Chapter 9 Bearings and Expansion Joints

9.2.5 Bearing Types

9.2.5.A Elastomeric Bearings

Elastomeric bearings are perhaps the simplest and most economical of all bridge bearings.
They are broadly classified into three types: plain elastomeric pads, steel reinforced
elastomeric pads, and cotton duck fabric reinforced elastomeric pads. Of these three
types, the first two are used extensively for bridge construction. Incidentally, cotton duck
fabric reinforced elastomeric pads are generally referred to as fabric pad bearings. This
subsection will address steel reinforced elastomeric bearings. A subsequent section will
address fabric pad bearings.
A steel reinforced elastomeric bearing consists of discrete steel shims vulcanized between
adjacent discrete layers of elastomer. The vulcanization process occurs in an autoclave
under conditions of high temperature and pressure. The constituent elastomer is either
natural rubber or synthetic rubber (neoprene). Steel reinforced elastomeric bearings are
commonly used with prestressed concrete girder bridges and may be used with other
bridge types. Because of their relative simplicity and fabrication ease, steel reinforced
elastomeric bearings offer significant economy relative to HLMR bearings.
Steel reinforced elastomeric bearings rely upon the inherent shear flexibility of the
elastomer layers to accommodate bridge movements in any horizontal direction. This
shear flexibility also enhances their rotational flexibility. The steel shims limit the tendency
for the elastomer layers to bulge laterally under compressive load.
Steel reinforced elastomeric bearings can be designed by either the Method A or
Method B procedure delineated in the LRFD provisions. Current WSDOT policy is to
design all elastomeric bearings using the Method B provisions, which provides more
relief in meeting rotational demands than Method A. The Method A design procedure is a
carryover based upon more conservative interpretation of past theoretical analyses and
empirical observations prior to research leading up to the publication of NCHRP Report
596 Rotation Limits for Elastomeric Bearings.
Both Method A and Method B design procedures require determination of the optimal
geometric parameters to achieve an appropriate balance of compressive, shear, and
rotational stiffnesses and capacities. Fatigue susceptibility is controlled by limiting live
load compressive stress. Delamination (of steel shim-elastomer interface) susceptibility
is controlled by limiting total compressive stress. Assuring adequate shim thickness
precludes yield and rupture of the steel shims. Excessive shear deformation is controlled
and rotational flexibility is assured by providing adequate total elastomer height.
Generally, total elastomer thickness shall be no less than twice the maximum anticipated
lateral deformation. Overall bearing stability is controlled by limiting total bearing height
relative to its plan dimensions. The most important design parameter for reinforced
elastomeric bearings is the shape factor. The shape factor is defined as the plan area of
the bearing divided by the area of the perimeter free to bulge (perimeter multiplied by
thickness of one layer of elastomer).
Axial, rotational, and shear loading generate shear strain in the constituent elastomeric
layers of a typical bearing. Computationally, Method B imposes a limit on the sum of
these shear strains. It distinguishes between static and cyclic components of shear strain
by applying an amplification factor of 1.75 to cyclic components to reflect cumulative
degradation caused by repetitive loading.

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In essence, elastomeric bearing design reduces to checking several mathematical

equations while varying bearing plan dimensions, number of elastomeric layers and their
corresponding thicknesses, and steel shim thicknesses. Because these calculations can
become rather tedious, MS Excel spreadsheets have been developed and are available for
designs using both Method A and Method B procedures. See the Bearing and Expansion
Joint Specialist for these design tools.
LRFD-BDS design may result in thicker steel reinforced elastomeric bearings than
previous designs, particularly for shorter span bridges. This is a consequence of the
increased rotational flexibility required to accommodate the 0.005 radian allowance
for uncertainties and partially to inherent conservatism built into the rotational
capacity equations.
Although constituent elastomer has historically been specified by durometer hardness,
shear modulus is the most important physical property of the elastomer for purposes of
bearing design. Research has concluded that shear modulus may vary significantly among
compounds of the same hardness. Accordingly, shear modulus shall be specified on the
plans as 165 psi at 73ºF without reference to durometer hardness.
Elastomeric bearings shall conform to the requirements of AASHTO Specification
M 251M/M Plain and Laminated Elastomeric Bridge Bearings. Shims shall be fabricated
from ASTM A 1011 Grade 36 steel unless noted otherwise on the plans. Bearings shall
be laminated in ½ inch thick elastomeric layers with a minimum total thickness of 1 inch.
For overall bearing heights less than 5 inches, a minimum of ¼ inch of side clearance shall
be provided over the steel shims. For overall heights greater than 5 inches, a minimum
of ½ inch of side clearance shall be provided. Live load compressive deflection shall be
limited to 1/16 inch. AASHTO Specification M 251M/M requires elastomeric bearings to
be subjected to a series of tests, including a compression test at 150 percent of the total
service load. For this reason, compressive dead load and live load shall be specified on
the plans.
With respect to width, elastomeric bearings shall be designed and detailed as follows:
1. For prestressed concrete wide flange girders (WF--G series and WF--DG series), the
edge of the bearing pad shall be set between 1 inch minimum and 9 inches maximum
inside of the edge of the girder bottom flange.
2. For prestressed concrete I-girders, bulb-tee girders, and deck bulb-tee girders,
the edge of the bearing pad shall be set 1 in. inside of the edge of the girder
bottom flange.
3. For all prestressed concrete tub girders, the edge of the bearing shall be set 1in.
inside of the edge of the bottom slab. Bearing pads for prestressed concrete tub
girders shall be centered close to the centerline of each web.
4. For all prestressed concrete slabs, one bearing pad and corresponding grout pad is
required for each end of the prestressed concrete slab. The centerline of the bearing
and grout pad shall coincide with the centerline of the prestressed concrete slab. The
need for steel shims shall be assessed during the bearing design.

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As mentioned earlier, LRFD-BDS Article 14.4.2.1 requires that a 0.005 radian allowance
for uncertainties be included in the design of steel reinforced elastomeric bearings. This
allowance applies to both rotations θx and θy. The LRFD-BDS Article 14.4.2 Commentary
states "An owner may reduce the fabrication and setting tolerance allowances if
justified by a suitable quality control plan; therefore, these tolerance limits are stated as
recommendations rather than absolute limits." Consult with the Bearings and Expansion
Joint Specialist in instances in which the 0.005 radian tolerance precludes convergence to
a reasonable design solution.
In order to facilitate compressive load testing, future bearing replacement, and vertical
geometry coordination, the following table shall be included in the Plans:
Bearing Design Table
Service I Limit State
Dead load reaction --------- kips
Live load reaction (w/o impact) --------- kips
Unloaded height --------- inches
Loaded height (DL) --------- inches
Shear modulus at 73º F --------- psi
In the construction of precast prestressed concrete girder and steel girder bridges,
elastomeric bearings are generally not offset to account for temperature during erection
of the girders as are most other bearing systems. Girders may be set atop elastomeric
bearings at temperatures other than the mean of the temperature range. This is
statistically reconciled by assuming a maximum thermal movement in either direction of:
Δtemp = 0.75 ∙ α ∙ L ∙ (TMaxDesign - TMinDesign)
where TMaxDesign is the maximum anticipated superstructure average temperature and
TMinDesign is the minimum anticipated superstructure average temperature during the life of
the bridge.
For precast prestressed concrete girder bridges, the maximum thermal movement, Δtemp,
shall be added to shrinkage and long-term creep movements to determine total bearing
height required. The shrinkage movement for this bridge type shall be half that calculated
for a cast-in-place concrete bridge, as noted in Section 9.1.2-A.
For cast-in-place concrete bridges, it is assumed that the temperature of concrete at
placement is equal to the normal temperature, as defined by the Standard Specifications.
Total shrinkage movement, calculated as noted in Section 9.1.2-A, is added to
the maximum thermal movement, Δtemp, to determine required total height of the
elastomeric bearing.

9.2.5.B Fabric Pad Sliding Bearings

Fabric pad sliding bearings incorporate fabric pads with a polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE)–
stainless steel sliding interface to permit large translational movements. Unlike a steel
reinforced elastomeric bearing having substantial shear flexibility, the fabric pad alone
cannot accommodate translational movements. Fabric pads can accommodate very small
amounts of rotational movement; less than can be accommodated by more flexible steel
reinforced elastomeric bearings. Practical size considerations limit the use of fabric pad
bearings to total service load reactions under about 600 kips. Fabric pad sliding bearings
shall conform to the requirements of AASHTO Specification M 351 Cotton Duck Fabric
Bridge Bearings.

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PTFE, also referred to as Teflon, is available in several forms: unfilled sheet, dimpled
lubricated, filled, and woven. Filled PTFE contains glass, carbon, or other chemically
inert fibers that enhance its resistance to creep (cold flow) and wear. Interweaving high
strength fibers through PTFE material creates woven PTFE. Dimpled PTFE contains
dimples, which act as reservoirs for silicone grease lubricant.
Friction coefficients for PTFE – stainless steel surfaces vary significantly as a function
of PTFE type, contact pressure, and ambient temperature. The LRFD-BDS provides
friction coefficients as a function of these variables. Dimpled lubricated PTFE at high
temperatures and high contact pressures typically yield the lowest friction coefficients.
Filled PTFE at low temperatures and low contact pressures yield the highest friction
coefficients.
In order to minimize frictional resistance, a Number 8 (Mirror) finish should be specified
for all flat stainless steel surfaces in contact with PTFE. The low-friction characteristics
of a PTFE – stainless steel interface are actually facilitated by fragmentary PTFE sliding
against PTFE after the fragmentary PTFE particles are absorbed into the asperities of the
stainless steel surface.
In fabric pad sliding bearings, the PTFE is generally recessed half its depth into a steel
backing plate, which is generally bonded to the top of a fabric pad. The recess provides
confinement that minimizes creep (cold flow). The stainless steel sheet is typically seal
welded to a steel sole plate attached to the superstructure.
Silicone grease is not recommended for non-dimpled PTFE. Any grease will squeeze out
under high pressure and attract potentially detrimental dust and other debris.

9.2.5.B.1 Fabric Pad Design

WSDOT's design criteria for fabric pad bearings are based upon manufacturers’
recommendations, supported by years of satisfactory performance. These criteria differ
from LRFD-BDS provisions in that they recognize significantly more rotational flexibility
in the fabric pad. Our maximum allowable service load average bearing pressure for
fabric pad bearing design is 1,200 psi. WSDOT's maximum allowable service load edge
bearing pressure for fabric pad bearing design is 2,000 psi. A 1,200 psi compressive stress
corresponds to 10 percent strain in the fabric pad while a 2,000 psi compressive stress
corresponds to 14 percent compressive strain. Based upon this information, the following
design relationship can be established:
2 × (.14–.10) × T
θ=
L
.08 × T
θ= L
T = 12.5 × θ × L
Where
θ = rotation due to loading plus construction tolerances
L = pad length (parallel to longitudinal axis of beam)
T = fabric pad thickness required

9.2.5.B.2 PTFE
Stainless Steel Sliding Surface Design – PTFE having a maximum dimension less than or
equal to 24 inches shall be 3/16 inch thick and shall be recessed 3/32 inch into a ½ inch thick
steel plate that is bonded to the top of the fabric pad. PTFE having a maximum dimension

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greater than 24 inches. shall be ¼ inch thick and shall be recessed ⅛ inch into a ½-inch
thick steel plate that is bonded to the top of the fabric pad. With the PTFE confined in
this recess, the LRFD-BDS code permits an average contact stress of 4,500 psi for all
loads calculated at the service limit state and an average contact stress of 3,000 psi for
permanent loads calculated at the service limit state. The LRFD-BDS code permits slightly
higher edge contact stresses.
For example, suppose:
DL = 150 kips
LL = 90 kips
APTFE > (150 kips + 90 kips)/4.5 ksi = 53.3 in2
APTFE > 150 kips/3 ksi = 50.0 in2
Selected area of PTFE must exceed 53.3 in2
Stainless steel sheet shall be finished to a No. 8 (Mirror) finish and seal welded to the
sole plate.

9.2.5.C Pin Bearings

Steel pin bearings are generally used to support heavy reactions with moderate to high
levels of rotation about a single predetermined axis. This situation generally occurs with
long straight steel plate girder superstructures.

9.2.5.D Rocker and Roller Type Bearings

Steel rocker bearings have been used extensively in the past to allow both rotation and
longitudinal movement while supporting large loads. Because of their seismic vulnerability
and the more extensive use of steel reinforced elastomeric bearings, rocker bearings are
no longer specified for new bridges.
Steel roller bearings have also been used extensively in the past. Roller bearings permit
both rotation and longitudinal movement. Pintles are generally used to connect the
roller bearing to the superstructure above and to the bearing plate below. Nested roller
bearings have also been used in the past. Having been supplanted by more economical
steel reinforced elastomeric bearings, roller bearings are infrequently used for new
bridges today.

9.2.5.E Spherical Bearings

A spherical bearing relies upon the low-friction characteristics of a curved PTFE–stainless
steel interface to provide a high level of rotational flexibility in multiple directions. An
additional flat PTFE–stainless steel surface can be incorporated into the bearing to
additionally provide either guided or non-guided translational movement capability.
Woven PTFE is generally used on the curved surfaces of spherical bearings. Woven PTFE
exhibits enhanced creep (cold flow) resistance and durability characteristics relative to
unwoven PTFE. When spherical bearings are detailed to accommodate translational
movement, woven PTFE is generally specified on the flat sliding surface also. The LRFD
code permits an average contact stress of 4,500 psi for all loads calculated at the service
limit state and an average contact stress of 3,000 psi for permanent loads calculated at
the service limit state. The LRFD-BDS code permits slightly higher edge contact stresses.

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Both stainless steel sheet and solid stainless steel have been used for the convex sliding
surface of spherical bearings. According to one manufacturer, curved sheet is generally
acceptable for contact surface radii greater than 14 in to 18 in For smaller radii, a solid
stainless steel convex plate or a stainless steel inlay is used. The inlay is welded to the
solid conventional steel. If the total height of the convex plate exceeds about 5 in, a
stainless steel inlay will likely be more economical.
Most spherical bearings are fabricated with the concave surface oriented downward to
minimize dirt infiltration between PTFE and the stainless steel surface. Structural analysis
of the overall structure must recognize the center of rotation of the bearing not being
coincident with the neutral axis of the girder above.
The contract drawings must show the diameter and height of the spherical bearing in
addition to all dead, live, and seismic loadings. Total height depends upon the radius of the
curved surface, diameter of the bearing, and total rotational capacity required. Consult
the Bearing and Expansion Joint Specialist for design calculation examples. Additionally,
sole plate connections, base plate, anchor bolts, and any appurtenances for horizontal
force transfer must be detailed on the plans. The spherical bearing manufacturer is
required to submit shop drawings and detailed structural design calculations of spherical
bearing components for review by the Engineer.

9.2.5.F Disk Bearings

A disk bearing is composed of an annular shaped polyether urethane disk designed to
provide moderate levels of rotational flexibility. A steel shear-resisting pin in the center
provides resistance against lateral force. A flat PTFE–stainless steel surface can be
incorporated into the bearing to also provide translational movement capability, either
guided or non-guided.

9.2.6 Miscellaneous Details

9.2.6.A Temporary Support before Grouting Masonry Plate

The masonry plate of a HLMR bearing is generally supported on a grout pad that is
installed after the bearing and superstructure girders above have been erected. This
procedure allows the Contractor to level and slightly adjust the horizontal location of
the bearing before immobilizing it by placing the grout pad. Several methods have been
developed to temporarily support the masonry plate until the grout is placed. The two
most commonly used methods will be discussed here.

9.2.6.A.1 Shim Packs

Multiple stacks of steel shim plates can be placed atop the concrete surface to
temporarily support the weight of the girders on their bearings before grouting.
Engineering judgment must be used in selecting the number and plan size of the shims
taking grout flowability and shim height adjustability into consideration.

9.2.6.A.2 Two-step Grouting with Cast Sleeves

A two-step grouting procedure with cast-in-place voided cores can be used for smaller
HLMRs not generally subjected to uplift. Steel studs are welded to the underside of the
masonry plate to coincide with the voided cores. With temporary shims installed between
the top of the concrete surface and the underside of the masonry plate, the voided cores

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are fully grouted. Once the first stage grout has attained strength, the shims are removed,
the masonry plate is dammed, and grout is placed between the top of the concrete
surface and the underside of the masonry plate.

9.2.6.B Anchor Bolts

Anchor bolts shall be designed to resist all horizontal shear forces and direct tension force
due to uplift.
Anchor bolts shall be ASTM A 449 where strengths equal to ASTM A 325 are required
and ASTM A 354, Grade BD, where strengths equal to ASTM A 490 are required. ASTM F
1554 bolts with supplemental Charpy test requirements shall be specified in applications
in which the bolts are subject to seismic loading.

9.2.7 Contract Drawing Representation

High load multi-rotational bearings are generally depicted schematically in the contract
drawings. Each bearing manufacturer has unique fabricating methods and procedures that
allow it to fabricate a bearing most economically. Depicting the bearings schematically
with loads and geometric requirements provides each manufacturer the flexibility to
innovatively achieve optimal economy.

9.2.8 Shop Drawing Review

The manufacturer designs and develops shop drawings for high load multi-rotational
bearings. The Engineer is responsible for checking and approving the calculations and
shop drawings. The calculations shall verify the structural adequacy of all components
of the bearing. Each bearing shall be detailed to permit the inspection and replacement
of components.

9.2.9 Bearing Replacement Considerations

In some situations, existing bearings, or elements thereof, must be replaced consequent
to excessive wear or seismic rehabilitation. Bearing replacement operations generally
require lifting of superstructure elements using hydraulic jacks. The designer is
responsible for calculating anticipated lifting loads and stipulating these loads on the
contract drawings. Limitations on lift height shall also be specified. Consideration shall
be given to lift height as it relates to adjacent expansion joints elements and adjoining
sections of railing. Stresses induced as a consequence of differential lift height between
multiple hydraulic jacks are generally addressed by stipulating restrictions in the plans or
special provisions.
Past experience shows that actual lifting loads nearly always exceed calculated lifting
loads. Many factors may contribute to this phenomenon, including friction in the hydraulic
jack system and underestimation of superstructure dead loads. Unless the Bearing and
Expansion Joint Specialist or the State Bridge Design Engineer approves a variance,
contract documents shall require that all hydraulic jacks be sized for 200 percent of the
calculated lifting load. In all cases, the designer shall verify from manufacturer’s literature
that appropriate hydraulic jacks are available to operate within the space limitations
imposed by a particular design situation.

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