Note its number (say) N, carefully.
vii. Multiply 'N' by least count of the instrument and add the product to the main scale reading noted
in step v.
viii. Repeat the steps iii to vii to obtain the internal diameter of the cylinder for different (angular)
positions of the cylinder.
ix. Following the same procedures as above, obtain the length of the cylinder for different positions.

7. Precautions and/or Troubleshooting

(i) The cylinder should not be pressed too tightly or very loosely between the jaws of the calipers.
(ii) Since there may be non-uniformity in the cylinder along its length, the diameter has to be
measured at different places of the cylinder.
(iii) The instrumental error of the cylinder, if any, should be taken care of.

8. Observations
● Determination of the vernier constant (v. c.) of the slide calipers:

1 smallest division of the main scale =

……………….. divisions of the vernier scale = ………………… divisions of the main scale
1 division of vernier scale (v. s.) = …………………. m. s. d.
= …………………. cm.
Vernier constant = 1 m. s. d. – 1 v. s. d. in cm.

Instrumental error (if any):

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Table 1: Measurement of length (𝐿)

No. of obs. Main scale Vernier Length Average Corrected length

reading (m.s.d.) reading 𝐿′ = 𝑚 + 𝑛 × 𝑣. 𝑐. diameter 𝐿 = 𝐿′ ± error
(𝑚) in cm (𝑛) (cm) 𝐿′ in cm (cm)

Table 2: Measurement of Internal Diameter (𝐷1 )

No. of obs. Main scale Vernier Diameter Average Corrected length

reading (m.s.d.) reading 𝐷1′ = 𝑚 + 𝑛 × 𝑣. 𝑐. diameter 𝐷1 = 𝐷1′ ± error
(𝑚) in cm (𝑛) (cm) 𝐷1′ in cm (cm)

Table 3: Measurement of External Diameter (𝐷2 )

No. of obs. Main scale Vernier Diameter Average Corrected length

reading (m.s.d.) reading 𝐷2′ = 𝑚 + 𝑛 × 𝑣. 𝑐. diameter 𝐷2 = 𝐷2′ ± error
(𝑚) in cm (𝑛) In cm 𝐷2′ in cm in cm

9. Calculations and Analysis:

Volume of the material of the cylinder,
𝜋
𝑉 = 𝐿(𝐷22 − 𝐷12 ) = ……………….. in cm3.
4

10. Result and Interpretation:

The volume of the material of a hollow cylinder is determined using a slide calipers and its value is
……….. cm3.

11. Follow-up Questions:

Q1. What is the principle of a vernier?

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Ans. The vernier scale uses the alignment of line segments displaced by a small amount to make
fine measurements.

Q2. Define Vernier constant.

Ans. Vernier constant is the difference between the smallest division of main scale and the of
Vernier scale.

Q3. How is the least count of slide calipers calculated?

Ans. Least count also known as the vernier constant is the difference between one main scale
division (1 mm) and one vernier scale division (0.9 mm). It can also be calculated by dividing the
smallest unit on the main scale by the total numbers on the vernier scale.

Q4. What is parallax error and how can it be avoided?

Ans. Parallax is an effect where the direction and position of the object appear to differ when viewed
from different lines of sight.

Q5. What are the uses of slide calipers?

Ans. Slide calipers are used in science labs, steel industries, aerospace industries, automobile
industries, etc.

12. Extension and Follow-up Activities (if applicable)

13. Assessments:

14. Suggested Readings

Text and reference books as given in the syllabus

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Experiment No. 2: Determination of area of cross-section of a wire/thin

solid rod by using a screw gauge. Estimate the maximum proportional
error in the measurement.

1. Aim/Purpose of the Experiment

Use of screw gauge to measure the diameter and hence the cross-sectional area of a wire/thin solid
rod.
2. Learning Outcomes
Students will learn how to measure the diameter of thin wire/rod using a screw gauge.

3. Prerequisites
Students should have basic idea about measuring length and calculating cross-sectional area.

4. Materials/Equipment/Apparatus / Devices/Software required

Screw gauge and a given wire/thin rod.

5. Introduction and Theory

The (circular) cross sectional area (𝐴) of a wire is given by

𝜋 2
𝐴= 𝑑
4
where 𝑑 is the diameter of the wire.

6. Operating Procedure
i. Measure the length of one division of the linear scale. Usually, 10 divisions is equal to 1 cm or
0.5 cm. Accordingly, one division is 1 mm or 0.5 mm.
ii. Rotate the screw through, say, ten complete rotations and observe the distance through which it
has receded.
iii. Find the pitch of the screw, i. e., the distance moved by the screw in one complete rotation.
iv. If there are 𝑛 divisions on the circular scale, then distance moved by the screw when it is rotated
through one division on the circular scale is called the least count of the screw gauge, that is,
𝑝𝑖𝑡𝑐ℎ
𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡 = .
𝑛
v. Determine the least count.
vi. Insert the given wire between the screw and the stud of the screw gauge. Move the screw forward
by rotating the rachet till the wire is gently gripped between the screw and the stud. Stop rotating
the rachet the moment you hear a click sound.
vii. Take the readings on the linear scale and the circular scale.

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viii. From these two readings, obtain the diameter of the wire.
ix. The wire may not have an exactly circular cross-section. Therefore. it is necessary to measure
the diameter of the wire for two positions at right angles to each other. For this, first record the
reading of diameter 𝑑1 and then rotate the wire through 90° at the same cross-sectional position.
Record the reading for diameter 𝑑2 in this position.
x. The wire may not be truly cylindrical. Therefore, it is necessary to measure the diameter at
several different places and obtain the average value of diameter.
xi. Subtract zero error, if any, with proper sign to get the corrected value for the diameter of the
wire.

7. Precautions and/or Troubleshooting

i. The screw should always be rotated by ratchet to avoid undue pressure.
ii. To avoid back-lash error in the screw, the screw should be moved in the same direction.
iii. The reading should be taken repeatedly at different places/orientation of the given wire.
iv. View all the reading keeping the eye perpendicular to the scale to avoid error due to parallax.

8. Observations
● Determination of the least count of the screw gauge:

1 smallest division of main scale = …………… mm

No. of divisions of circular scale (𝑛) = …………….
Screw pitch = …………….. mm
Least count (𝑙. 𝑐.) = Pitch/𝑛 = ……………. mm

Instrument error (if any) : …………………

No. Direction of Linear Circular Diameter of Mean Grand Corrected

of diameter scale scale the wire diamete mean diameter
obs. reading (𝑚) reading (𝑚 + 𝑛 × 𝑙. 𝑐. ) r in mm diameter (𝑑 =
in mm (𝑛) in mm in mm Grand
diameter
± error) in
mm
1 First
Perpendicular
2 First
Perpendicular

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9. Calculations & Analysis

𝜋
𝐴 = 4 𝑑 2 = …………….. 𝑚𝑚2 .
● Calculation of maximum proportional error in area:
𝜋
𝜋 2 𝜋 𝛥𝐴 4 2𝑑𝛥𝑑 𝛥𝑑
𝐴 = 𝑑 ± 𝛥𝐴; 𝛥𝐴 = 2𝑑𝛥𝑑 ⇒ = 𝜋 =2 .
4 4 𝐴 2 𝑑
4𝑑
𝛥𝑑 𝑑1𝑠𝑡 𝑜𝑏𝑠. − 𝑑𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛
= .
𝑑 𝑑𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛
10. Result & Interpretation
The diameter of a wire/thin rod is determined using a screw gauge and its value is …………. mm.

11. Follow-up Questions

Q1. Why is the instrument named screw gauge?
Ans. The instrument is called a screw gauge, because it uses a screw to amplify a very small
movement so that it can easily be read.

Q2. Define pitch of the screw.

Ans. The distance covered on the linear scale with one complete rotation is called Pitch of screw
gauge.

Q3. Define Least Count of the screw gauge.

Ans. The smallest distance we can measure by the screw gauge is called the least count of the screw
gauge.

Q4. Between slide calipers and screw gauge, which instrument will give more accurate
measurement and why?
Ans. Screw gauge is more accurate as it gives the reading up to three or four decimal places as
compared to slide calipers.

Q5. Can you measure the thickness of a plane paper using screw gauge?
Ans. Yes, by folding the paper to several times and after taking the reading dividing it with the
number of folds, will give the actual thickness of the paper.

12. Extension and Follow-up Activities (if applicable)

13. Assessments

14. Suggested readings

Text and reference books as given in the syllabus.

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Experiment No. 3: Determination of acceleration due to gravity by simple

pendulum
1. Aim/Purpose of the Experiment
To determine the value of acceleration due to gravity by simple pendulum.

2. Learning Outcomes
Students will be able to understand the concept of simple harmonic motion and gravity. They will
be able to estimate the value of acceleration due to gravity.

3. Prerequisites
Students should have basic idea of time period of oscillation and measurement of time and length.

4. Materials/Equipment/Apparatus/Devices/Software required
A solid metallic bob with a hook, a long inextensible string, meter scale, a split cork, slide caliper,
stop watch, clamp and stand.

5. Introduction and Theory

The time required for one complete oscillation of a simple pendulum is called time period. The
expression for the time-period of a simple pendulum is given by
𝐿
𝑇 = 2𝜋√
𝑔

where 𝐿 = 𝑙 + 𝑟 = effective length of the pendulum,

𝑙 = length of the string,
𝑟 = radius of the bob,
𝑔 = acceleration due to gravity.
4𝜋2𝐿
Thus, 𝑔 = .
𝑇2

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6. Operating Procedure
i.Measure the diameter of the spherical bob using a slide caliper. Calculate its radius.
ii.Tie the hook, attached to the pendulum bob, to one end of the string. Pass the other end of the
string through two half-pieces of a split cork.
iii.Hang the pendulum vertically, keep the thread parallel to the table edge. Draw a line on the table
edge parallel to the string.
iv.Draw two more lines which should not be crossed so that the angular displacement remains small.
v.Oscillate the pendulum in a vertical plane. Note down the time taken (say, 𝑡) for a fixed number
(say, 𝑛) of oscillations using a stop watch. Repeat it multiple times for better accuracy.
vi.Calculate the time period of oscillation: 𝑇 = 𝑡/𝑛.

7. Precautions and/or Troubleshooting

i.The effective length of the pendulum should be large.
ii.To measure the time period, a large number (20 or 30) of oscillations should be taken. More the
number of oscillations taken, less is the proportional error in measurement of 𝑔.
iii.The string should be light and thin.
iv.The bob should not be pulled by large angle for setting it into oscillation. If the angle is large the
motion will not be simple harmonic.
v.The oscillation should be set in such a way that the oscillations take place in perfect vertical plane.
vi.The bob should not be twist or rotate during oscillation.
vii.Time for oscillations should be measured with utmost care.

8. Observations
● Determination of radius of the bob:
● Determination of vernier constant (V. C):
1 smallest division of the main scale = ……………
……………. divisions of the vernier scale = …………… divisions of the main scale
1 division of vernier scale (v. s.) = …………………. m. s. d.
= …………………. cm
Vernier constant = 1 m. s. d. – 1 v. s. d. in cm.

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No. of Main Scale Vernier Total Mean Radius

obs. Reading Scale diameter= diameter (𝑑) (𝑟 = 𝑑/2)
(M.S.R) in Reading M.S.R + in cm in cm
cm (V.S.R) (V.S.R x V.C)
in cm
1
2
3
4

● Determination of 𝑔:
Length of the string (𝑙) = …………….. cm.
Effective length 𝐿 = 𝑙 + 𝑟 = ……………… cm.
No. of obs. Time taken for 𝑛 = Mean Time 𝑇2
……. oscillations (𝑡) in value of 𝑡 period, (sec2)
sec in sec 𝑇 = 𝑡/𝑛
in sec
1
2
3
4
5

9. Calculations & Analysis

4𝜋2𝐿
𝑔= = ………….. 𝑚/𝑠 2 .
𝑇2

10. Result & Interpretation

The acceleration due to gravity, 𝑔 = …………. 𝑚/𝑠 2 .
11. Follow-up Questions
Q1. Define simple harmonic motion.
Ans. It is the periodic motion in which acceleration is proportional to the displacement and is always
directed towards the mean position
Q2. Does the time period of a simple pendulum depend upon mass, size and material of the bob?
Ans. No, the time period is independent of the mass, size and nature of the material of the bob.
Q3. Can we use a conical or cylindrical bob instead of spherical one?

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Ans. Yes, it can be used but spherical bob is always preferred because it is easier to locate its center
of gravity.
Q4. How does ‘𝑔’ vary from place to place on the surface of earth?
Ans. It is minimum at the equator, goes on increasing as we go towards the poles and is maximum
at the poles.
Q5. How does ‘𝑔’ vary with height, depth or due to rotation of the earth about its axis?
Ans. It decreases with height, with depth and due to rotation of the earth.
12. Extension and Follow-up Activities (if applicable)
13. Assessments
14. Suggested readings
Text and reference books as given in the syllabus.

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Experiment No. 4: Determination of Young’s modulus of the material by

method of flexure.

1. Aim/Purpose of the Experiment

To determine Young’s modulus of the material of a bar.

2. Learning Outcomes
Students will learn to determine and to analyze different elastic moduli of materials.

3. Prerequisites
Students should have idea about use of Vernier scale in Slide calipers and vertical microscope. They
should be able to use screw gauge. They should have idea about elasticity and elastic moduli of a
material.

4. Materials/Equipment/Apparatus/Devices/Software required

A rectangular metallic bar, scale, slide calipers, screw gauge, travelling microscope with vertical
motion, several iron weight of equal mass, hanger attached with a needle.

5. Introduction and Theory

If a load of mass ‘𝑚’ is attached to the hanger placed at the midpoint of the beam, the depression of
the middle point of the beam is given by

𝑚𝑔𝑙 3
𝑥= (1)
4𝑏𝑑 3 𝑌
𝑚𝑔𝑙³
⇒ 𝑌= (2)
4𝑏𝑑³𝑥
where, ‘𝑌’ = Young’s modulus of the material of the beam (C.G.S unit- dyne/cm2)
‘𝑙’ = Length of the beam between the knife edges
‘𝑔’ = Acceleration due to gravity
‘𝑏’ and ‘𝑑’ = Breadth and depth of the beam in cm respectively

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6. Operating Procedure

i. Measure the breadth and depth of the rectangular bar.

ii. Mark the midpoint of the beam with the help of a chalk.
iii. Mark two points symmetrically from the midpoint so that the distance between these two points
(𝑙) is of the order of 90 cm.
iv. Put the beam on the knife-edges. Bring the knife-edges below the points marked in step 3. The
beam should be placed so that the shorter dimension remains vertical. Bring the hanger on the
midpoint of the beam.
v. Focus the travelling microscope on the indicator of the hanger. Take the reading of the vertical
scale. This is the depression with no load.
vi. Apply 0.5 kg load and find the shifted reading of the indicator.
vii. Increase the load up to 3.5 kg in steps of 0.5 kg and take the reading of the indicator in each
step.
viii. Reduce the loads in the step of 0.5 kg and take readings.
ix. Determine the average of the position of the indicator while the load was increasing and when
it was decreasing.
x. Determine the difference of position at each value of load with respect to no load. This gives
the depression corresponding to the load.
xi. Plot a curve of depression vs. load. This should be a straight line passing through the origin.
Select a point from the origin. Read out the value of load and depression (𝑚 and 𝑥 of the working
formula).

7. Precautions and/or Troubleshooting

(i) The beam should be made horizontal and the loading should be made exactly at the middle of
the bar.
(ii) To avoid backlash error in rotating the microscope screw, always move the screw in one
direction only in one run.

8. Observations

Length of the Bar between the two knife edges = _______________

Vernier constant (V.C) of the slide calipers:

Smallest division in the main scale (s) =
No. of division in the Vernier scale (n) =
No. of coincident Main scale division (m) =

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𝑛−𝑚
Vernier constant = 𝑠 ( ) = __________𝑐𝑚
𝑛

Least count (L.C) of screw gauge:

Pitch (𝑝) =
No. of division in the circular scale (𝑛) =
𝑝
Least count ( 𝑛 ) = _________𝑐𝑚

Vernier constant (V.C) of the travelling microscope

Smallest division in the main scale (𝑠) =
No. of division in the Vernier scale (𝑛) =
No. of coincident Main scale division (𝑚) =
𝑛−𝑚
Vernier constant = 𝑠 ( ) = ______𝑐𝑚
𝑛

Table 1: Determination of breadth and depth of the bar

Measuring Main scale Vernier scale Total reading in cm Mean reading
quantity reading (m) in reading (N) b’ = m +(N×V.C) (b) in cm
cm
Breadth (b)

Linear scale Circular scale Total reading in cm Mean reading

reading (L.S.R) reading (C.S.R) d’ = L.S.R + (d) in cm
Depth (d) in cm (C.S.R×L.C)

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Table 2: Determination of depression

Load Microscope Reading Mean Depression
in gm Load Increasing Load Decreasing reading in cm
(𝑚) M.S.R V.S.R Total M.S.R V.S.R Total reading in of (𝑥)
in cm reading in in cm cm position
cm M.S.R+(V.S.R in cm
M.S.R+(V.S ×V.C)
.R×V.C)

9. Calculations & Analysis

From 𝑥 𝑣𝑠 𝑚 graph, ∆𝑚 = ___________

and, ∆𝑥 = __________
𝑔𝑙³ ∆𝑚
𝑌= = _________________
4𝑏𝑑³ ∆𝑥
10. Result & Interpretation

Experimental value of Young’s modulus of the material of the bar is ______________𝑑𝑦𝑛𝑒𝑠/𝑐𝑚2 .

Standard value of Young’s modulus is 19.5 × 1011 𝑑𝑦𝑛𝑒𝑠/𝑐𝑚2 .

11. Follow-up Questions

Q1. Define (a) stress, (b) strain, (c) elastic limit and (d) Young’s modulus.
Ans.
a) When a body is deformed by the application of an external forces, the restoring forces developed
per unit area of the body is known as the stress.
b) Strain is the fractional change of the length/volume and as it represents the ratio of two similar
quantities.
c) The range of deformation over which the body returns to its original state when the deformation
forces are withdrawn, is called the elastic limit.

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d) Young’s modulus (Y) is the ratio of the longitudinal stress to the longitudinal strain.
Q2. What are the units of (a) stress, (b) strain and (c) Young’s modulus?
Ans. In S.I system,
a) Newton/meter2 (N/m2).
b) pure dimensionless number.
c) N/m2
Q3. State Hooke’s law.
Ans. Within elastic limit stress is proportional to strain.
Q4. Will the value of Y change if x, b or d is changed?
Ans. No, Y is a property of the material of the beam only.
Q5. Why do you support the beam with smaller dimension (d) in the vertical direction?
1
Ans. Since depression 𝑥 ∝ 𝑑3 , it causes greater depression. If b and d are interchanged 𝑥 will be
very small.
12. Extension and Follow-up Activities (if applicable)

13. Assessments

14. Suggested readings

Text and reference books as given in the syllabus

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Experiment No. 5: Determination of rigidity modulus of the material of a

wire by dynamical method.

1. Aim/Purpose of the Experiment

To determine the rigidity modulus of a material using a thin wire of that material.

2. Learning Outcomes
Students will learn to determine and to analyze different elastic moduli of materials.

3. Prerequisites
Students should be able to use slide calipers and screw gauge. They should have idea about
elasticity and elastic moduli of a material.

4. Materials/Equipment/Apparatus/Devices/Software required
A cylindrical bob hanging by a wire, scale, slide calipers, screw gauge, stop watch.

5. Introduction and Theory

Time period of torsional oscillation (𝑇) of a body of moment of inertia ‘I’ about the axis of
suspension is given by

𝐼
𝑇 = 2𝜋√ (1)
𝐶

where, ‘𝐶’ is the moment of torsional couple per unit angle of twist which again is given in terms
of the rigidity modulus (𝜂), as
𝜂𝜋𝑟 4
𝐶= (2)
2𝐿
where, ‘𝑟’ is the radius and ‘𝐿’ is the length of the wire. For a cylindrical bob the moment of inertia
is given by
1
𝐼 = 2 𝑀𝑅2 (3)

where, ‘𝑀’ and ‘𝑅’ are the mass and the radius of the bob.

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From the above equations the rigidity modulus is determined by the working formula
8𝜋𝐿 1
𝜂= ( 𝑀𝑅 2 ) (4)
𝑇 2𝑟4 2

Hence, by measuring 𝐿, 𝑇, 𝑟, 𝑀, 𝑅 we can estimate 𝜂.

6. Operating Procedure
i. Measure the radius of the wire at several places with the help of a screw gauge.
ii. Measure the length of the suspension wire from the support till the cylindrical bob.
iii. Measure the diameter of the cylindrical bob with the help of a slide calipers.
iv. Mass of the cylinder (M) is usually supplied.
v. Rotate the cylindrical bob at a small angle about the suspension wire and then leave. This will
initiate a torsional oscillation in the bob. Measure the time period of this oscillation with the
help of a stop watch.
vi. Repeat step 5 for several times.

7. Precautions and/or Troubleshooting

i. The torsional oscillation of the cylinder (if any) should be maintained.
ii. The axis of the cylinder and the suspension wire must remain in the same vertical line.
iii. The radius of the suspension wire occurs in 4th power and hence it should be measured very
carefully. Otherwise, a small error in the measurement of this will increase the error in the
determination of 𝜂 by four times.
iv. The time period of oscillation should also be measured very carefully for it occurs in the 2 nd
power in the expression of 𝜂.

8. Observations
Least count of screw gauge:
Pitch (𝑝) = _____________𝑚𝑚
No. of division in the circular scale (𝑛) = ______________
𝑝
Least count (L.C.) = ( 𝑛 ) = ________________𝑚𝑚

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Table 1: Radius of the suspension wire

Diameter Mean Diameter Radius 𝑟 in
𝐷 in cm cm
L.S.R. (cm) C.S.R. Total in cm (L.S.R.+ C.S.R. X
L.C.)

Vernier constant (V.C.) of the slide calipers:

Smallest division in the main scale (𝑠) = __________𝑐𝑚
No. of division in the Vernier scale (𝑛) = __________
No. of coincident Main Scale division (𝑚) = ______________
𝑛−𝑚
Vernier constant = 𝑠 ( ) = ______________𝑐𝑚
𝑛

Table 2: Radius of the cylinder

Diameter Mean Radius 𝑅
Diameter 𝐷 in cm
M.S.R. (cm) V.S.R. Total in cm
in cm
(M.S.R.+V.S.R. x V.C.)

Table 3: Time period of oscillation

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No. of oscillation Time taken for ‘𝑛’ Time period, 𝑇 =

𝑇𝑛 Mean time period
𝑛
observed (𝑛) oscillation ( 𝑇𝑛 )
(Second)
(Second)
(Second)

9. Calculations & Analysis

8𝜋𝐿 1
𝜂= ( 𝑀𝑅2 ) = _____________________𝑑𝑦𝑛𝑒/𝑐𝑚2
𝑇 2𝑟4 2
10. Result & Interpretation
The rigidity modulus of the material of given wire is determined by Dynamical method and it’s
value is……………………. dyne / cm2.

11. Follow-up Questions

Q1. Define rigidity modulus and state its unit.
Ans. It is the ratio of shearing stress to shearing strain. As stress is the force per unit area while
strain is a pure number, the unit of rigidity modulus is S.I. system is N/m2.
Q2. Which quantity would you measure very accurately and why?
Ans. The radius (r) of the wire should be measured very accurately for it occurs in 4th power.
Q3. How is rigidity modulus (n) related to Young’s modulus (Y)?
Ans. 𝑌 = 2𝑛(1 + 𝜎) where σ is the Poisson’s ratio.
Q4. What is the effect of increase of temperature on the rigidity modulus of the wire?
Ans. Rigidity modulus decreases with the increase of temperature.
Q5. Why do you call the method a dynamical method?
Ans. Because readings are taken when the system is in motion.

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12. Extension and Follow-up Activities (if applicable)

13. Assessments
14. Suggested readings
Text and reference books as given in the syllabus

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Experiment No. 6: Determination of surface tension of water by capillary

rise method.

1. Aim/Purpose of the Experiment

To determine the surface tension of water by capillary rise method.
2. Learning Outcomes
Students will learn to determine the surface tension of water by capillary rise method.
3. Prerequisites
Students should be able to use slide calipers.

4. Materials/Equipment/Apparatus/Devices/Software required
Beaker, capillary tube, travelling microscope, retort stand, rubber cork, needle.

5. Introduction and Theory

T = (1/2) hrdg dyne/cm;
where
T = surface tension of water (dyne/cm),
h = height of the liquid (cm),
r = radius of the capillary tube (cm),
g = acceleration due to gravity (cm/sec2) &
d = density of water = 1 gm/cm3.

6. Operating Procedure
1. A capillary tube of length about 20 cm is taken and cleaned with acidified potassium
dichromate solution to remove any traces of grease or oil. It is then cleaned with pure water.
2. A needle is fixed to the capillary tube with the help of a rubber cork.
3. The capillary tube is clamped vertically so that the pointer just touches the water surface as
shown in the figure.
4. Due to surface tension, the water rises to a certain height inside the capillary tube.

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5. Adjust the microscope such that the horizontal cross wire is exactly tangential to the lower
end of the water meniscus. Vertical scale reading of the traveling microscope h 1 is noted in
Table 1.
6. Remove the beaker without disturbing the capillary tube and adjust the microscope such that
the horizontal cross wire is exactly tangential to the tip of the needle. Vertical scale reading
h2 is noted in Table 1.
7. The difference h = h1 – h2 gives the height of the water rise in the capillary tube.
8. Clamp the capillary tube horizontally to the retort stand. Adjust the traveling microscope such
that vertical cross wire is tangential to the left of the bore and horizontal scale reading of the
microscope is noted. And then vertical cross wire is made tangential to the right of the bore
and horizontal scale reading is noted in Table 2. Difference of the two readings gives the
horizontal diameter of the bore.
9. Now the horizontal cross wire is made tangential to the top of the bore and vertical scale
reading of the microscope is noted in Table 2. Similarly, horizontal cross wire is made
tangential to the bottom of the bore and vertical scale reading of the microscope is noted.
Difference of the two readings gives the vertical diameter of the bore.
10. The average diameter of the bore is determined and the radius of the bore is calculated.
11. The surface tension of water is determined by using formula: T = (1/2) hrdg dyne/cm.

7. Precautions and/or Troubleshooting

1. Tangential screw should be used to move the microscope.

2. The tip of the needle should just touch the water surface.
3. While taking readings, the travelling microscope should be moved in one direction only to
avoid back-lash error.

8. Observations

Table 1: Determination of height of the water level in the capillary tube using traveling
microscope.
L.C. of the travelling microscope = S/N = 0.5 mm/50 = 0.01 mm = 0.001 cm.

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S. Reading of the vernier scale of the microscope when the horizontal wire is Height of
No. tangential to the water
level
Lower edge of the water meniscus Tip of the needle
h = h1 – h2
Main Vernier Fracti Total Main Vernier Fracti Total
(cm)
Scale Coincid on reading Scale Coincid on reading
Reading ence a+b Reading ence a+b
b=n b=n
a (cm) (cm) a (cm) (cm)
(n) ×L.C. n ×L.C.
(cm) (cm)
1

Table 2: Determination of diameter of the capillary tube

S. Microscope Position of Main Vernier FractionTotal Diameter of

No. reading the cross scale coincidence reading the bore
b = n ×
wire reading (n) a+b (cm)
L.C.
a (cm)
(cm)
(cm)
1 vertical scale top of the
reading when bore
the horizontal
wire is bottom of
tangential to the bore

2 horizontal scale left of the

reading when bore
the vertical
right of the
wire is
bore
tangential to

Average diameter of the bore (d) = __________ cm

Radius of the bore (r) = _________ cm

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9. Calculations
T = (1/2) hrdg dyne/cm.
10. Result & Interpretation
Surface tension of water (T) = __________________ dyne/cm

11. Follow-up Questions

Q1. What are the common sources of error in the capillary rise experiment? How can these errors be
minimized?

Ans: Common sources of error include contamination of the capillary tube, incorrect measurement of the
height of the liquid column, and variations in temperature. These can be minimized by thoroughly cleaning
the tube, taking careful and repeated measurements, and conducting the experiment at a constant temperature.
Q2. If the radius of the capillary tube is doubled, how does it affect the height of the liquid rise?
Ans: If the radius of the capillary tube is doubled, the height of the liquid rise will be halved.
Q3. What role does adhesion and cohesion play in the capillary rise phenomenon?
Ans: Adhesion causes the liquid to cling to the surface of the capillary tube, while cohesion pulls the liquid
molecules together. The balance of these forces causes the liquid to either rise or fall in the tube, depending
on the nature of the liquid and the material of the tube.
Q4. What is parallax error?
Ans: Parallax error occurs when the position of an object appears different when viewed from different
angles. In measurements, it can lead to inaccurate readings if the observer's eye is not positioned directly in
line with the measurement scale, causing a misinterpretation of the true position of the measured object.
Q5. How do you ensure accurate measurement of the height of the water column in the capillary tube?
Ans: Accurate measurement can be ensured by using a precise ruler or vernier caliper and making sure the
meniscus level is read at eye level to avoid parallax errors.

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Experiment No. 7: Determination of coefficient of viscosity of given liquid

by Capillary tube method.

1. Aim/Purpose of the Experiment

To determine the coefficient of viscosity of a liquid.

2. Learning Outcomes
Students will be able to analyze viscous nature of fluids.

3. Prerequisites
Students should have basic idea about viscosity of a liquid.

4. Materials/Equipment/Apparatus / Devices/Software required

Two vertical measuring glass tubes connected by a capillary at the base, scale, Stop watch.

5. Introduction and Theory

When a liquid flows through a capillary tube of length ‘l’ and radius ‘r’ then the volume of the liquid
flowing per second is given by
𝜋𝑃𝑟 4
𝑉= (1)
8𝜂𝑙
where, ‘𝜂’ is coefficient of viscosity of liquid
‘𝑃’ is the pressure difference between two ends of the capillary tube = ℎ𝜌𝑔
‘𝑔’ is acceleration due to gravity
‘ℎ’ is the difference in height between two arms of the apparatus = ℎ1 ~ ℎ2
‘𝜌’ is the density of the liquid
So,
𝜋𝜌𝑔𝑟 4 ℎ
𝜂= (2)
8𝑙 𝑉

6. Operating Procedure

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(i) Measure the radius of the sample capillary tube with the help of the travelling microscope.
Determine the vernier constant of the microscope. Place the tube on a stand facing the
microscope. Focus the orifice. Take reading of the top, down and right ends of the circular
orifice.
(ii) Place the water tank of the viscosity apparatus at a certain level. Allow the water to come out
of the tube at a very low rate (drop by drop). Wait until the water levels at two arms of the
manometer take steady values.
(iii) Collect water from the output end in a measuring cylinder for a fixed time, say 𝑇 = 4 minutes.
Measure the volume. From that calculate the volume of water collected per second.
(iv) Change the height of the water tank several times and repeat steps 3 and 4.
(v) Draw a graph with h in abscissa and V in ordinate. The curve should be a straight line passing
through the origin. If there is a curvature for high values of h, use the linear portion to calculate
𝑉
the slope .
ℎ

7. Precautions and/or Troubleshooting

(i) To ensure the motion of the liquid is in streamline. ‘h’ should be kept well below the critical
height ‘ℎ𝑐 ’, where

4𝑘𝜂²𝑙
ℎ𝑐 = , where ‘k’ is Reynolds number (‘k’ = 1000)
𝜌³𝑟³𝑔

(ii) The capillary tube is horizontal, so the liquid crossing from the free end may run a little back
along the under surface of the tube. This may be prevented by keeping the tube slightly
inclined to the horizontal or applying a layer of Vaseline on the under surface of the tube
near the free end.
(iii) The accuracy of the result in the experiment can be improved by collecting a large quantity
of the liquid over a long period of time.
(iv) The temperature of the liquid should be noted as the viscosity changes markedly with
temperature.

8. Observations
‘𝜌’ is the density of the liquid (water) = 1 gm / cc

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Table 1: Data for ℎ − 𝑉 graph

Reading of the manometer Time taken to Volume of
ℎ1 ℎ2 ℎ = ℎ1 ~ ℎ2 collect 10 cc of liquid collected
(cm) (cm) (cm) liquid (water) per second (𝑉)
(second) cc/sec

9. Calculations & Analysis

𝑟 = __________ (Supplied)
𝑙 = __________ (Supplied)
𝛥𝑉
From graph, slope = = ______________________
𝛥ℎ

𝜋𝜌𝑔𝑟4 𝛥ℎ 𝜋𝜌𝑔𝑟4 1
𝜂= = = ___________________________
8𝑙 𝛥𝑉 8𝑙 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒

10. Result & Interpretation

Reported data of this quantity are as follows.

𝜂20˚𝑐 = 0.0101(poise), 𝜂25˚𝑐 = 0.0089(Poise) , 𝜂30˚𝑐 = 0.0089(Poise) , 𝜂40˚𝑐 = 0.0066(Poise).

The temperature is ______ during performing the experiment.

And the value of viscosity obtained in this experiment is ____________.
So, the result is in (good/bad) agreement with the reported result.

11. Follow-up Questions

Q1. What do you mean by viscosity and coefficient of viscosity of liquid?

Ans. Whenever there is a relative motion between two layers of a liquid, a tangential opposition force
is set up between the layers to destroy this relative motion. This property of the liquid is called viscosity

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and it is analogous to friction. This tangential force per unit area on either of the two liquid surfaces,
when there is unit velocity gradient between them, is known as the coefficient of viscosity.
Q2. How does the coefficient of viscosity change with temperature?
Ans. In the case of liquid, viscosity diminishes with temperature, while in the case of gases it increases
with temperature.
Q3. Which quantity would you measure with great care?
Ans. As the radius of capillary tube occurs in forth power, it should be measured with great accuracy.
Q4. What is the unit of the coefficient of viscosity?
Ans. N-s/m2 or Poiseuille (Pl) in SI, poise in C.G.S., 1 Pl = 10 poise.
Q5. What do you mean by ‘critical height’?
Ans. When the value of h (and hence pressure difference) exceeds certain critical value h c, the motion
of the liquid becomes turbulent. This ‘hc’ is called critical height.

12. Extension and Follow-up Activities (if applicable)

13. Assessments

14. Suggested readings

Text and reference books as given in the syllabus

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Experiment No. 8: Determination of specific gravity of a solid, insoluble in

water and heavier than water, by using balance.

1. Aim/Purpose of the Experiment

To determine the specific gravity of a solid that is insoluble in water and heavier than water.
2. Learning Outcomes
Students will be able to understand specific gravity.

3. Prerequisites
Students should have a basic idea about relative density of liquids.

4. Materials/Equipment/Apparatus / Devices/Software required

Analytical balance, Graduated cylinder, Thread, Solid sample, Water, Beaker.

5. Introduction and Theory

Specific gravity (SG) is the ratio of the density of a substance to the density of a reference substance,
typically water for solids and liquids. It is a dimensionless quantity.
Specific Gravity (SG) = (Weight of solid in air)/(Loss of weight of solid in water)

6. Operating Procedure

Determine the weight of the solid in air (W1):

● Clean and dry the solid sample.

● Using the analytical balance, weigh the solid in air and record this weight as W1.

Determine the weight of the solid in water (W2):

● Tie the solid sample with a thread.

● Fill a beaker with water and place it on the balance.
● Immerse the solid sample completely in water without touching the sides or bottom of the
beaker.
● Record the new weight of the beaker with water and the solid immersed in water.

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● The difference between the initial weight of the beaker with water and the weight with the
solid immersed in water gives the weight of the solid in water (W2).

Calculate the loss of weight of the solid in water:

● Loss of weight of the solid in water = W1 – W2

Calculate the specific gravity (SG):

● Use the formula: SG = W1/(W1 – W2)

7. Precautions and/or Troubleshooting

(i) Ensure the solid is completely dry before weighing it in air.
(ii) Avoid air bubbles when immersing the solid in water.
(iii) Ensure the solid does not touch the sides or bottom of the beaker when immersed in
water.
(iv) Use an accurate analytical balance for precise measurements.
8. Observations

W1 W2 W1 – W2 Average W1 Average
(Wa) W1 – W2
(dyne) (dyne) (dyne)
in dyne
(Wb)
in dyne

9. Calculations & Analysis

SG = Wa/Wb

10. Result & Interpretation

The specific gravity of the given solid sample is found to be _________.

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11. Follow-up Questions

Q1. What is SG?

Ans. SG; or relative density; is the density of a substance as a ratio of the density of pure water at 4℃.
Q2. What is the unit of SG?
Ans. None, as it’s a ratio.
Q3. How would the results change if kerosene or mercury is used in the experiment, instead of water?
Ans. The solid will experience a lesser loss in its dry weight when submerged in kerosene; while it
will experience a greater loss when submerged in mercury.
Q4. What is the difference between density and relative density?
Ans. Density is the ratio of the mass of a substance and its absolute volume; while SG is the density of
a substance as a ratio of the density of pure water at 4℃.
Q5. Is the value of water’s density greater in terms of the SI units or the C.G.S. units?
Ans. Water’s density is 1000 in kg/m3 (SI); while 1 in g/cm3 (C.G.S.). So, counter-intuitively, the
C.G.S. unit of density is bigger than its SI unit.
Q6. What is the SI unit of density?
Ans. The SI unit of density is “kg/m3”.

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Experiment No. 9: Drawing of n-l curve by using a set of tuning forks of

known frequencies and a sonometer and hence to determine the unknown
frequency of a tuning fork.
1. Aim:
To draw the N-L curve using a set of tuning forks of known frequencies and a sonometer, and to determine
the unknown frequency of a tuning fork.
2. Learning Outcomes

Students will be able to resonance.

3. Prerequisites
Students should have a basic idea about relative density of liquids
4. Materials/Equipment/Apparatus / Devices/Software required
Sonometer, set of tuning forks with known frequencies, unknown frequency tuning fork, rubber pad (for
striking tuning forks), meter scale, weights, paper rider, vernier callipers.
5. Introduction and Theory:
The frequency of vibration of a stretched string (like that in a sonometer) is given by the equation:

1 𝑇
𝑓= √
2𝐿 𝜇

where:
f = Frequency of the tuning fork
L = Length of the vibrating segment of the string
T = Tension in the string
μ = Linear mass density of the string (mass per unit length)

For a fixed tension and linear mass density, the frequency is inversely proportional to the length:
1
𝑓 ∝
𝐿

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6. Procedure
Set-up the sonometer
Place the sonometer on a stable surface.

Attach one end of the string to a fixed point and the other end to a hanger with weights to create
tension.

Determine the linear mass density (μ)

Measure the total mass of a known length of the string using a vernier caliper and a balance.

Calculate the linear mass density 𝜇 by dividing the mass by the length.

Select a tuning fork and create tension

Select a tuning fork of known frequency 𝑓.

Strike the tuning fork with a rubber pad and place it on the sonometer.

Adjust the length (L)

Move the bridges on the sonometer to adjust the vibrating length of the string until the string
vibrates in resonance with the tuning fork (indicated by maximum amplitude of vibration and a
distinct sound).

Place a small paper rider on the string, which will fall off at resonance.

Record the length (L)

Measure the length 𝐿 between the bridges where resonance occurs using a meter scale.

Record the frequency 𝑓 of the tuning fork and the corresponding length 𝐿.

Repeat for other tuning forks

Repeat steps 3 to 5 for each tuning fork with known frequencies.

Plot the N-L Curve:

Plot a graph of frequency (𝑓) on the y-axis and the corresponding length (𝐿) on the x-axis.

Determine the resonant length (L)

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Strike the unknown tuning fork and place it on the sonometer.

Adjust the bridges to find the resonant length 𝐿 for the unknown tuning fork, using the paper rider
method to detect resonance.

Measure and record this length 𝐿.

Use the N-L Curve:

Locate the measured length 𝐿 on the x-axis of the N-L curve.

Find the corresponding frequency 𝑓 on the y-axis.

Record the unknown frequency:

The frequency 𝑓 obtained from the graph is the frequency of the unknown tuning fork.

7. Observations:
Known Frequency (Hz) Resonant Length (cm)

8. Calculation:
Plot the N-L curve on graph paper with frequency (f) on the y-axis and resonant length (L) on the
x-axis.
Find the resonant length for the unknown tuning fork on the curve and determine its frequency.
Result:
The frequency of the unknown tuning fork is determined to be _______ Hz.

9. Precautions:
Ensure the string is taut and has a uniform tension throughout the experiment.
Avoid external disturbances and vibrations.
Strike the tuning fork gently to avoid overtones.
Measure the length 𝐿 accurately.

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10. Follow-up questions

Q1. What is the unit of frequency?
Ans. The unit of frequency is hertz (Hz).
Q2. What is the unit of time-period?
Ans. The unit of time-period is seconds (s).
Q3. What is the unit of μ?
Ans. The unit of μ is kg/m.
Q4. What is the difference between density and linear density?
Ans. Density is the ratio of mass to volume, while linear density is the ratio of mass to length. The
cross-sectional area of the object is considered negligible while calculating linear density.
Q5. How many prongs does a tuning fork have?
Ans. A tuning fork has two prongs.

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Experiment No. 10: Verification of laws of refraction of light and

determination of refractive index of the material of the transparent slab
used.

1. Aim/Purpose of the Experiment

To demonstrate the laws of refraction.
2. Learning Outcomes
Students will learn the laws of refraction.
3. Prerequisites
Basic knowledge of angles.
4. Materials/Equipment/Apparatus/Devices/Software required
Laser torch or pins, glass block.
5. Introduction and Theory
Snell’s law: The ratio of the sine of the angle of incidence (i) to the sine of the angle of refraction
(r) is a constant known as the relative refractive index (r.i.) of the first medium w.r.t. the second.

6. Operating Procedure
1. Fix an A4 white paper on the top of the foam board (FB) with tape,
2. Place slab on the white paper, and then mark it with pencil,
3. In the middle of the slab draw perpendicular line,
4. Draw incident line to represent the incident light, and by using the protractor measure

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this angle,
5. On this line place two to three pins,
6. From the other side of the slab try to view the pins as a one pin (they have to coincide
with each other),
7. Then place pins in the direction of these pins images, this is the direction of the
emerging ray.
8.Apply equation n = (sin i)/(sin r) to find slab’s refractive index.
9.Mount glass slab on ray table component holder (it’s a protractor face)
10. Adjust the components of the optical system so that a single ray of light is incident
upon one of the surfaces of the glass slab.
11. Position the ray table so the angle of incidence of the ray striking the slab (after passing
through the lens) is zero degrees.
12. Slowly increase the angle of incidence and as you do observe the refracted ray.

7. Precautions and/or Troubleshooting

1.Intra-beam viewing of laser beams is not allowed on campus.

2. Never look directly into any laser beam for any reason.
3. Enclose the laser beam path whenever possible.
4. Use appropriate laser protective eyewear for all laser beam alignments.
5. Restrict unauthorized access to laser facilities.
6. Do not operate lasers at sitting or standing eye level.
7. Shield all laser light pumping sources.
8.Remove all reflective or combustible materials from the beam path.
9. Use diffuse (non-reflective) beam stops, barriers and enclosures.
10. Use low beam power (or an alignment laser) for alignments.
11. Remove all keys from interlocks when the laser is not in operation.
12. Alert persons in the area when the beam is operating.
13. Be aware of and protect users from all non-beam hazards
8. Observations
Angle of Angle of sin i sin r Ratio (n) = sin i/sin r
incidence (i) refraction (r)

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9. Result & Interpretation

R.i. of glass slab is n = __________________

10. Follow-up Questions

Q1. State Snell’s law?
Ans: The ratio of the sine of the angle of incidence (i) to the sine of the angle of refraction (r) is a
constant known as the relative refractive index (r.i.) of the first medium w.r.t. the second.
Q2. What is the unit of refractive index?
Ans: R.i. doesn’t have a unit, on account of being a ratio.
Q3. What is the measure of the angle between incident ray and the emergent ray?
Ans: Zero degree, since they are parallel to each other.
Q4. Will changing the thickness of the slab affect any of the measurements?
Ans: No, it won’t.
Q5. What will happen if the entire experiment is repeated with the glass slab completely
submerged in water?
Ans: The r.i. will change, as the angle of refraction will change with a change in the interface of the
media.

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Experiment No. 11: Determine the focal length of a thin convex lens by u-v
method and hence find its power

1. Aim/Purpose of the Experiment

To determine focal lengths of convex and concave lenses.

2. Learning Outcomes
Students will learn to estimate focal length of a convex and concave lens.

3. Prerequisites
Students should have idea about focal length of a lens.

4. Materials/Equipment/Apparatus/Devices/Software required
Optical bench, meter scale, light source, index needle, three uprights (with clamps), one convex and
one concave lens of less than 20 cm focal length.

5. Introduction and Theory

If 𝑢 be the object distance, 𝑣 be the image distance and 𝑓 be the focal length then we have
1 1 1
− = … … … … … … … … … … (1)
𝑣 𝑢 𝑓
According to sign convention, v is positive and u is negative. Using this in equation (1) we can write
1 1 1
+ = … … … … … … … … … … (2)
𝑣 𝑢 𝑓
𝑢𝑣
⇒ 𝑓= … … … … … … … … … … … . (3)
𝑢+𝑣
So, if the values of 𝑢 and 𝑣 are known 𝑓 can be determined from equation (2).

6. Operating Procedure
(i) Fix the convex/concave lens, needle and the screen in the holder.
(ii) Vary the position of the lens to focus the needle on the screen.
(iii) Precisely focus the image until a sharp image is obtained.
(iv) Calculate the distance between the lens and the screen. It will be the rough focal length
of the lens.
(v) Record the position of the index mark on the foot of the image needle upright.

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(vi) Note down the position of the index mark on the foot of the upright of the lens, the image
needle, and the object needle.
(vii) Calculate the index correction for length between the tip of the object needle and the
optical centre of the lens. Next, find the distance between the tip of the image needle and
the optical centre of the lens, as mentioned.
(viii) Plot the suitable graph.
(ix) Note down all the observations as shown ahead.

7. Precautions and/or Troubleshooting

(a) Object distance should be larger than the focal length of the lens for real image formation.
(b) Parallax error should be avoided
(c) 𝑢 and 𝑣 should be kept nearly equal so that the error in f is minimum.

8. Observations
Table -1: Object distance, image distance and focal length of the lens

No. of Object distance (𝑢) Image distance (𝑣) Focal length Average focal
observation ( 𝑐𝑚 ) ( 𝑐𝑚 ) 𝑢𝑣 length
𝑓=
𝑢+𝑣 (cm)
(cm)

Table-2: Data for drawing 𝑣 𝑣𝑠 𝑢 graph

No of observation 𝑢 (𝑐𝑚) 𝑣 (𝑐𝑚) Focal length (𝑓) from 𝑢 − 𝑣

graph (cm)

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Table-3: Data for drawing 1/𝑣 𝑣𝑠 1/𝑢 graph

No of observation 1/𝑢 (𝑐𝑚−1 ) 1/𝑣 (𝑐𝑚−1 ) Focal length (𝑓) from

1/𝑢 − 1/𝑣 graph (cm)

9. Calculations & Analysis

We have to draw
(i) a 𝑢 - 𝑣 graph which will be rectangular hyperbola in nature.
1 1
(ii) a 𝑢 - 𝑣 graph which will be straight line in nature.

10. Result & Interpretation

For convex lens,
The focal length of the given convex lens as determined from:
(a) 𝑢 − 𝑣 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑝ℎ = __________ 𝑐𝑚
(b) 1/𝑢 – 1/𝑣 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑝ℎ = _______ 𝑐𝑚
Mean focal length = ________ 𝑐𝑚
The focal length of convex lens is ……… 𝑐𝑚.
For concave lens,
The focal length of the given convex lens as determined from:
(a) 𝑢 − 𝑣 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑝ℎ = __________ 𝑐𝑚
(b) 1/𝑢 – 1/𝑣 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑝ℎ = _______ 𝑐𝑚
Mean focal length = ________ 𝑐𝑚
The focal length of concave lens is ……… 𝑐𝑚.

11. Follow-up Questions

Q1. Define focal length.
Ans. By the term ‘focal length of a lens’ we mean its second focal length and it is the image distance
when the object distance is infinite i.e., incident rays are parallel.

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Q2. How many focal lengths are there and which is accepted by you? What is the sign of the focal
length?
Ans. There are two focal lengths, first and second. First focal length is the object distance whose
image distance is infinity. We accept the second focal length whose sign is +ve for convex and -ve
for concave lens (according to cartesian sign convention).

Q3. Do you get real or virtual image in this experiment?

Ans. Real image.

Q4. What is the minimum distance between the object and its real image formed by a convex lens?
Ans. 4f.

Q5. Can you perform the experiment by using a concave lens alone?
Ans. No; for this lens cannot produce any real image.

12. Extension and Follow-up Activities (if applicable)

13. Assessments

14. Suggested readings

Text and reference books as given in the syllabus

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