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Agronomy Thesis

2022-01-25

EFFECT OF SEEDING RATE ON

YIELD AND YIELD COMPONENTS OF
BREAD WHEAT (Triticum aestivum L.)
VARIETIES UNDER LOWLAND
IRRIGATED AREA OF JAWI DISTRICT,
NORTHWESTERN ETHIOPIA

Solomon Shigedib

http://ir.bdu.edu.et/handle/123456789/12975
Downloaded from DSpace Repository, DSpace Institution's institutional repository
 BAHIR DAR UNIVERSITY
COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE AND ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES
GRADUATE PROGRAM IN AGRONOMY

EFFECT OF SEEDING RATE ON YIELD AND YIELD COMPONENTS OF BREAD

WHEAT (Triticum aestivum L.) VARIETIES UNDER LOWLAND IRRIGATED
AREA OF JAWI DISTRICT, NORTHWESTERN ETHIOPIA

MSc. Thesis

BY

Solomon Shigedib Kebede

October 2021

Bahir Dar, Ethiopia

 BAHIR DAR UNIVERSITY
COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE AND ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES
GRADUATE PROGRAM IN AGRONOMY

EFFECT OF SEEDING RATES ON YIELD AND YIELD COMPONENTS OF BREAD

WHEAT (Triticum aestivum L.) VARIETIES UNDER LOWLAND IRRIGATED
AREA OF JAWI DISTRICT, NORTHWESTERN ETHIOPIA

MSc. Thesis

BY

Solomon Shigedib Kebede

SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE

OF MASTER OF SCIENCES (MSc.) IN AGRONOMY

October 2021
Bahir Dar, Ethiopia

i
 THESIS APPROVAL SHEET

As member of the board of examiners of the master of sciences (M.Sc.) thesis open
defense examination, we have read and evaluated this thesis prepared by Mr. Solomon
Shigedib Kebede entitled ‘Effect of Seeding Rates on Yield and Yield Components of
Bread Wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) Varieties under Lowland Irrigated Area, Jawi
District, Northwestern Ethiopia’’. We here by certify that, the thesis is accepted for
fulfilling the requirements for the award of the Degree of Master of Sciences (M.Sc.) in
Agronomy.

Board of Examiners

1. Dr. Mulatu Kassaye ________________ _____________

External Examiner Signature Date

2. Dr. Wossen Tarekegn _________________ _____________

Internal Examiner Signature Date

3. Dr. Alemu Abate _________________ _____________

Chair Person Signature Date

ii
 DECLARATION

This is to certify that this thesis entitled ‘Effect of Seeding Rates on Yield and Yield
Components of Bread Wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) Varieties Under Lowland
Irrigated Area, Jawi District, Northwestern Ethiopia’’ submitted in partial fulfillment
of the requirements for the award of the Degree of Master of Science in Agronomy to
Department Graduate Council of Plant Sciences of College of Agriculture and
Environmental Sciences, Bahir Dar University by Mr. Solomon Shigedib Kebede
(ID.No. BDU 1207292 PR) is an authentic work carried out by him under our guidance.
The matter embodied in this project work has not been submitted earlier for award of any
Degree or Diploma to the best of our knowledge and belief.

Name of the student: Solomon Shigedib Kebede

Signature and Date_________________

Name of the Advisors:

1) Dr. Yayeh Bitew (Major Advisor)

Signature and Date____________________

2) Dr. Dereje Ayalew (Co- Advisor)

Signature and Date____________________

iii
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The first and foremost gratitude and praise goes to the Almighty of GOD, who helped me
in every aspect of my life, including this thesis work.

I would like to extend my heartfelt thanks to my major advisor Dr. Yayeh Bitew, Bahir
Dar University, Department of Plant Sciences, for his valuable comments, suggestions and
guidance starting from proposal development to the completion of the research work. My
sincere gratitude also go to my co-advisor, Dr. Dereje Ayalew, Bahir Dar University,
Department of Plant Sciences, for his helpful suggestions and constructive comments
starting from proposal to the end of the thesis.

I gratefully acknowledge the Amara Regional State Plant Seed, Animal and other
Agricultural Input Quality Control Quarantine Authority higher officials and entirely my
co-workers for giving me chance to pursue my postgraduate study with unlimited support.
I would also like to extend my gratitude to my colleague who inspired me in whatever they
can do and building my confidence to finish my post graduate study.

I would like to extend my enormous acknowledgement to Amara Region Agricultural

Research Institute higher officials, directors and experts for giving me valuable to conduct
my research. I am also highly thankful to Adet Agricultural Research Center for giving me
experimental material (improved seed).

Finally, I would like to extend special thanks to Mr. Mulugeta Debasu, Belete Getaneh,
Yibeltal Wondimnew, Abiyot Assefa, Agidew Molla, Alehegn kindie, Zemenu Teferi,
Yared Abje, Moges Zewdu, Mrs. Yisalemsh Degu, and Melkam Ayal for their
uncountable good did provide to me.

iv
 DEDICATION

This thesis is dedicated to my family for their affection, love and dedicated partnership in
the success of my life.

v
 LISTS OF ABBREVIATIONS AND ACCRONYMS

ANOVA Analysis of Variances

ANRSBoA Amhara National Regional State, Bureau of Agriculture
ARARI Amara Region Agricultural Research Institute
CIMMYT International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center
CSA Central Statistical Agency
CV Coefficient of Variation
EIAR Ethiopian Institute of Agricultural Research
ETB Ethiopian Birr
GPS Global Positioning System
JDAO Jawi District Agricultural Office
KARC Kulumssa Agricultural Research Center
LSD Least Significance Difference
MoA Ministry of Agriculture
MoANR Ministry of Agriculture and Natural Resource
NPS Nitrogen Phosphorous Sulfur
OECD Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development
SE+ Standard Error
SNNPR Southern Nations Nationalities and Peoples‟ Region
SAS Statistical Analysis Software
WAMSC West Amara Meteorology Service Center
WARC Werer Agricultural Research Center
USD United States Dollar
USDA United States Department of Agriculture

vi
EFFECT OF SEEDING RATE ON YIELD AND YIELD COMPONENTS OF BREAD
WHEAT (Triticum aestivum L.) VARIETIES UNDER LOW LAND IRRIGATED AREA
OF JAWI, NORTHWESTERN ETHIOPIA

By Solomon Shigedib

Advisors: Dr. Yayeh Bitew and Dr. Dereje Ayalew

ABSTRACT

In Ethiopia, bread wheat is one of the most important strategic cereal crops. Ethiopian
government is putting a great effort to increase productivity and production of bread
wheat using irrigation to narrow the gap between demand and supply which is resulted
from low productivity and limited intensification of the crop and to provide food for the
population growing at alarming rate. Thus, the present research was initiated to assess the
optimum seeding rates of different varieties of wheat for maximum yield in Jawi, low land
area of northwestern Ethiopia using irrigation during off season in 2020/2021. The
experiment was laid out using randomized complete block design with three replications in
factorial arrangement of five levels of seeding rates (100, 125, 150, 175 and 200 kg ha-1)
and three bread wheat varieties (Fentale-2, Kakaba and Ogelcho). Data of phenological,
vegetative growth and yield related parameters were collected and analyzed using SAS
software. Results revealed that both the main effects of seeding rate and variety affected
most of phenological, growth and yield related parameters of bread wheat except days to
emergence. The interaction of seeding rate and variety significantly affected on days to
heading, number of effective tillers, grain yield and thousand kernels weight. From the
present results it has been observed that, biomass yield, grain yield and straw yield were
significantly increased as the seeding rate was increased from 100 to 200 kg ha-1 whereas
spike length, number of kernels per spike and thousand kernels weight were significantly
decreased as seeding rate increased. Fentale-2 and Ogelcho at a seeding rate of 200 kg
ha-1 and Kakaba at a seeding rate of 175 kg ha-1 gave significantly higher grain
productivity (3.99, 3.5 and 3.4 t ha-1), respectively. Besides, 200 kg seed ha-1 with variety
Fentale-2 was found to be the best economically profitable combinations with a net benefit
of 65,778.8 Birr ha-1 and can be recommended for lowland irrigated areas of Jawi and
similar agro ecologies. However, as this result is one season and one location experiment,
it is necessary to repeat this experiment across different locations and over seasons to
come up with practical recommendations.

Keywords: Economically Profitable, Grain Yield, Irrigated Wheat, Optimum, Productivity,

vii
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

CONTENTS Page
THESIS APPROVAL SHEET ii
DECLARATION iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS iv
DEDICATION v
LISTS OF ABBREVIATIONS AND ACCRONYMS vi
ABSTRACT vii
TABLE OF CONTENTS viii
LIST OF TABLES xi
LIST OF FIGURES xii
LIST OF APPENDIX TABLES xiii
LIST OF APPENDIX FIGURES xiv
Chapter 1 . INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 Background and Justification 1
1.2 Statements of the Problem 3
1.3 Objective of the Study 4
1.3.1 General objective 4
1.3.2 Specific objectives 4
Chapter 2 . LITERATURE REVIEW 5
2.1 Description of Bread Wheat 5
2.2 Origin and Distribution of Wheat 6
2.3 Environmental Requirements of Wheat 6
2.4 Importance and Utilization of Wheat 7
2.5 Wheat Production Potential and Constraints in Ethiopia 8
2.5.1 Wheat production potential in Ethiopia 8
2.5.2 Irrigation potential and irrigated wheat production in Ethiopia 10
2.5.3 Bread wheat production constraints in Ethiopia 11
2.6 Varietal Development and Effect of Variety on Bread Wheat 12
2.7 Factors Affecting Seeding Rate and Effect of Seeding on Bread Wheat 14

viii
 TABLE OF CONTENTS (Continued)

CONTENTS Page
2.7.1 Factors affecting seeding rate of bread wheat 14
2.7.2 Effect of seed rate on yield components of bread wheat 15
2.8 Effect of Seed Rate and Variety on Yield Components of Bread Wheat 20
Chapter 3 . MATERIALS AND METHODS 22
3.1 Descriptions of the Study Area 22
3.2 Experimental Designs and Treatments 23
3.3 Experimental Materials 23
3.4 Experimental Procedure 25
3.5 Methods of Data Collection 25
3.5.1 Phenological parameters 25
3.5.2 Growth parameter 26
3.5.3 Yield parameter 26
3.6 Data Analysis 28
3.6.1 Statistical data analysis 28
3.6.2 Partial budget analysis 28
Chapter 4 . RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 30
4.1 Effect of Variety and Seeding Rate on Phenological Parameters of Bread Wheat 30
4.1.1 Days to emergence: 30
4.1.2 Days to heading: 30
4.1.3 Days to 90% physiological maturity 32
4.2 Effect of Variety and Seeding Rate on Growth Parameters of Bread Wheat 34
4.2.1 Plant height 34
4.2.2 Spike length 35
4.3 Effects of Variety and Seeding Rate on Yield related Parameters of Bread Wheat 36
4.3.1 Total number of tiller per m2 36
4.3.2 Number of effective tillers per m2 38
4.3.3 Number of kernels per spike 40
4.3.4 Biomass yield 42

ix
 TABLE OF CONTENTS (Continued)

CONTENTS Page
4.3.5 Straw yield 43
4.3.6 Grain yield 44
4.3.7 Thousand Kernel weight 47
4.3.8 Harvest index 49
4.4 Correlation Analysis on Yield and Yield Related Parameters of Bread Wheat 50
4.5 Partial Budget Analysis 53
Chapter 5 . CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS 55
5.1 Conclusion 55
5.2 Recommendations 56
Chapter 6 . REFERENCES 57
APPENDICES 72
AUTHOR’S BIOGRAPHY 79

x
 LIST OF TABLES

Tables Page
3.1. Agronomic and morphological Characteristics of planting materials, bread wheat
varieties Registered/Released by EIAR 24
4.1. Interaction effect of seeding rate and variety on days to heading of bread wheat during
2020/2021 irrigation season in Jawi District, Northwestern Ethiopia 31
4.2. Main effect of seeding rate and variety on Phonelogical and Growth parameters of
bread wheat during 2020/2021 irrigation season at Jawi District 33
4.3. Interaction effect of seeding rate and variety on Number of Effective Tillers m-2
(NET) of bread wheat during 2020/2021 irrigation season in Jawi District,
Northwestern Ethiopia 39
4.4. Main effect of seeding rate and variety on yield related parameters of bread wheat
during 2020/2021 irrigation season at Jawi District 42
4.5. Interaction effect of seeding rate and variety on Grain Yield and Thousand Kernel
Weights of bread wheat variety during 2020/2021 irrigation season at Jawi District 49
4.6. Correlation Analysis of Bread Wheat Agronomic Parameters 52
4.7. Summary of partial budget analysis of bread wheat crop in 2021 in Jawi District,
North west Ethiopia 54

xi
 LIST OF FIGURES

Figure Page
3.1. Map of the study area, jawi district north western Ethiopia (developed by the author using
ArcGIS 10.7 software) 22
3.2. The 17 years average Monthly maximum and minimum temperature of the study area, jawi
district 23
4.1 Number of effective tillers of irrigated bread wheat in response to seeding rates in
2020/2021 irrigation cropping seasons at jawi district, Northwestern Ethiopia 40
4.2: Grain yield of irrigated bread wheat varieties in response to seeding rates in 2020/2021
irrigation cropping seasons at jawi district, Northwestern Ethiopia 47

xii
 LIST OF APPENDIX TABLES

Appendix Tables Page

1. Means square of ANOVA for Phynological, Growth, Yield and Yield related parameters
of bread wheat Crop Varieties in 2020/2021 irrigation season at Jawi District 73
2. List of released wheat varieties recommended for irrigated areas 74
3. Trends of irrigated wheat production 2012/13-2019/2020 consecutive years 74

xiii
 LIST OF APPENDIX FIGURES
Appendix Figures Page
1. Field layout of treatments 75
2. Five years wheat production trends of Ethiopia (source FAOSTAT, 2021) 76
3. Amount of wheat imported during the past 5 years (source FAOSTAT, 2021) 76
4. Pictures taken through site preparation to harvesting of irrigated wheat evaluation of
seeding rate on three varieties, Jawi district, NorthWestern Ethiopia 78

xiv
 Chapter 1 . INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background and Justification

Wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) is a major cereal crop in many parts of the world (Costa et
al., 2013). It is an important industrial and food grain, ranking second among the world's
most essential cereal crops after rice (Falola et al., 2017). Over one third of the world
population uses wheat as staple food and it is vital source of dietary carbohydrate and
protein (Iqtidar et al., 2006; Amare Assefa and Mulatu Kassaye, 2017).

In Ethiopia, bread wheat has become one of the most important strategic cereal crops due
to its role in food security, import substitution and the supply of raw materials for the agro-
processing industry (EIAR, 2020; Getinet Belay et al., 2020). Although production is
dominated by smallholder farmers (4.8 million, about 32% of grain producer) and almost
all wheat is produced under rain-fed conditions, Ethiopia is the largest wheat producer in
sub-Saharan Africa (Brasesco et al., 2019). The country‟s total production is 5.3 million
tons, on 1.8 million ha of land accounting for approximately 18% of the country‟s total
cereal production during 2019/2020 meher growing season, with an average productivity
of 2.97 t ha-1 (CSA, 2020; USDA, 2020). The Amhara National Regional State is one of
the major bread wheat growing regions of the country with the contribution of 27% of
production. Its land coverage in the region during 2019/2020 Production year was
578,034.07 ha with total annual production of 1,611,784.14 tons and productivity of 2.88 t
ha-1 (CSA, 2020).

Production of wheat in Ethiopia, is limited in mid and highland areas of the country lie
between 6o and 16o N latitude and 35o and 42o E longitudes of an altitude range from 1500
to 3000 meter above sea level (m.a.s.l) only as a rain fed crop (Bekele Hundie et al.,
2000). However, Ethiopia has extensive irrigation potential estimated to exceed 5.3
million ha (Selesh Bekele et al., 2010). The irrigation potential in the lowlands (<1500
m.a.s.l) areas of the country is intact potential for wheat production which can make the
country self-sufficient in wheat in a short period of time (EIAR, 2020).

1
Despite the potential and growing trend of wheat production, the demand is steadily
increasing and has unsuccessful yet to meet the country's annual demand. The demand for
wheat is growing at an average rate of 9% per year, while local production is only growing
at a rate of 7.8% (khan et al., 2020). Hence Ethiopia remains a net importer of wheat as a
result of a gap between production and consumption levels (Hodson, 2020).

Changing this situation is key agenda for the government of Ethiopian (Gebreselassie
Samuel et al., 2017) and requires production and productivity enhancement for bread
wheat in the country. The bread wheat production enhancements are expected to be
achieved through shift to and expand irrigation agriculture, mechanization (Mihratu
Amanuel et al., 2017), land expansion (EIAR, 2020), provision of quality agricultural
inputs, application of economically viable and ecologically adaptable varieties for lowland
areas and application of good agronomic practices (Khan et al., 2020).

Seeding rate is one amid the most important good agronomic practices which need great
emphasis for maximum yield of the crops (Amare Assefa and MulatuKassaye, 2017).
Research results indicated that use of proper seed rate encourages nutrient availability,
proper sun light penetration for photosynthesis, good soil environment for uptake of soil
nutrients and water use efficiency; and all necessary for crop vigor and consequently
increase the production and productivity of the crop (Alemayehu Adinew, 2015). Selection
of better performed bread wheat varieties is also basic step in productivity enhancement
(Nizamani et al., 2014).

Limited research has been conducted to assess best performing varieties and the optimal
seeding rate of bread wheat under irrigated production in lowland areas as compared to
main rain-fed agricultural season. Consequently, study based information about the effect
of seeding rate on the overall performance of released varieties is unknown and knowledge
is scares in the area. Thus, it is important to evaluate the effect of seeding rate on
agronomic performance of released varieties of bead wheat for lowland irrigated areas to
obtain the maximum yield.

2
1.2 Statements of the Problem

There is gap between bread wheat production and demand levels in the country, which
makes Ethiopia continually a net importer of about 1.5 million tons of wheat annually
draining 300-400 million USD, the national treasury (EIAR, 2020; FAOSTAT, 2021). The
gap is due to limited wheat land expansion towards readily and widely available areas in
the lowland agro-ecologies of the country and low productivity of the crop under irrigation
production (less than 4 t ha-1) which is (2.5 t ha-1) lower than the crops attainable yield (6.5
t ha-1) asserted by Werer agricultural research center (EIAR, 2020).

Productivity of bread wheat could be increased using high yielding and ecologically
adaptable cultivars coupled with application of location specific agronomic practices such
as optimum seeding rate. Proper seeding rate is the foremost important agronomic factors
which affecting the agronomic characteristics and productivity of wheat (Ansari et al.,
2006; Basir et al., 2019). Previous studies showed that, seeding rate significantly affects
biological yield, crop stand, spike number and grain weight and ultimately affects crop
productivity (Iqbal et al., 2020; Laghari et al., 2011). However, there is a dearth of
harmony on bread wheat seeding rate in Amara region. As indicating on crop variety
registration book (Issue no. 1 to 21) Ethiopian institute of agricultural research have been
developed number of bread wheat varieties along with their recommended seeding rate
and other characteristics (MoA, 2019). Whereas, the seed rate recommended in the
irrigated wheat production package (ARARI, 2020) for all irrigated varieties in the region
is 100 to 150 kg ha-1, regardless of the characteristics of the varieties and 150 kg ha-1 is
recommended by ANRSBoA (2018). On the contrary many farmers around the study area
prefer to use a higher (more than 200 kg ha-1) seed rate than recommended, because they
believe it as a good strategy to harvest high yield from main plants than tillers (Personal
communication February, 2020).

In addition to production enhancement through optimizing seeding rates, there are high
prospects of expansion of wheat production in irrigated lowlands of Amara region such as
jawi. This prospect of horizontal intensification of bread wheat suggests that more research

3
is needed in advance to determine optimum seeding rates and to evaluate varieties with
better yields in lowland areas where farmers have little idea on appropriate seeding rate
and better performed bread wheat varieties.

Therefore, as the lowland irrigated wheat production is getting emphasis and since the
production system is relatively, new, it is important to recommend better performed bread
wheat varieties with dispassionate seeding rate for new growing areas to improve
production and productivity per unit area.

1.3 Objective of the Study

1.3.1 General objective

The overall objective of this study was to assess the productivity of various bread wheat
varieties using different seeding rates under low land irrigation condition as a means of
intensification of bread wheat production in northwestern Ethiopia

1.3.2 Specific objectives

 To select the best bread wheat variety and /or with its optimum seeding rate for
maximum productivity and profitability and
 To evaluate the effect of different seeding rates on the growth, yield and yield
components of bread wheat varieties under lowland irrigation conditions

4
 Chapter 2 . LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Description of Bread Wheat

Bread wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) is a self-pollinating annual plant, belongs to the order
poales (Glumiflorae), family poaceae (Gramineae), genus Triticum. It is thought to have
originated in the Eurasian continent; a starting point from which man spread it throughout
the world (Haider, 2010). Literature

Wheat is an annual or biennial grass grown primarily for its grain. The crop has two
distinct root types; seminal and nodal (or crown or adventitious) roots (Kirby, 2002). The
seminal roots form from the seed while the nodal roots form from the lower nodes, which
are associated with tillers and become increasingly important as the plant grows (Kirby,
2002).

Wheat is typically from 0.7 to 1.2 m tall. It has a single main stem plus typically 2-3 tillers
per plant. The number of tillers tends to increase with better growing conditions and with a
lower crop density. Tillering starts at the 3-4 leaf stage approximately when the first nodal
roots can be seen. Bread wheat plant consists of a central stem from which leaves emerge
at opposite sides. It is made up of repeating segments called phytomers, which contain a
node, hollow internodes, a leaf and a tiller bud found in the axil of the leaf. Tillers are
lateral branches which are produced off the main stem of the bread wheat crop, not all
tillers will survive and produce an ear and this is thought to be due to competition for light
and nutrients (Kirby, 2002).

The inflorescence is a spike with spikelet‟s born singly at nodes /joints on alternate sides
of a zig-zag flattened central axis called rachis (Reddy, 2004). The spike (also called the
ear or head) forms at the top of the plant. A spike usually has 35-50 grains (or kernels).
Wheat grain typically weighs 30-60 mg (i.e., 30-60 g/1000 grains) depending on variety
and growing conditions. Reduced grain size often indicates moisture stress during grain
filling.

5
2.2 Origin and Distribution of Wheat

Wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) is an important cereal crop which belongs to the grass
family of Poaceae, formerly Gramineae and makes up the genus (Triticum spp) (Bakry et
al., 2017). Wheat is among the oldest and most extensively grown of all grain crops.
Western agriculture is thought to have started around 10,000 BC somewhere along the
Fertile Crescent in the Near East (Edwards, 2010). It is the first domesticated food crop
and has been the basic staple food of human beings for 8000 years (Curtis, 2002).

These earliest cultivated forms were diploid (genome AA) (einkorn) and tetraploid
(genome AABB) (emmer) wheat and their genetic relationships indicate that they
originated from the south-eastern part of Turkey. Cultivation spread to the Near East by
about 9000 years ago when hexaploid bread wheat made its first appearance (Shewry,
2009). The cultivation of wheat spread from its center of origin to India, Pakistan and
China in the East, to the Mediterranean countries in the west, and other European countries
in the north. Some 5000 years ago, the early immigrants brought wheat to Ethiopia. The
greatest diversity of Triticum durum L. is found in Ethiopia (Melesse Harfe, 2007).

2.3 Environmental Requirements of Wheat

Wheat is a widely adapted crop. It is grown from temperate, irrigated to dry and high-rain-
fall areas and from warm, humid to dry, cold environments (Dixon et al., 2009).
According to Martin et al. (2006) in the world, bread wheat grown in temperate regions
where the annual rainfall averages between 254 to 1780 mm and in drier irrigated areas
and it is mostly grown in regions with annual precipitation of 380 to 1140 mm.

Bekele Hundie et al. (2000) stated that the ideal daily temperature for different stages of
bread wheat development varies from 20 to 25 °C for germination, 16 to 20 °C for good
tillering and 20 to 23 °C for proper plant development. It can be grown on variety of soils
with reasonable drainage and good water retentive capacity, although it is best adapted to
the well-drained, fertile clay loam soils having moderate water holding capacity are ideal

6
for irrigated wheat (Onwueme and Sinha, 1999). Bread wheat crop has a thin root system
and needs optimum and regular application of water and nutrients. In terms of soil pH, it is
considered medium acid tolerant with permissible range of 5.5 to 7.0 and also considered
to be medium tolerant to soil salinity (Reddy, 2004).

In Ethiopia, most of bread wheat producing areas lies between 60 and 160 N latitude and
350 and 420 E longitudes at an altitude ranging from 1500 to 3000 m.a.s.l. The most
suitable areas, however, fall between 1900 and 2700 m.a.s.l (Bekele Hundie et al., 2000).
Most bread wheat is produced during the main rainy season, June to September, although
some is produced during the light rain season, March to May. Virtually all bread wheat is
produced under rain fed conditions (Hailu Beyene et al., 1990). Altitude plays an
important role in the distribution of wheat production through its influence on rainfall,
temperature, and diseases. It is widely grown in the highland and semi-highland areas of
the Oromiya, Amhara, Southern Nations and Nationalities and Tigray regions of Ethiopia
(Schneider and Anderson, 2012). However, wheat can be produced under irrigation
condition in Ethiopian under a wide range of climatic conditions and geographical areas.

2.4 Importance and Utilization of Wheat

Wheat is a major cereal crop in many parts of the world and it is commonly known as the
king of cereals (Costa et al., 2013). Globally, after maize (Zea mays) and rice (Oryza
sativa), wheat is the most cultivated cereal (Costa et al., 2013) and is a stable food for
about one third of the world population (Amare Assefa and Mulatu Kassaye, 2017).
Worldwide, in 2020, approximately 766 million metric tons of wheat has been produced
on 216 million ha of land with a total with an average productivity of 3.5 ton ha-1 (USDA,
2019; OECD, 2021). World wheat utilization or consumption, defined as food, feed, seed
and processed uses and for trade or export income generation (Cruits, 2002).

Wheat is not only for making bread, biscuit and pastry products, but also for the
production of starch and gluten (Omer Gebremedhin, 2015). It is grown as a source of
food and cash (Braun et al., 2010). Due to its desirable and unique, dough forming

7
properties utilized for a wide range of products. Among these are pan bread, noodles,
cakes, biscuits/cookies, steamed bread, doughnuts, croissants, bagels, pizza, flat breads,
and chapatti (Edwards, 2010). It is the main staple food for about 36% of the Ethiopian
population (Tamene Mideksa et al., 2017).

Wheat is one of the main cereals cultivated in Ethiopia as it provides 14% of the total
caloric intake, ranking as the second most important food behind maize (Brasesco et al.,
2019). It is one of the most important, strategic crops in Ethiopia, because of its role for
food security, import substitution and supply of raw material for agro-processing industry
(EIAR, 2020).

In Ethiopia, bread wheat grain is used in the preparation of a range of products such as:
The traditional staple pancake (“injera”), bread (“dabo”), local beer (“tella”), and several
others local food items (that is, "dabokolo","ganfo","kinche”). Besides, wheat straw is
commonly used as a roof thatching material, bed decking and as a feed for animals (Amare
Aleminew et al., 2015; Omer Gebremedhin, 2015).

2.5 Wheat Production Potential and Constraints in Ethiopia

2.5.1 Wheat production potential in Ethiopia

Ethiopia is the 3rd largest wheat producing country in Africa, next to Egypt and Morocco
and the 2nd largest wheat producer in Sub-Saharan Africa (Brasesco et al., 2019). The two
economically important wheat species grown in Ethiopia are durum wheat (Triticum
durum), tetraploid of which is with a total chromosome numbers of 2n=28) and which has
4 sets of chromosomes each with a unique genome of n=7 chromosomes whereas, bread
wheat (Triticum aestivum), hexaploid which is with a total chromosome numbers of 2n=42
and which has 6 sets of chromosomes each with a unique genome of n=7 chromosomes
(Center for New Crops & Plant Products, Purdue University. 2003).

8
In Ethiopia wheat production is dominated by the peasant farming systems and limited in
mid and high altitude zones of the country as a rain-fed crop (Demeke and Marcantonio ,
2013). Over the past two decades, both wheat production and consumption have shown
increasing trends in Ethiopia (Gebreselassie Samuel et al., 2017). Production of wheat has
significantly increased over the past 5 years (Appendix Figure 7.2). It has increased from
4,650,934 tons in the 2015 marketing year to 4,838,074 tons in 2018 and to 5,315,270 ton
in 2019 (CSA, 2020; FAOSTAT, 2021). Wheat production grew by 12% between 2015
and 2019, and reached at 5.3 million tons in 2019 (CSA, 2020). These increasing rates of
wheat production are due to the implementation of several government programs and
initiatives which drive agricultural growth and food security in the country (Gebreselassie
Samuel et al., 2017).

Although, the growth is characterized by large annual fluctuations mainly due to variations
in precipitation, production growth of wheat was 44% during the 1996 to 2013 periods
(Minot et al., 2015; Gebreselassie Samuel et al., 2017). According to CSA (2020) data in
Ethiopia, bread wheat is cultivated by 4,780,267 households on 1.8 million ha with a total
production of 5.3 tons and average yield of 2.97 t ha-1 in 2019/2020 main (meher)
cropping season. It ranks fourth (13.91%) after tef (24.11%), maize (17.68%) and sorghum
(14.21%) in area coverage and also third (15.86%) in total production next to maize
(28.75%) and tef (17.11%) (CSA, 2020).

Despite strong growth in wheat production, wheat imports have also increased
significantly over the past decade (Gebreselassie Samuel et al., 2017). Ethiopia is not self-
sufficient in wheat production. The gap between supply and demand is widening due to
rapid population growth, changing preferences for wheat-based food products, and
unwarranted wheat yields due to climate change and related impacts such as drought,
disease and insect pests (EIAR, 2020). As a result, Ethiopia has always been a net importer
of wheat.

According to FAOSTAT (2021), Ethiopia has imported a large amount of wheat from
abroad in the past 5 years (Appendix figure 7.3). Ethiopia imported 1.67 million tons in

9
2017, 1.4 million tons in 2018, 1.7 million tons in 2019, 1 million tons in 2020 and 1.5
million tons in the beginning of 2021. This amount of imports will meet about 25% of
domestic demand.

2.5.2 Irrigation potential and irrigated wheat production in Ethiopia

Agricultural water resource management is an essential contributor to Ethiopia's economic

and social development (Selesh bekele et al., 2010). Irrigation is the means for good
farming, better land use and stable and higher agricultural production (Gebremedhin
Gebremeskel, 2015). As rain-fed based production of cereals cannot ensure food security
of Ethiopia and thus irrigated production is a necessity rather than an option.

Ethiopia is gifted with a considerable amount of water resources with very high
hydrological variability (Getinet Belay et al., 2020). Many perennial and annual rivers
exist in the country. Significant number of lakes, dams, and reservoirs are also found in
various parts of Ethiopia. Based upon the various river basin master plans and land and
water resources survey, there are 12 river basins that provide an estimated annual runoff of
125 billion m3 and 22 natural and artificial lakes water and the ground potential varies
from 2.6 to 13.5 billion m3 per year, which makes an average of 1,575 m3 of physically
available water per person per year, a relatively large volume (Makombe et al., 2011).

In this regard, Ethiopia has a huge potential for irrigated land in the lowlands, which must
be used through proper use of technology and a favorable policy framework (EIAR, 2020).
These endowed surface water, groundwater, artificial lakes and rain water sources can
develop at least 5.3 million hectares of irrigation potential of the country (Seleshi Bekele
et al., 2010). Among them, gravity-fed surface water supplies for 3.7 million ha,
groundwater supplies for 1.1 million ha, and rainwater collection supplies for 0.5 million
ha of irrigable land (Selesh bekele and Mekonen Ayana, 2011; Makombe et al., 2011).

Currently, irrigation contributes 1.1% of the total cultivated land in the country (Girmay
AB, 2017). Preliminary screening of bread wheat nursery materials under irrigation was

10
started at Melka Werrer Research Center in 1977 and a number of promising lines were
identified (Jamal, 1984). As a result of intensive selection for adaptability and over three
seasons of yield testing, four cultivars were identified by 1982. These varieties were
suggested for production in the Middle Awash Valley (Jamal, 1984). Production of
irrigated wheat, however, did not take off mainly because of lack of officially
recommended cultural practices which normally are given with recommended cultivars.

However, lately, irrigated wheat production technology was started on a hectare of land
around Werer Research Center in the Afar Regional State in 2012 as a demonstration.
Since then, the promotion activities were progressively increased over years and widely
expanded to other regions such as Oromia Amara and SNNP by involving many farmers,
agro-pastorals and large-scale commercial farms. During 2019 irrigation season, land area
covered by irrigated wheat in different regions surpassed 15, 100 ha (Appendix Table 7.3),
and the Afar Region takes the lion‟s share followed by Oromia and SNNP (EIAR, 2020).
Around 60,000 tons of bread wheat has been produced on 20,000 ha of land under
irrigation during 2020 irrigation season (MoA, 2021).

2.5.3 Bread wheat production constraints in Ethiopia

Wheat production in Sub Saharan Africa predominantly in Ethiopia is constrained by a

number of abiotic and biotic stresses at different levels of intensity across rain-fed and
irrigated environments (Wuletaw Tadesse et al., 2018). The average productivity of bread
wheat (2.97 t ha-1) in Ethiopia is very low as compared to world average (3.55 t ha-1) and
even much below that of Egypt by 30% (CSA, 2020; FAOSTAT, 2020),

The major causes for the low productivity of the crop are continued use of unimproved
varieties, access to varieties and variety selection systems, little use of modern agricultural
inputs such as improved seeds, chemical fertilizers and herbicides, lack of improved
management practices, declining of soil fertility and abiotic stresses (Adugnaw Anteneh
and Dagninet Asrat, 2020). Woldeamlak Bewket (2009) concluded rain fall or dependency
on it is the most limiting factor for bread wheat production like fertilizer and other farm

11
inputs. This author also reported that in 1996 and1997, bread wheat production was
reduced by 28% from its 10-years mean, due to the variation of rain fall.

Wheat production and productivity is relatively small by global standards because most
subsistence farming of wheat is produced by small-scale farmers through rain feed
production system with less irrigated production (Adugnaw Anteneh and Dagninet Asrat,
2020). Little knowledge about irrigation farming and lack of irrigation infrastructure
development is also production constraint for bread wheat (Bamlaku Tadesse et al., 2015).
Furthermore, White et al. (2001) reported grass weed infestations, water logging in
Vertisol areas and water deficits are the major constraints of bread wheat production in
Ethiopia. In addition Zewdie Bishaw et al. (2013) also stated that bread wheat production
is constrained by seed borne diseases.

Expansion of improved and appropriate agronomic practices including optimal seeding

rates, sowing dates, seedbed preparation etc. would greatly contribute to improving
productivity of bread wheat in the region and in the country. Among improved
management practices, proper seed rate is foremost (Ansari et al., 2006). However
inappropriate seeding rate is also major constraint for bread wheat yield reduction
(Tewodros Ayalew et al., 2017). Plant population should be maintained so as to achieve
the expected yield of crop in a given area. Optimum plant densities vary greatly between
areas according to climatic conditions, soil, sowing time, and varieties. Use of low seed
rates do not produce the required number of plants in the field that could
efficiently utilize light, water and nutrients and thus result in low yield. Use of
maximum seed rates may cause lodging, exhaustion of nutrients and water before
maturity and may provide favorable condition for insect pest and disease incidence
(Shah et al., 2016).

2.6 Varietal Development and Effect of Variety on Bread Wheat

According to Ethiopian institute of agricultural research (2020), more than 76 bread wheat
varieties suitable for highland rain-fed agro-ecologies were released since 1950‟s (EIAR,

12
2020). In recent years Werer Research Center has released, seven irrigated bread wheat
varieties (Appendix Table 7.2) to satisfy the growing production demands of the farmers
(EIAR, 2020). In addition to these irrigated varieties five all season wheat varieties
(Appendix Table 7.2) are recommended in the 2020s‟ irrigation production package of
Amara region but from these five varieties two namely (Dandaa and Kakaba) are
prioritized to the lowlands of the region (ARARI, 2020). The varietal release of irrigated
wheat is focused on high-yielding, heat -and stress-tolerant wheat varieties which could
yield up to 6.5 tons ha-1. Variety Fentale-2, Kakaba and Ogelcho are among the varieties
of wheat recommended for irrigated areas.

Improved varieties offer an important pathway for yield enhancement and production
stabilization of the crop (Hodson, 2020). Developing varieties which can be adapted to a
wide range of environments is the vital goal of plant breeders in a crop production
enhancement program. There is a need to intensify crop production through application of
better crop varieties adapted to varying agro ecological conditions and socioeconomic set-
ups (Gadisa Alemu et al., 2021). Consequently, the Ethiopia government paid attention to
the research and development of wheat technology. The National Agricultural Research
System has developed various improved varieties of bread wheat with key attributes such
as high yield and grain quality, rust resistance, drought tolerance and consumer
preferences (flavor, roasting and nutritional quality). Those improved wheat varieties
(along with improved agronomic practices) were introduced through the government-run
extension system and distributed to wheat-producing communities in different parts of the
country (Mulugeta Tsegaye and Bekele Hundie, 2012). However, farmers have subjective
preferences for different variety attributes, and their seed requirements are significantly
influenced by their perceptions (Zewdie Bishaw, 2011).

Production of wheat can be improved through the development of productive varieties

which better alter in diverse agro-climatic conditions and also resist all types of biotic
stresses (Ali Y. et al., 2008). Genetic progress in grain yield of bread studied by
Endashaw Girma et al. (2019) showed that, the mean relative annual gain in grain yield of
bread wheat varieties since 1967 was 1.03% increase per year (57% improvement of

13
yield), for the whole period of 49 years. In this regards, previous research results showed
significant effect of variety on grain yield and related parameters. Analysis of variance by
Abebe Megersa et al. (2020) showed that varieties had significant effect on days to 50% of
heading, days to 90% of maturity, number of effective tiller and thousand kernel weights.
Accordingly, Bhutto et al. (2016) reported that genotypes were significantly different for
all the traits viz. plant height, spike length, kernels spike−1, thousand grain weight and
grain yield plant−1 but tillers plant−1 were non-significant. Significance difference were
observed between the wheat varieties for days to heading, days to maturity and grain
filling period, Number of kernels per spike, Biomass yield, grain yield, harvest index and
thousand kernel weight (Bayisa Tadiyos et al., 2019). They reported that grain yield was
varied from 1.28t ha-1 to 3.04t ha-1 with a mean value of 1969t ha-1 due to variety
difference in yielding ability. As grain yield had the most important traits there were three
genotypes which had higher grain yield than the best performed check variety (Bayisa
Tadiyos et al., 2019).

2.7 Factors Affecting Seeding Rate and Effect of Seeding on Bread Wheat

2.7.1 Factors affecting seeding rate of bread wheat

Seed rate may be defined as the amount of seed required for a unit area of land to grow
crop successfully. It is important for wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) crops because it directly
affects the number of ears per unit area. Generally, the seeding rate of bread wheat crops
depends on the variety (seed size and tillering capacity), soil, climatic conditions,
germination capacity, purity percentage, required population, seeding method, seedbed
preparation and seeding depth (Adem Mohammed, 2013; Sekaran et al., 2010; Tesfaye
Geleta, 2017).

In this regard, seeding rate varies due to methods of planting. According to Asresie Hassen
et al. (2008) seed rate of 175 kg ha-1 is recommended for broad casting whereas 150 kg ha-
1
for drill planting method. Broadcasting method of planting requires not only higher seed
rate but also results in lower plant population, whereas drill sowing method is

14
recommended because of its uniform seed distribution and sowing at desired depth, which
usually results in higher germination and uniform stand. Due to the plant competition as
broad casting left uneven space whereas drilling provided uniform spaces wheat sown at
higher seed rate i.e., 175 kg ha-1 and 150 kg ha-1, respectively (Ali Soomro et al.,
2009).

On the base of growth characteristic of the variety (tillering capacity), lower effective tiller
production occurred with an increasing seed rate. This is because the higher the seed rate
might increase the competition for space thereby result in lesser number of tillers per
plant, also reported that, lower seed rates significantly increased the number of fertile
tillers produced per plant. However, effective tiller number decreased with increasing seed
rate (Tewodros Ayalew et al., 2017). Variety Danda‟a required the low seed rate (125 kg
–1
ha ) for producing higher grain yield which may be due to its high tillering capacity
while varieties Shorima and Kakaba gave maximum grain yield on seed rate of 150 kg ha –
1
. On the other hand, variety Digalu produced best yield at 175 kg ha–1 (Jemal Abdulkerim
et al., 2015). Numbers of seedlings increased with sowing depths up to 7 cm, sowing
beyond a depth of 7 cm was associated with significant reductions in the number of
seedlings. Wheat sown at 5 cm gave greater yields than wheat sown at 3, 7 and 9 cm by
19.9, 22.3 and 62.5%, respectively (Yagmur and Kaydan, 2009).

Seeding rates for wheat can vary widely due to differences in seed quality (seed size),
planting conditions and planting dates. Plant population is dependent on seed size. It is
found that varieties having large seed size, seed rate should be used higher and varieties
having smaller seed size, seed rate should be used lower. Generally, farmers yield is lower
compare to research field due to shorter spike length and lower number of grains per spike
resulted mostly from higher plant density (Akhter jh et al., 2017; Tesfaye Geleta, 2017).

2.7.2 Effect of seed rate on yield components of bread wheat

Seed rate is the most important agronomic factor which affecting the agronomic
characteristics of wheat productivity (Ansari et al., 2006). Previous studies have shown

15
that seeding rate significantly affects most of yield and yield components of bread wheat.
Yield components such as days to maturity, biological yield, crop stand, spike length and
number, harvest index and grain weight and ultimately crop productivity affected by
seeding rate (Tewodros Ayalew et al., 2017; Shah et al., 2016; Igor Pirez et al., 2009;
Ozturk et al., 2006). Using proper seed rate encourages nutrient availability, proper sun
light penetration for photosynthesis, good soil environment for uptake of soil nutrients and
water use efficiency; and all necessary for crop vigor and consequently increases the
production and productivity of the crop (Alemayehu Adinew, 2015).

Optimum seed rate is most important for maximum yield of crop. If very high seed rate is
used, plant population will be more and there will be competition among plants for water,
nutrients and sunlight, cause lodging, exhaustion of nutrients and water before maturity
and may provide favorable condition for insect pest and disease incidence resulting
in low quality and low yield (Shah et al., 2016). Increase in seed rate above optimum level
may only enhance production cost without any increase in grain yield (Rafique et al.,
2010). If very less seed rate is used yield will be less (Khan et al., 2002). Use of low seed
rates do not produce the required number of plants in the field that could
efficiently utilize light, water and nutrients and thus result in low yield. Using low
seeding rate in bread wheat leads to low yield harvest due to lesser number of plants per
unit area (Hameed, et al., 2002).

The ideal application of all the recommended agronomic practices for the optimum seed
rate can be to achieve better crop performance and higher grain yield of wheat. Ali et al.
(2010) and Kabir et al. (2009) reported that most of the yields contributing characters are
significantly affected by seed rate. Kabir et al. (2009) found that, the highest plant height
(82.36 cm), total tillers plant-1(8.99), effective tillers plant-1(3.49) , spike length (8.05 cm),
spikelets spike-1 (15.50), filled grain spike-1 (31.05), grain yield (2.82 t ha-1), straw yield
(3.73 t ha-1), biological yield (6.55 t ha-1) and harvest index (42.43%) from the second
highest seed rate of 140 kg ha-1over tested seeding rates (100, 120 and 160 kg ha-1).
However, higher seed rates (175-200 kg ha-1) resulted in delayed maturity, greater

16
internodes length and higher lodging inefficient and recorded minimum values of all the
growth, yield, nutrient uptake and traits (Laghari et al., 2011).

Plant height is mostly affected by seeding rate. Sulieman (2010) found that, increase in the
seeding rate showed in a slight increment in the heights of the wheat. Whereas, Toaima et
al. (2000) reported that, plant height was significantly decreased as seeding rate increased
in wheat crop. Higher seeding rate and lower light penetration influences increase of inter
node length, reducing stem thickness and increasing plant height (Otteson et al. 2007).
Additionally, the maximum plant height (103.3 cm) was observed with seed rate of 150
kg ha-1 followed by 175 kg seed ha-1 which produced plants of 93.2 cm. Wheat sown at
higher seeding rate (175 kg ha-1) produced greater plant height followed by 150 kg ha-1 and
125 kg ha-1 (Abiot Mekonnen, 2017).

Tillering has great agronomic importance in cereals since it may partially or totally
compensate the differences in plant number after crop establishment and may allow crop
recovery from early frosts. High yields are possible from a wide range of plant
populations, because wheat compensates by changing the number of tillers and the size of
the heads in response to the environmental conditions (Edwards et al., 2008). Based on
these, previous researchers observed that increased tillers with increase in seed rate.
Matsuyama H. & Ookawa T. (2020) reported that, the maximum tiller number per m 2
decreasing as the seeding rate was reduced.

Higher seeding rate had maximum tillering potential compared with lower seeding density
(Hameed et al., 2003). Arif et al. (2003) and Baloch et al. (2010) also found that, different
seed rates significantly increased the number of tillers, in which, the use of 200 kg seed ha-
1
produced higher number of tillers (311.8 m-2) closely followed by 150 kg seed ha-1 with
306 number of tillers m-2. Kilic and Gursoy (2010) also revealed that different seeding
densities significantly affected the tiller/spikes per m2. Whereas, Rahel Tigabu and Fekadu
Asfaw (2016) reported that the lower seeding rate produced maximum number of tillers
per hill.

17
Crop yields are generally dependent upon many yields contributing agents, among these,
numbers of fertile tillers are the most important because of its contribution in final yield.
Numbers of fertile tillers per plant of wheat crop were statistically affected by seeding rate.
More number of fertile tillers per plant was observed at seeding rate of 125 kg ha-1, while
less number of fertile tillers was recorded at seeding rate of 175 kg ha-1 (Sakatu Hunduma,
2017).

The length of spike plays a vital role in wheat towards the grains spike-1 and finally they
yield (Shahzad et al., 2007). Spike length was very highly significantly affected by
seeding rate. At the lower seeding rate of 100 kg ha-1, the spike length was higher
compared to higher seeding rate of 175 kg ha-1. This might be due to more free space
between plants at the lower seed rates and less intra-plant competition for available
resources that resulted in higher spike length. Shorter plant produce longer spike length
and long plant produce shorter spike and higher biomass production (Abiot Mekonnen,
2017; Tewodros Ayalew et al., 2017). However, Baloch et al. (2010) concluded that
different seeding rate had no significant effect on spike length.

Number of kernels per spike of bread wheat was very highly significantly influenced by
the seeding rate. The highest and lowest grains per spike observed at lowest (100 kg ha-1)
and highest plant densities (175 kg ha-1), respectively (Abiot Mekonnen, 2017). As the
seed rate was increased from 100 kg ha-1 to 150 kg ha-1, the number of kernels per spike
decreased by 10.42%. This is because at higher plant density most grains would fade at
early stage because of competition between growing grains to absorb preserved matters
and as the result low grains per spike would be produced (Amare Assefa and Mulatu
Kassaye, 2017). The experiment shows that thousand grain weight declines with
increasing seed rate. This might be due to higher planting density on account of higher
seed rate used that increased plant competition and eventually declined the grain weight
(Tewodros Ayalew et al., 2017). Moreover, Igor Pirez et al. (2013) found that, higher
seeding density reduced the number of grains per spike in all environments.

18
Thousand kernel weights is an important yield determining component which is reported
to be a genetic characteristic of a plant and therefore, less affected by environmental
factors. A decrease in the thousands seed weights has been reported due to an increase in
seeding rate by Khan et al. (2002). Tesfaye Geleta (2017) also reported from his research
result that, statistically significant highest and lowest values of thousand seed weight were
observed at 125 and 200 kg ha-1, seed rates, respectively.

Biological yield represent overall growth performance of the plant as well as the crop. It is
considered to be the essential yield parameter to get useful information about overall
growth of the crop of wheat and farmers are interested in straw in addition to the grain
(Hameed et al., 2002). In this regard, previous research results showed seeding rate had
significant effect on biological yield. Biological yield was increased by increasing seeding
rate in wheat as Ali et al. (2004) reported. They found highest biological yield at seeding
rate of 175 kg ha-1 while lowest biological yield at seeding rate of 125 kg ha-1. This is
because at high seeding rates early dry matter accumulation and weed competitiveness
increases, but it may have negligible impacts on grain yield due to increased inter-plant
competition (Sakatu Hunduma, 2017). Biological yield (t ha-1) and Straw yield (t ha-1)
increased with increasing seed rate up to the optimum level (Intsar et al., 2017).

Grain yield is the most important trait in any bread wheat evaluation program especially
under high temperature stress condition (Bayisa Tadiyos et al., 2019). It is the final
product of all the growth and development processes during the life cycle of the crop. It
can be conveniently divided into a number of sub-units called yield components. Hameed
et al. (2003) reported that grain yield increased as seed rate increased. Iqbal et al. (2020)
similarly, concluded, increase in seed rate improved the grain yield of wheat by increasing
the number of productive tillers per unit area. Higher seeding rate caused to changing plant
height and stem thickness because of the lower light penetrating in to the plants canopy
bed and more inter specific competition to more absorption light. These factors
(higher seeding rate and lower light penetration) increasing inter node length, reducing
stem thickness and increasing plant height. Seeding rate of 150 kg ha-1 performed better
and gave higher grain yield (4.46 t ha-1) and has (34.55 %) grain yield advantage on

19
average over the remaining three seeding rates. Use of 125 kg ha-1 seed rate for variety
Danda‟a; 150 kg ha-1 for varieties Shorima and Kakaba and 175 kg ha-1 for variety Digalu
were identified from the tested (100, 125, 150, 175 and 200 kg ha-1) for good crop stand
and finally the yield (Jemal Abdulkerim et al., 2015).

However, the highest seed per spike and thousand kernel weight were recorded in the
lowest seeding rate (100 kg ha-1) even though the lowest seeding rates were not
advantageous in many of yield and yield component traits (Abiot Mekonnen, 2017).
Jennifer et al. (2006) indicated that, in a dense wheat population, grain yield was
decreased due to competition between plants that induced self-regulation. Studies on
seeding rate requirement for dwarf wheat showed that, seeding rate of 100 to 125 kg ha-1
resulted in higher yield compared with 75 kg ha-1 (Reddy, 2004). However, in cultivars
that produce fewer tillers, higher seeding rates compensated for reduced tiller and
promoted more main stem spikes (Staggenborg et al., 2003).

The capacity of a crop to convert the dry matter into economic yield is indicated by its
harvest index. The higher the harvest index value, the greater the physiological potential of
the crop for the converting dry matter to grain yield. Abiot Mekonnen (2017) reported
highest harvest index (38.15%) at seeding rate of 150 kg ha-1 while lowest harvest index
(31.69%) at the seeding rate of 100 kg ha-1 and was statistically lower than the seeding rate
of 175 kg ha-1 (33.27%). Significant highest harvest index (0.38 at Ginchi 0.37 at Becho)
was also calculated at seeding rate of 125 and 150 kg ha-1 respectively (Sakatu Hunduma,
2017). Bayisa Tadiyos et al (2019) computed the highest harvest index for genotypes they
tested ranged from 15% to 36% with average value of 29%.

2.8 Effect of Seed Rate and Variety on Yield Components of Bread Wheat

Interaction effect of variety and seeding rates on bread wheat has been reported by various
researchers. In this regard, varieties had significant interaction with seed rate and different
varieties responded differently to varying seed rates (Laghari et al., 2011). The result
regarding grain yield showed that there were significant Interaction differences in grain

20
yield among wheat varieties and seed rates (Jemal Abdulkerim et al., 2015). The seed rate
and wheat variety interaction showed that maximum grain yield (5.4 t ha-1) was produced
when variety Shorima planted at a seeding rate of 150 kg ha-1 and the lowest grain yield
(2.85 and 2.94 t ha-1) were recorded when variety Danda‟a planted at 175 and 200 kg ha-1
of seeding rate, respectively.

Similarly, Haile Deressa et al. (2013) reported that significant effect on grain yield and
harvest index, suggesting that cultivars had different responses to seeding rates for these
traits. However, the results of the study showed that in durum wheat, the seed rate x
variety interaction did not affect most agronomic traits such as plant height, number of
spike m2, spike length, number of kernel per spike-1, biomass yield and kernel weight.
According to these authors, the highest grain yields 4.94 t ha-1 and 4.59 t ha-1 were
recorded when variety Ejersa and Oda sown at the seeding rate of 150 kg ha-1,
respectively. However optimum grain yields, 4.77 t ha-1 and 3.91 t ha-1, when Bakalcha
and Illani sown at the seeding rate of 175 kg ha-1 respectively.

Dalia (2016) reported that, significant interaction effect among cultivars and seeding rates
for days to heading. On this regard tested variety Misr 1 recorded 100 days to heading with
sowing rates 200 seed m2, Meanwhile Sids-12 recorded 94 days under 350 seeds per m2.
Similarly the author reported that, significant interaction effect between cultivars and
seeding rates were shown on grain yield, straw yield and harvest index. Tested variety,
Sids-12 and Misr-1 produced (4.13 and 4.09 t ha-1) grain. Meanwhile, Misr-1 produced the
highest straw yield with sowing of 350 seeds m2 and recorded the highest harvest index
with sowing of 200 seeds per m2

Variety and seeding rate showed significant interaction effect on grain yield of wheat as
Igor Pirez et al. (2013) reported. They reported that, the higher grain yields were obtained
with lower density for the genotypes with high tillering potential and with higher density
for genotypes with reduced tillering potential. Significant interaction between seeding rate
and cultivar for grain and straw yields were also reported by El-Lattief, (2014).

21
 Chapter 3 . MATERIALS AND METHODS

3.1 Descriptions of the Study Area

The experimental study was carried out at Asech melkan kebele, Jawi district of Amhara
region, northwest Ethiopia as shown in figure 1. The global positioning of the
experimental site was 11°00′7″ N (longitude) and 36°02′0″ E (latitude) at the elevation of
1254 m.a.s.l (Garmin GPS reading). It Located at about 512 km North of Addis Ababa,
108 Km from Bahir Dar Via Dangila.

Figure 3.1. Map of the study area, jawi district north western Ethiopia (developed by the
author using ArcGIS 10.7 software)

The climate alternates with long summer rain fall (June-September) and a winter dry
season (October-May) with mean annual rain fall of 1569.4mm (WAMSC, 2021). The
district is warm and humid lowland (Figure 3.2). The mean temperature varies 16.7°C -
37.6°C. The maximum temperature during the experiment was 33.4°C on January, 35.7°C
on February, 37.9°C on March and 38.1°C on April (Figure 3.2). While the minimum
Temperature were 11.6°C on January, 15.7°C on February, 17.4°C on March and 20.4°C
on April (WAMSC, 2021). The soil types of the experimental area were vertisols with the

22
textural class of clay to clay loam (JWAO, 2020). The land is covered by different
vegetation types namely savanna grass land, forest, riverine and bush lands with major
agricultural products like sorghum, maize, sesame and cotton.

50.0
35.7 37.9 38.1
40.0 33.4 34.4 33.8
29.9 29.6 31.3
26.8 26.8 28.5
30.0
20.4 20.6 18.6 18.4 18.4 17.7
17.4 18.2
20.0 15.7 14.7 14.0
11.6
10.0

0.0
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

MAX MIN

Figure 3.2. The 17 years average Monthly maximum and minimum temperature of the
study area, jawi district

3.2 Experimental Designs and Treatments

The field experiment contained 15 treatments with five level of seeding rates (100, 125,
150,175 and 200 kg ha-1) and three wheat varieties (Fentale-2, Kakaba and Ogolcho). The
experiment was laid out as a randomized complete block design (RCBD) with three
replications. A field layout was prepared and each treatment was assigned randomly to
experimental plots within a block using lottery system (Figure 3.2). The gross plot size
was 3.2 m x 3.00 m (9.6 m2). There were 10 rows per plot at spacing of 0.20 m between
rows and 0.40 m wide irrigation furrow at every four rows. The net plot area was 6 rows of
1.20 m x 2.50 m (3.00 m2) with the exclusion of 3x0.40 m (1.20 m) wide middle and outer
furrows, two outer and inner rows (4x0.20 m) on both sides of each plot and 0.50 m row
length at both ends of the rows to avoid possible border effects. Paths between adjacent
plots and blocks were 0.50m and 1.00m wide, respectively.

3.3 Experimental Materials

23
Three wheat varieties namely Fentale-2, Kakaba (Picaflor) and Ogelcho were used for the
experiment (Table 3.1). Kakaba and Ogelcho varieties are recommended for mid and
lowland irrigated areas of the region by ARARI irrigated wheat production package
(2020). However, Fentale-2 variety is recommended for lowland irrigated areas of awash
valley by Ethiopian institute of agricultural research (EIAR). Based on these
recommendations, the suitability and productivity these varieties have been selected for
this research. These varieties were collected from the Ethiopian Institute of Agricultural
Research together with their full production package. Fentale-2 is recently developed and
released nationally to be produced in the agro ecologies of lower awash valley warm
climates and low altitudes under irrigation. Kakaba (Picaflor#1) variety developed for low,
mid and high altitude and Ogolcho variety developed and released for lowland to mid
altitude areas of the country in 2010 and 2012 respectively from Kulumsa agricultural
research center (Table 3.1).

Table 3.1. Agronomic and morphological Characteristics of planting materials, bread

wheat varieties Registered/Released by EIAR

Bread wheat varieties registered/released by EIAR

SN Description Kakaba Ogelcho Fentale-2
Low Mid High From lower to upper
1 Adoptation area altitude Lowland- Mid altitude awash
1.1 Altitude (m.a.s.l.) 1500-2200 1600-2100 300-1200
1.2 Rain Fall (mm) 500-800 400-500
2 Seed rate (Kg ha-1) 150-175 125row,150 broadcast 80-100
3 Days to Heading 50-70 60 45
3 Days to Maturity 90-120 102 81
4 Spike length(cm) -- -- 8
5 Number of kernel/spike -- -- 39
6 1000 seed Weight (Grm) 39 26 40
7 Plant Height (cm) 85-100 70 72
8 Seed color White white white
9 Crop Yield (t ha-1)
9.1 Research Field 3.3-5.2 2.8-4.0 5.0-6.0
9.2 Farmer Field 2.5-4.7 2.2-3.5 4.0-4.5
10 Year of Release 2010 2012 2017
11 Breader/Maintainer KARC/EIAR KARC/EIAR WARC/EIAR

Source: MoANR Plant Variety release, Protection and seed quality Control Directorate.
Crop Variety Register Issue

24
3.4 Experimental Procedure

Field preparation and other agronomic practices were implemented following to the
released wheat production package. Field layout was prepared and each treatment was
assigned randomly to experimental plots. The plots were prepared as per the layout of the
design and leveled manually. The field was ploughed three times; the last ploughing was
used for seed covering in accordance with the specifications of the design. 0.80m wide
seed bed was prepared and the wheat seeds were drilled on 0.20m row spacing. And 0.40m
wider irrigation furrows were prepared manually on the middle and outer parts of the plot.
All broad leaf and grass weeds were removed by hand at early tillering, maximum tillering
and booting stages of growth. The irrigation water application method was surface
irrigation technique that applies through furrow with 10 days of interval using diesel
engine water pump. Harvesting was done manually using hand sickles at physiological
maturity of the crop. There was no pest incidence at the level of affected yield in the
experimental site.

The fertilizer application was based on the regional crop package (ARARI, irrigated wheat
production package, 2020) recommendation. In this regards blanket recommendation of
100 kg NPS ha-1 and 200 kg ha-1 Urea fertilizer is recommended for jawi district. All NPS
fertilizer rate with 2/3 of Urea was applied in rows prior to planting incorporated into the
soil. The remaining 1/3 of Urea was applied during tillering (35 day after emergence). In
such a way that, all agronomic practices was applied as per the recommendations

3.5 Methods of Data Collection

3.5.1 Phenological parameters

 Days to emergence (DE): Number of days from sowing up to the date of 50%
germination of the plant in a plot was recorded by visual observation.

25
 Days to heading (DH): The number of days from sowing up to a date when 50% of the
plants in a plot have produced spikes was recorded from each plot by visual
observation.

 Days to 90% physiological maturity (DPM): Days to physiological maturity were

recorded by counting the number of days from date of sowing to the date when 90% of
the plants changed green color to yellowish, lost its water content and attained to
physiological maturity or when grains were difficult to divide by thumb nail in each
plot. It also indicated senescence of the leaves as well as frees threshing of seeds from
the glumes when pressed between the thumb and the fore finger.

3.5.2 Growth parameter

 Plant height (PH cm): plant Height in centimeter was measured from ground level to
the top of the spike excluding the awns of 10 randomly taken plants from all
harvestable rows of the plot and recorded as the average height per plant.
 Spike length (SL cm): length was measured by calculating the average spike length of
10 random plant samples in the harvestable rows, following the measurement from its
base to the tip excluding awns which are subjected to determine number of kernels
per spike.

3.5.3 Yield parameter

 Number of total tillers per m2 (TNT): The total tiller populations were recorded from
five randomly taken sample counting of 1m row length in a plot and then converted to
1m2 to be reported as number of tillers per m2 per plot.

 Number of effective tillers per m2 (NET): The number of head bearing tillers
(effective tillers) was determined by counting the head bearing tillers from total tiller
populations in the net harvestable area per m2 at physiological maturity.

26
 Number of Kernels Per Spike (NKPS): The number of normal seeds in each spike was
recorded from 10 plants by which their spike length was measured and randomly
selected plants in each plot and averaged to represent number of normal (fully filled
grain) seeds per single spike.

 Thousand-kernel weight (TKW gram): It was determined by counting 1000 grains by

using an electronic automatic seed counter and weighing those counted kernels
sampled from the net plot using a sensitive balance of precision + 0.001g. The
thousand kernels weight was recorded after the grain was adjusted to 12.5% moisture
content by using Draminski Gmm mini quick moisture tester instrument.

 Above ground dry Bio Mass yield (BY t ha-1): The plants in the net plot area (that was
harvested for yield estimate) harvested at the point where they are attached to the
ground, collect and sun dried until the constant weight attained. Dried plants were
weighed to determine the biomass yield on plot basis and converted into hectare basis
to determine total biomass yield per hectare.

 Grain Yield (GY t ha-1): Grain yield was measured by taking the weight of the
grains threshed (after sun dried) from the net plot and converted to kilograms per
hectare after adjusting the grain moisture content to 12.5%. The moisture correction
factors was done by using the following formula:

Therefore, 12.5 % moisture adjusted grain yield = moisture correction factors X grain
yield obtained from each plot (Birru Abebe, 1979)

 Straw yield (SY t ha-1): Straw yield was calculated by subtracting grain yield from the
corresponding biomass yield. It was expressed as kg ha-1.

27
 Harvest index (HI %): Harvest index values of each treatment were computed as the
percent ratio of grain (economic) yield to the total biomass (straw +grain) yield per
plant from the respective treatments and expressed in percentile terms by using the

formula of Donald as,

3.6 Data Analysis

3.6.1 Statistical data analysis

Data were subjected to analysis of variance (ANOVA) using statistical procedures

described by Gomez and Gomez (1984) with the help of SAS statistical analysis software
version 9.4 (SAS Institute Inc, 2008). Normality was check using scatter plot technique.
Mean comparison was done using LSD when the ANOVA of the agronomic attributes was
significant at any probability level. With the same software, simple correlation analysis
was carried out to investigate the strength of the associations among grain yield, yield
traits and phenological parameters of the bread wheat. The value of r (correlation
coefficient) lies within the range of -1 and +1, with a value close to +1 or-1 represents a
strong linear relationship, a value of r close to zero means the linear relationship is very
weak and an intermediate value of r indicates the portion of variation in one variable that
accounted for by the linear function of the other variable. Regression analysis was also
conducted to determine grain yield and number of effective tillers of irrigated bread wheat
varieties in response to seeding rates.

3.6.2 Partial budget analysis

Partial budget analysis was conducted to explore the economic feasibility of the
treatments. Partial budget, dominance and marginal rate of return were performed
following the CIMMYT partial budget analysis methodology (CIMMYT, 1988). The
mean grain and straw yield data was adjusted down by 10% to make it more representative
with average yield obtained from farmers field and subjected to partial budget analysis.

28
The costs for the different seeding rates, labor cost for row making, drilling seed and
weeding varied according to their rates requirements being other costs were constant for
each treatment. Total costs that varied for each treatments was calculated and treatments
were ranked in order of ascending total variable cost (TVC) and dominance analysis was
used to eliminate those treatments costing more but producing a lower net benefit than the
next lowest cost treatment. The prices of the inputs that were prevailing at the time of their
use were considered for working out the cost of cultivation (Sale price of wheat grain ETB
24.20 kg-1; Cost of seed = ETB 3,300 per 100 kg for Fentale-2 and ETB 3,100 per 100 kg
for Ogelcho and Kakaba per 100 kg; Cost of harvesting, threshing, winnowing ETB 20 per
100 kg for each; Packing and material cost Birr 12.5 per 100 kg; Transportation Birr 12
per 100 kg-1 and labor cost ETB 200 per day per man) were considered and other input
costs used as constant for all treatments.

Net benefits per hectare were calculated by subtracting cost of production per hectare
(TVC) from gross benefit per hectare. Marginal rate of return was calculated as change of
net benefit divided by change of cost that was arranged based on TVC. By using the

equation, Where T2 and T1 are consecutive treatments

(T) arranged in ascending order based on their TVC after excluding treatments with low
NB and high TVC. A treatment which is non-dominated and having the highest net benefit
is said to be economically profitable (CIMMYT, 1988).

29
 Chapter 4 . RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

4.1 Effect of Variety and Seeding Rate on Phenological Parameters of Bread Wheat

4.1.1 Days to emergence:

The results of the analysis of variance showed that days to 50% emergence of bread wheat
was not significantly (P>0.05) affected by seeding rate, variety and their interaction effect
(Appendix Table 1).

4.1.2 Days to heading:

The results of the analysis of variance showed that the main effect of seeding rates and
variety had highly significant (p<0.01) effect on 50% days of heading. The interaction
effect of seed rate and variety also had a significant (P<0.05) effect on days to 50%
heading (Appendix Table 1).

Highest (63.70) days to heading was recorded when Ogelcho was planted with a seed rate
of 200 kg ha-1 followed by (62.83 days) when the same variety was planted with a seed
rate 175 kg ha-1 (Table 4.1). Variety Fentale-2 planted at the seed rate of 100 kg ha-1
followed by the same variety planted at the seed rate of 125 kg ha-1 reached earlier (46.33
and 46.67) days to heading as compared to the other treatments, respectively. However,
Fentaleb-2 planted at the seed rate of 125 and 150 Kg ha-1 gave statistically similar effect
on days to heading (Table 4.1).

The current results indicated that increasing seeding rates from 100 to 200 kg ha-1
increased number of days from sowing to heading from (46.33 to 50.33) for Fentale-2;
from (58.00 to 60.67) for Kakaba and from (58.67 to 63.70) for Ogelcho varieties along
with their particular combined seeding rates (Table 4.1). It could be resulted from
accessibility of ample resource that shortened intervals between the growth phases by
facilitating the physiological activities of crops due to the use of low seed rate in wheat ().

30
Differences in days to heading among varieties could be attributed to the genetic factor.
Hence, varieties exhibiting earliness for days to heading may have such an advantage in
lowland areas where moisture stress is an issue for wheat production (Mihratu Amanuel et
al., 2017).

Table 4.1. Interaction effect of seeding rate and variety on days to heading of bread wheat
during 2020/2021 irrigation season in Jawi District, Northwestern Ethiopia

Seed rate( kg ha-1)

Variety 100 125 150 175 200
i i h gh
Fentale-2 46.33 46.67 48.67 49.33 50.33h
Kakaba 58.00e 56.67f 58.67e 60.67d 60.67d
Ogelcho 58.67e 61.67cd 62.33bc 62.83ab 63.70a
LSD 1.14*
SE+ 0.42
CV (%) 1.21

Means followed by the same letter are not significantly difference among treatments CV
(%) = coefficient of variation in percent, SE+= standard error.

A similar result was reported by Shazma et al. (2015) as an increase in the seeding rate
from 120 to 150 kg ha-1 delayed the flowering and maturation of the wheat crop. Seleiman
et al. (2010) also reported that increasing seeding rates from 250 to 400 m-2 caused a
significant increase in the number of days to 50% heading in wheat. Khan et al. (2020)
reported varieties differed significantly for the number of days to heading or spike
emergence which varied from (40 to 74) days with the mean of (60.61) days to heading.
Their study result presented irrigated wheat varieties Fentale-2, Kakaba and Ogelcho
reach to heading less than 59 day at lowland areas of Arbaminch district which may be
consistent with the present results for Fentale-2 and Ogelcho varieties but against for
Ogelcho variety that took (65) days to heading. Furthermore, 44.66 days to heading was
reported by Bayisa Tadiyos et al. (2019) for variety Fentale-2. In contrast, Dalia (2016)
observed significant interaction effect among cultivars and seeding rates for days to

31
heading. On this regard tested variety Misr 1 recorded 100 days to heading with sowing
rates 200 seed m2, Meanwhile Sids-12 recorded 94 days under 350 seeds per m2. Amare
Assefa and Mulatu Kassfaye (2017) also reported that, plants have grown at the highest
seed rate (150 kg ha-1) attained early heading than the lower seed rate (100 kg ha-1 and 125
kg ha-1). Likewise, Gafaar (2007) found that increasing seeding rate from 200 up to 400
grains m-2 in wheat crop significantly decreased the number of days to 50% heading.

4.1.3 Days to 90% physiological maturity

The analysis of variance indicated that both the main effect of seeding rate and variety had
highly significant (p<0.01) effect on days to 90% physiological maturity. However the
interaction of seeding rate and variety showed non-significant effect on days to 90%
physiological maturity (Appendix Table 1).

Results of the study showed that Fentale-2 variety took significantly shorter time (81.96
days) to mature as compared to varieties Kakaba (96.70 days) and Ogelcho (97.93 days)
(Table 4.2). This result is in conformity with the result of Abebe Megersa et al. (2020)
who reported varieties had significant effect on days to 90% physiological maturity. Kahan
et al (2020) asserted from their study, Fentale-2, Kakaba and Ogelcho as earlier maturing
varieties taking (82 to 90) days to mature physiologically. According to Geng (1984), the
combined effect of genetic and environmental factors during growth and grain filling of
the crops caused differences in maturity. Regarding these, Rebetzke and Richards (1999)
proven that early-maturing variety of wheat had a higher yield than the medium- and late-
maturing varieties. Thus early matured variety Fentale-2 from the current result could be
advantageous in yield attributes to the lowland irrigated areas.

Maximum days to 90% physiological maturity (93.67days) were observed when irrigated
wheat was planted at a seeding rate of 200 kg ha-1 while minimum days to 90%
physiological maturity (90.67 days) was noted when irrigated wheat was planted a seeding
rate of 100 kg ha-1. Planting wheat at seeding rate 175, 150 and 125 kg ha-1 showed (92.50,
91.80 and 91.17) days to 90% physiological maturity respectively, which indicates that

32
they showed medium days to 90% physiological maturity (Table 4.2). As similar as days
to heading, the increment in seeding rate delayed physiological maturity of the irrigated
bread wheat. Treatments received lowest seeding rate (100 kg ha-1) reached physiological
maturity 3 days earlier than the highest seed rate (200 kg ha-1) (Table 4.2). Increasing
planting density per unit area enhances the competition to resource and due to this
competition the crops will suffer from starvation as a result of shortage of food prepared in
the leaf by the process of photosynthesis which leads to late maturity of the crop.

The results of this study is consistent with the results of Seleiman et al. (2010) who
reported increasing in seeding rates from 250 to 400 grains m-2 prolonged the number of
days from sowing to maturity of wheat. Khan et al (2002) also reported that, maximum
days to maturity were taken at the highest seeding rate of 150 kg ha-1 while minimum days
to maturity were recorded at the lowest seeding rate of 50 kg ha-1. However the present
result is in contrast to the conclusions of Amare Assefa and Mulatu Kassaye (2017), who
reported that increasing seed rate from 100 to 150 kg ha-1, hastens days to 90%
physiological maturity of bread wheat.

Table 4.2. Main effect of seeding rate and variety on Phonelogical and Growth parameters
of bread wheat during 2020/2021 irrigation season at Jawi District

Treatment DPM(Days) PH (cm) SL (cm)

Seeding rate (kg ha-1)
100 90.67d 81.51b 9.59a
125 91.17cd 81.31b 9.34a
150 91.80c 83.65ab 9.04ab
175 92.50b 85.60a 8.67bc
200 93.67a 85.90a 8.31c
LSD 0.74** 3.09* 0.61**
SE± 0.24 1.43 0.28
Variety
Fentale-2 81.97c 79.12c 9.03a
Kakaba 95.33b 88.11a 8.54b
Ogelcho 98.37a 83.04b 9.41a
LSD 0.43** 2.39** 0.47**
SE± 0.31 1.85 0.37
CV (%) 0.59 3.83 7.00

33
Means followed by the same letter are not significantly difference among treatments, CV
(%) = coefficient of variation in percent, SE+= standard error, DPM = days to 90%
physiological maturity,PH=plant height, SL=spike length and **=highly significant
difference at 1% probability level, LSD=Least significant difference

4.2 Effect of Variety and Seeding Rate on Growth Parameters of Bread Wheat

4.2.1 Plant height

The Analysis of variance for Plant height showed highly significant (P < 0.01) differences
among investigated varieties and significant (P < 0.05) among seeding rate. However their
interaction had no significant (P>0.05) effect on plant height (Appendix Table 1).

In this regard, variety Kakaba had produced the tallest plant height of (88.11 cm), while,
variety Fentale-2 produced the shortest plant height of (79.12 cm) whereas Ogelcho
produced the medium plant height of (83.04 cm) (Table 4.2). Kilic and Gursoy, (2010)
reported that the difference in plant height of the varieties could be ascribed to the
difference in their genetic makeup. Furthermore, in agreement with the current result,
Shahzad et al. (2007) reported the height of the crop is mainly controlled by the genetic
makeup of a genotype and it can also be affected by the agronomic practice and
environmental factors. There were highly significant variations among bread wheat
genotypes for plant height and ranged between (47.7 and 74.7 cm) with an average value
of (61.9 cm), as reported by Bayisa Tadiyos et al. (2019).

In case of seeding rates, although the result of this study asserted that plant height was
reduced very slightly at the highest seeding rates, the mean value of the data indicated that
increasing the seeding rate of wheat from 100 kg ha-1 to 200 kg ha-1 increased the height of
plant (81.51 cm to 85.89 cm) (Table 4.2). Tallest plant (85.90 cm) was observed at seeding
rate of 200 kg ha-1 however, statistically similar result was observed between 150 and 175
kg ha-1 seed rates while shortest plant (81.51 cm) was showed at seeding rate of 100 kg ha-
1
(Table 4.3). The increase in plant height due to increased seed rate may be the result of

34
the presence of increased competition for light as the plant population becomes denser. In
addition, increased plant density resulted in increased height of the plants, this is because
high plant density remains with minimum space for horizontal expansion of the plant and
increase the competition for light interception between plants drives upward growth
(Tewodros Ayalew et al., 2017).

This result is in line with Kilic and Gursoy (2010) finding which stated as greatest plant
height (103.8 cm) was observed with seed rate 550 seed m-2 while the shortest plant height
(96.7 cm) was recorded with 50 seed m-2 seed rate in two consecutive study years. On top
of them Sulieman et al. (2010) reported increase in the seeding rate resulted in a slight
increment in the heights of the plants. Abiot Mekonnen (2017) also reported as seeding
rate of bread wheat increased from the lowest (100 kg ha-1) to the highest (175 kg ha-1), the
height of the plant correspondingly increased from 76.86 to 81.76cm.

On the other hand, Toaima et al. (2000) and Rahel Tigabu and Fekadu Asfaw (2016)
concluded that, plant height was significantly decreased as seed rate increased in wheat
crop with the justifications of high competition among wheat plants for common resources
in contradiction of phototropic computation of plants. Moreover, Amare Assefa and
Mulatu Kassaye (2017) reported that the highest plant height (80.07 cm) was recorded
from 100 kg ha-1 seed rate whereas the lowest plant height (74.92 and 72.92 cm) was
recorded from a seed rate of 125 and 150 kg ha-1, respectively, which were statistically at
par with each other.

4.2.2 Spike length

In this investigation significant differences among variety and seeding rate were identified
for Spike length. The result showed that spike length was highly significantly (P<0.01)
affected by main effect of seeding rate and variety. However, the interaction effect of
variety and seed rate did not show significant influence on spike length (Appendix Table
1).

35
Planting irrigated wheat at various seeding rate showed difference in spike length. Tallest
spike length of (9.59 cm) was observed at those plots which received seeding rate of 100
kg ha-1, and it was statistically similar with (9.34) noted at a seeding rate of 125 kg ha-1.
The lowest spike length of 8.3cm was observed at those plots which received seeding rate
of 200 kg ha-1 (Table 4.2).

Spike of wheat acts as a major sink for dry matter accumulation (Demotes et al., 2001).
For this reason, plots received lower seeding rate kg ha-1 showed longer spike as compared
to higher seeding rate received plots. This might be due to more free space between plants
and less intra-plant computation for resources. The present finding is similar with Gafaar
(2007) who concluded increased sowing density from 200 up to 400 grains m-2
significantly decreased spike length of bread wheat. Furthermore, Mosalem et al. (2002)
reported that increasing seeding rates decreased the number of spikelet per panicle and
spike length of wheat plant. Similar with the present finding, Abiot Mekonnen (2017)
reported that spike length was very highly significantly affected by seeding rate. At a
lower seeding rate of 100 kg ha-1 spike length was higher compared to higher seeding rate
of 175 kg ha-1.

Regarding the variety, although it was statistically in parity the longest spike was (9.41cm)
of variety Ogelcho followed by (9.03) of variety Fentale-2. Whereas the significantly
shortest Spike length (8.54cm) was measured from Kakaba as compared to Ogelcho and
Fentale-2 varieties (Table 4.2). The result revealed that spike length of a plant in addition
to its inherent characteristics and environment, agronomic practices like determination of
seeding rate can be affect it. This result is similar to the result of Amare Assefa and
Mulatu Kassaye (2017) who concluded boldly that individual genotypes responded
differently to spike length for varying seeding rates in wheat from 100 to 150 kg seed ha-1.

4.3 Effects of Variety and Seeding Rate on Yield related Parameters of Bread Wheat

4.3.1 Total number of tiller per m2

36
Number of tillers is determining factor of the economic yield of most of the cereal crops
(Naveed et al., 2014). The analysis of variance showed that seeding rate highly
significantly (P<0.01), and variety significantly (P<0.05) affected number of total tillers
per m-2. However, non-significant effect was observed due interaction of seeding rate and
variety (Appendix Table 1).

Highest number of total tillers per m-2 (361.60) was observed at seeding rate of 200 kg ha-1
followed by (334.29) at the seeding rate of 175 kg ha-1. While less number of total tillers
per m-2 (279.33) was recorded at a seeding rate of 100 kg ha-1 (Table 4.4). Although the
number of total tiller per unit area was increased at higher seed rate received plots, the
number of total tillers per plant was slightly higher at lower seed rate as compared with
higher seed rates. Research result from Ahmad et al. (1999) supported the present result,
as higher seeding rates increased the number of tillers m-2 due to more plant population but
number of tillers per seedling (main plant) decreased with increased in seed rate. Thus,
results of this present study showed that increasing seeding rate kg ha-1 from 100 to 200
increases the number of total tiller by 23 % per m-2. Tillering capacity is increased with
enough moisture availability, increasing light and optimum nutrient availability during the
vegetative phase and it depends greatly upon varieties (Jamal Abdulkerim et al., 2015).

Relating to variety, the maximum number of total tiller per m-2 (330.58) was recorded on
Fentale-2 variety however, statistically similar result of total tiller m -2 (325.11) was
observed on variety Ogelcho while the minimum (301.17) number of total tiller per m-2
was recorded on Kakaba variety (Table 4.4). As the number of tiller per m-2 increased the
number of spike per plot will be increase. Thus, it could be attributed to harvest good yield
per unit area. The present finding is confirm with Matsuyama and Ookawa (2020) who
reported, the maximum tiller number m−2 decreasing as the seeding rate was reduced. Arif
et al. (2003) also observed that increased tillers with increase in seed rate. Baloch et al.
(2010) found that, different seed rates significantly increased the number of tillers, in
which, the use of 200 kg seed ha-1 produced higher number of tillers (311.8 m-2) closely
followed by 150 kg seed ha-1 with (306) number of tillers m-2. Kilic and Gursoy (2010)
also revealed that different seeding densities significantly affected the tiller/spikes per m2.

37
4.3.2 Number of effective tillers per m2

The analysis of variance indicated that the main effect of variety, seeding rate and the
interaction of variety and seed rates had highly significant effect (p<0.01) on the number
of effective tillers per m2 (Appendix Table 1).

Sowing variety Fentale-2 under seeding rate of 200 kg ha-1 showed greater effective tillers
per m2 (306.63) which are statistically in parity (302.43) with Ogelcho variety at the same
seeding rate. While, sowing variety Ogelcho Kakaba and Fentale-2 at a seed rate of 100 kg
ha-1 showed statistically similar lowest number of effective tillers per m2 (219.24, 215.1
and 220.53) respectively (Table 4.3). The result of this study showed that the number of
effective tillers per m2 increased linearly with the increasing seeding rate kg ha-1 in all
tested varieties.

Similarly Jamal Abdulkerim et al. (2015) reported that, the highest number of effective
tillers per 0.5 m row length (69.33) from the combination of variety Danda‟a and 200 kg
ha-1 seed rates while; the lowest numbers of effective tillers per 0.5 m row length (25.66)
from the combination of variety Digalu and 100 kg ha-1 seed rate. Sajjad et al. (2001)
revealed that different seeding densities as well as the varieties significantly affected the
total fertile tillers per unit area. They found highest productive tiller on Inqalab-91 variety
combined with 150 kg ha-1 seeding rate over the lowest seeding rate (100 kg ha-1).
Similarly, Nuru Seid and Taminaw Zewdie (2021) found the highest number of effective
tillers (49.33 tillers per 0.5m length row) from the seed rate of 150 kg ha-1 while lowest
number of effective tillers (19.67 tillers per 0.5m length row) at seed rate of 75 kg ha-1.
Khan et al. (2020) in their research result categorized Fentale-2 and Ogelcho which scored
437 and 423 tillers per m-2 respectively as third best effective tiller producer among 26
tested varieties. The data analysis of Kilic and Gursoy (2010) also shown that the number
of durum wheat effective tiller m-2 increased linearly with seeding rates increased in
agreement with the present result of this analysis.

38
Consequently, not all tillers produce spikes in wheat, and many tillers are aborted before
flowering (Gallagher and Biscoe, 1978). The number of productive tiller depends on
genotype, environment and strongly influenced by planting density. From the present
results, the greater number of effective tillers per unit area may be a result of the cultivar's
adaptation to the area at a defined sowing rate kg ha-1 compared with other varieties at the
same sowing rate. The increase in effective tillers due to increased sowing density is due
to the increase in the number of plants per plot and the maximum number of effective tiller
or spike per m2.

Table 4.3. Interaction effect of seeding rate and variety on Number of Effective Tillers m -2
(NET) of bread wheat during 2020/2021 irrigation season in Jawi District, Northwestern
Ethiopia

Seed rate (kg ha-1)

Variety 100 125 150 175 200
Fentale-2 220.53h 231.10g 265.67d 284.47b 306.63a
Kakaba 215.07h 233.77g 251.10e 263.13d 276.17c
Ogelcho 219.27h 221.60h 243.40f 276.17c 302.43a
LSD 6.86**
CV 1.61
SE+ 1.06

Means followed by the same letter are not significantly difference among treatments, CV
(%) = coefficient of variation in percent, LSD=Least significant difference, SE+ =
standard errors

Regression analysis showed that effective tiller of bread wheat significantly and positively
related to seeding rate (Figure 4.1). Increase the seeding rate correspondingly increases the
effective tiller per m-2 of irrigated bread wheat.

39
 Fentale-2
350 y = 7.165x + 61.583

Effective tillers per m2

R² = 0.9816
300
P<0.01
250
200 Kakaba
Ogelcho y = 7.014x + 59.132
150
y = 4.841x + 64.175 R² = 0.9392
100
R² = 0.9914
50
Fentale-2 Kakaba Ogelcho
0
100 125 150 175 200
Seeding rate Kg ha-1

Figure 4.1 Number of effective tillers of irrigated bread wheat in response to seeding rates
in 2020/2021 irrigation cropping seasons at jawi district, North Western Ethiopia

4.3.3 Number of kernels per spike

Analysis of data revealed that the main effect seeding rate and variety highly significantly
(p<0.01) affected number of kernels per spike, While non-significant effect was observed
due interaction of variety and seeding rate (Appendix Table 1).

Maximum number of kernels spike-1 (36.27) was obtained from the plot that received seed
rate of 100 kg ha-1and minimum number of kernels spike-1 (33.89) obtained from the plot
that received seed rate of 200 kg ha-1 (Table 4.4). However, there was no significant
difference showed among seeding rate of (125, 150 and 175 kg ha-1) for number of kernels
per spike recorded (34.98, 34.77 and 34.33) respectively. As the seed rate was increased
from 100 kg ha-1 to 200 kg ha-1, the number of spikes m-2 increased but the length of the
spike decreased and as a result the number of kernels per spike decreased by 6.6%. The
higher grain number obtained from the lowest seed rate can be attributed to distribution of
less nutrients, space and radiation among the higher number of plants per unit area and
consequently longer spike. The more light penetration through the plant canopy and at
higher plant density most grains would abort at early stage because of competition
between growing grains to absorb preserved matters. As the result low grains per spike
would be produced.

40
This study result is similar with El-Lattief (2014) who found consistent decrease in kernels
per spike with increasing seed rate kg ha-1. He found seeding 100 seeds m-2 (SR1)
produced the highest kernels per spike followed by 200 seeds m-2 (SR2) in two
consecutive testing years. Furthermore the result of this study is similar with the findings
of Amare Assefa and Mulatu Kassaye (2017) who testified that seed rates up to 150 kg ha–
1
gave the higher number of kernels per spike across varieties while seed rates of 175 and
200 kg ha–1 gave fewer kernels per spike. On the contrary, Iqbal (2012) reported
Maximum number of grains (45.27) per spike was observed at seeding rate of 150 kg ha-1
and minimum number of grains (42.13) per spike was recorded at seeding rate of 125 kg
ha-1.

The current result indicated that variety Fentale-2 produced the highest number of kernels
per spike (36.19) and Kakaba Produce medium number of kernel per spike (35.22) while
the smallest number of kernels per spike (33.13) was recorded from Ogelcho variety
(Table 4.4). Because of high competition under highest seed rate as the length of spike
decreased in parity, thus the number of kernel per spike would be decrease. These suggest
that the variable effect of the seeding rate kg ha-1 on grain number per spike between these
varieties was due to the effect on grain number per spikelet. Similarly significant
differences among varieties for number of kernel per spike were reported by other
researchers (Khan et al., 2020). The result of this study is in line with El-Lattief (2014)
who reported significant differences were found among varieties in terms of the number of
kernels spike-1. However, the current result is in contrast with Igor pirez et al. (2013) the
wheat genotypes did not influence the number of grains per ear obtained in distinct
seeding densities.

41
Table 4.4. Main effect of seeding rate and variety on yield related parameters of bread
wheat during 2020/2021 irrigation season at Jawi District

Treatments TNT NKPS BY(t ha-1) SY(t ha-1) HI (%)

Seeding rate (kg ha-1)

100 279.33d 36.27a 9.73 6.50b 29.9c
125 312.93bc 34.98b 9.84c 6.53b 31.02b
150 306.63c 34.77bc 10.50b 7.10a 31.21b
175 334.29b 34.33bc 10.81a 7.32a 32.03ab
200 361.59a 33.89c 10.98a 7.34a 32.94a
LSD 23.23** 0.93** 0.357*** 0.3737** 1.27*
SE± 1.83 0.43 0.166 0.173 0.59
Variety
Fentale-2 330.58a 36.19a 10.52a 6.81b 33.26a
Kakaba 301.17b 35.22b 10.15b 6.81b 31.01b
Ogelcho 325.11a 33.13c 10.50a 7.21a 29.81c
LSD 17.93* 0.72** 0.277** 0.2895* 0.98**
SE± 2.37 0.56 0.220 0.223 0.76
CV (%) 7.54 2.78 3.57 5.58 4.19

Means followed by the same letter are not significantly difference among treatments CV
(%) = coefficient of variation in percent, SE+= standard error, TNT=Total Number of
Tiller, NKPS= Number of Kernels per Spike, BY= Bio mass Yield, SY= Straw Yield, HI =
Harvest Index, *= Significant difference at 5%, **=highly significant difference at 1%
probability level and *** = very highly significant difference at 0.1% probability level,
LSD=Least significant difference

4.3.4 Biomass yield

Analysis of variance showed that seeding rate had very highly (P < 0.001) significant and
variety had highly (P<0.01) significant effect on biomass yield of irrigated bread wheat.
While non-significant effect was observed due to interaction of seed rate and variety
(Appendix Table 1).

Wheat plant sown at various seeding rate differed in biomass yield. Hence the maximum
biomass yield, (10.98 t ha-1) was obtained when wheat planted at seeding rate of 200 kg

42
ha-1 however; it was statistically at parity with the result (10.87 t ha-1) was obtained at
seeding rate of 175 kg ha-1. The minimum biomass yield (9.73 t ha-1) was obtained at 100
kg ha-1seeding (Table 4.4). Result of this study depicted that as application of seeding rate
kg ha-1 from 100 improved to 200, biomass yield of irrigated wheat become higher. The
increased biomass production might be the result of increased plant population, plant
height and straw yield ha-1 due to higher seeding rate.

This result is in line with Gafaar (2007) who concluded that the highest value of biological
yield was obtained with increasing seed rate up to 400 grains m-2 in wheat crop. In
addition, Ali et al. (2004) who noted that biological yield was increased by increasing
seeding rate in wheat crop. Moreover, Worku Awudie (2008) and Alemayehu Adinew
(2015) reported that total biological yield was highly significantly affected by the main
effect of seed rates. As seeding rate increase from 100 kg ha-1 to 150 kg ha-1, the total
biological yield increased.

Among three tested irrigated wheat varieties although the difference was statistically not
significant, variety Fentale-2 produced the highest biomass yield (10.52 t ha-1), while
variety Ogelcho produced the next highest biomass yield (10.50 t ha-1). Whereas Kakaba
variety produced lowest biomass yield (10.15 t ha-1) as compared to other tested varieties
(Table 4.4). The reason for highest biomass yield harvested from fentale-2 might be
related to its high number of total and effective tiller per m-2 (Table 4.2 and 4.3) which is a
result of varietal adoptability to the area and being newly improved variety. Regression
analysis release by Endeshaw Girma et al. (2019) showed that a positive association and
significant trend between mean of biomass yield and year of varietal releases which stands
in support of the current result.

4.3.5 Straw yield

Result of the analysis of variance indicated that the main effect of seed rate showed highly
significant (p<0.01) and variety showed significant (P<0.05) effect on straw yield.

43
However the interaction effect showed non-significant effect on straw yield of irrigated
bread wheat (Appendix Table 1).

Based on the result of data analysis the highest straw yield (7.34 t ha-1) was recorded at
seeding rate of 200 kg ha-1 however, it was statistically similar with the result (7.32 and
7.10 t ha-1) which were obtained at seeding rate of 175 and 150 kg ha-1 respectively. While
the lowest straw yield (6.50 t ha-1) was found when tested varieties planted at a seeding
rate of 100 kg ha-1 and it was statistically at parity with the result (6.53 t ha-1) of wheat
planted at a seeding rate of 125 kg ha-1(Table 4.4). This might be due to the fact that
higher seeding rates result in high plant population and taller plant height which resulted in
higher straw yield. This result is coincide with Seleiman et al. (2010) who reported that
increasing seeding rates up to 350 or 400 grains m-2 increased straw yield. Likewise,
Abiyot Mekonnen (2017) found that there was a linear increase in straw yield as the
seeding rate was increased.

In case of variety the highest straw yield (7.21 t ha-1) recorded on variety Ogelcho while,
the minimum statistically in parity straw yield (6.81 and 6.80 t ha-1) was recorded on
Kakaba and Fentale-2 variety respectively (Table 4.4). Similar result was reported by
Dalia (2016) who found tested variety Misr-1 recorded the highest values of straw yield
(5.83 and 5.27 t ha-1) in the first and second seasons, respectively while the lowest (5.2 and
4.3 t ha-1) was recorded on tested variety Sids-12 in two consecutive seasons. El-Lattief
(2014) also reported significantly higher straw yields ha-1 from variety Giza 168 than
variety Sohag 3.

4.3.6 Grain yield

Grain yield is the most important characteristic in any bread wheat evaluation program;
especially under high temperature stress (Bayisa Tadiyos et al., 2019). It is the final
product of all the growth and development processes during the life cycle of the crop.
From the current result of analysis variance seeding rate, variety and their interaction had
highly significant effect (P < 0.05) on grain yield kg ha-1 (Appendix Table 1).

44
Grain yield of irrigated wheat under lowland condition increases with increasing seeding
rate across the tested varieties. The highest grain yields (3.99 t ha-1) were obtained when
Fentale-2 was planted with the seeding rate of 200 kg ha-1, followed by (3.83 t ha-1) when
the same variety was planted with the seeding rate of 175 kg ha-1, while the lowest
statistically similar grain yield (3.11 and 3.10 t ha-1) were recorded when Kakaba and
Ogelcho variety planted at a seeding rate of 100 kg ha-1, respectively (Table 4.5). Tested
varieties Fentale-2 Kakaba and Ogelcho were influenced by the interaction effect of
varieties and plant populations. The difference in the grain yield of wheat varieties might
be due to the difference in their yield components like no of effective tillers, spike length,
kernels per spike, and thousand kernels weight which some of these are attested in this
study and showed significant effect.

The highest grain yield (3.99 t ha-1) recorded when Fentale-2 variety planted with the
seeding rate of 200 kg ha-1 is higher by (34% and 38.5%) than the national and regional
average rain fed wheat productivity (2.97 and 2.88 t ha-1), respectively (CSA, 2020).
However it was lower than that of irrigated wheat average productivity (4.0) and the crops
attainable yield (6.5 ton ha-1) asserted by Werer agricultural research center (EIAR, 2020).
The current result showed the maximum productivity of Kakaba (3.5 t ha-1) and Ogelcho
(3.44 t ha-1) varieties are not far apart from productivity range of the varieties under
farmers‟ field (2.5 to 4.7 and 2.2 to 3.5 t ha-1), respectively but lower than that of research
fields (3.3 to 5.2 and 2.8 to 4.0), respectively (MoANR, 2012; MoANR,2011). In case the
of Fentale-2 variety, although the result (3.99 t ha-1) was maximum when it compared with
Kakaba and Ogelcho, it was lower than the productivity range under farmers‟ irrigated
field (4.0 to 4.5 t ha-1) and research field (5.0 to 6.5 t ha-1) (MoA, 2019).

From the results of the present study it could be concluded that grain yield of irrigated
wheat increased from 3.5 to 3.99 t ha-1 with (12%) yield advantage for Fentale-2, from
3.11 to 3.5 t ha-1 with (11%) yield advantage for Kakaba and 3.10 to 3.44 ha-1 with (9%)
yield advantage for variety Ogelcho as the seeding rate was increased from 100 to 200 kg
ha-1. However, Kakaba variety did not show significant change after 175 kg seed ha-1. This

45
result implies that each bread wheat variety under irrigated conditions should be subject to
a separate recommendation according to its agronomic characteristics.

The maximum yield of Fentale-2 variety could be associated with high number of grains
per spike, 1000-Kernel weight and higher biomass yield, due to appropriateness of the
variety to the lowland area. Reduction in spike length, number of kernel per spike and
thousand kernel weights due to increment in seeding rate could be compensated by high
number of effective tiller/Spike number m-2. Therefore, number of effective tiller m-2 can
be considered as the most important component in determining grain yield. The partial
budgeting analysis showed that, the highest net benefit was obtained from the treatment
combination of variety Fentale-2 at a seeding rate of 200 kg ha-1, by using of the higest
seed rate with a highest cost of production (Table 4.7)

This result is similar to the finding of Laghari et al. (2011) who reported that varieties had
significant interaction with seed rate and different varieties responded differently to
varying seed rates. Highest grain yield, of 2.5 t ha-1 was produced by Bakhtawar-92 when
planted at the seed rate of 150 kg ha-1, while minimum grain yield of 1.56 t ha-1 was
recorded for Inqilab-91 when sowing was done at the rate of 50 kg ha-1(Khan et al., 2002).
Accordingly, El-Lattief (2014) found the highest values of grain yield (5.644 t ha-1) from
variety Giza 168 at a seeding rate of 300 m-2, whereas, the lowest grain yield (2.870 t ha-1)
was obtained from variety Sohag-3 at a seeding rate of 100 m-2. However, the lowest
seeding rate seeding 100 seeds m-2 treatment resulted in significant grain yield reduction of
26.0 % in two consecutive years.

The result of present study is similar with those of Dalia (2016) who reported highest grain
yield (4.13 t ha-1) was harvested from cultivar Sids-12 at the higher seeding rates 300
seeds m-2 with advantage of 17% more grain yield than those seeded at 200 seeds m-2 of
the same cultivar. Similarly, Hameed et al. (2003) reported that grain yield increased as
seed rate increased. Iqbal et al. (2020) concluded that, increase in seed rate improved the
grain yield of wheat by increasing the number of productive tillers per unit area that
support closely the result of current study. As a final point Haile Deressa et al. (2020)

46
reported 12.6% and 12.7% yield advantages resulted in seeding rates of 150 and 175 kg ha-
1
respectively over the lowest seeding rate on durum wheat.

Regression analysis showed that grain yield of bread wheat significantly and positively
related to seeding rate (Figure 4.2). Increase the seeding rate linearly increases the grain
yield of irrigated wheat (Figure 4.2).

Fentale-2
y = 7.165x + 61.583
4500 R² = 0.9816
4000 P<0.01
Grain Yield kg ha-1

3500
3000 Kakaba
2500 Ogelcho y = 7.014x + 59.132
2000 y = 4.841x + 64.175 R² = 0.9392
1500 R² = 0.9914
1000
500 Fentale-2 Kakaba Ogelcho
0
100 150 200
Seeding Rate Kg ha-1

Figure 4.2: Grain yield of irrigated bread wheat varieties in response to seeding rates in
2020/2021 irrigation cropping seasons at jawi district, Northwestern Ethiopia

4.3.7 Thousand Kernel weight

In this investigation analysis of the data indicated that main effect of seeding rate and
variety had highly significant (P<0.01) effect on thousand kernel weight while interaction
of seeding rate and variety show significant (P<0.05) effect on thousand kernel weight
(Appendix Table 1).

Highest thousand kernel weights (42.54g) were recorded when Fentale-2 was planted with
a seed rate of 100 kg ha-1 followed by statistically similar kernel weights (41.31g) and
(41.13g) when the same variety was planted with a seed rate of 125 and 150 kg ha-1
respectively. The lowest thousand kernel weight (34.77g) was measured when Kakaba

47
variety was planted at a seed rate of 200 kg ha-1 statistically parity (36.16) with Ogelcho at
the same seeding rate (Table 4.5).

The lowest kernel weight produced from highest seeding rate, regardless of the variety,
might be due to the high population density, which results in distribution of less nutrients,
space and radiation among the highest number of plants per unit area, competition between
nearby plants for nutrients and moisture. Whereas the difference in kernel weight among
cultivars was attributed to their inherent potential. Heavy seeds have advantages over
smaller seeds such as faster germination, more fertile shoots per plant, and higher grain
yields (Spilde, 1989). These advantages of heavier seeds are demonstrated when the crop
is grown under environmental stresses, particularly in drought (Mian and Nafziger, 1994).
Based on this Fentale-2 variety can be advantageous over Kakaba and Ogelcho varieties.
The current result regarding variety is in line with Khan et al. (2020) findings. Their
evaluation of wheat genotypes under lowland irrigated area of Arba Minch, confirmed that
varieties differed significantly for thousand grains weight varied from (42.3 to 18.3g)
which includes in the range Kakaba, Ogelcho and Fentale-2.

In the case of seeding rate, at lower seeding rate, plants distributed with notable space
between them. It enabled the leaves to have a better exposure to the light and ensured
active photosynthetic tissue throughout the grain filling stage. This resulted in
accumulation of sink and bigger individual seeds; hence, thousand kernel weights could be
increased. The current result is coincide with Jan et al. (2000) who reported that as the
seeding rate was increased, the number of plants emerged per unit area also increased but
thousand seed weight decreased in wheat crop. Similarly, Mehrvar and Asadi (2006)
concluded that, by increasing seed rate the thousand kernel weight was reduced in wheat.
Iqbal et al. (2010) indicated that lower seeding rates (125 kg ha-1) produced heavier grains
(40.74 g) than higher seeding rate (200 kg ha-1) that produced lighter (37.83 g) grains.

Furthermore Kahn et al. (2002) reported similarly significant interaction was observed
between seeding rate and variety on thousand kernel weight. They found that, the
maximum (45.29g) thousand kernel weights when their tested variety was planted at a

48
seed rate of 50 kg ha-1 while minimum (39.50g) thousand kernel weights was recorded on
their tested variety planted at a seed rate of 150 kg ha-1. The current study result is
inconsistent with the data of Veselinka et al. (2014), who reported that the weight of
thousand kernel increased by (2.4%) with an increase in the seeding rate for all genotypes
and years studied.

Table 4.5. Interaction effect of seeding rate and variety on Grain Yield and Thousand
Kernel Weights of bread wheat variety during 2020/2021 irrigation season at Jawi District

Grain yield (t ha-1) TKW (gm)

Seed rate
(kg ha-1)
Fentale-2 Kakaba Ogelcho Fentale-2 Kakaba Ogelcho

100 3.50de 3.11i 3.10i 42.54a 38.73cd 41.53ab

125 3.53cd 3.20hi 3.20hi 41.31ab 36.76ef 39.64bcd
150 3.64c 3.40efg 3.30gh 41.13ab 37.77def 36.53efg
175 3.83b 3.47de 3.35fg 40.20bc 38.40cde 36.57efg
200 3.99a 3.50de 3.44def 40.13bc 34.77g 36.16fg
LSD 0.109* 1.93*
SE+ 0.065 2.99
CV (%) 2.07 0.39

Means followed by the same letter are not significantly difference among treatments, CV
(%) = coefficient of variation in percent, LSD=Least significant difference, SE+ =
standard errors

4.3.8 Harvest index

The result of the analysis of variance revealed that main effect of variety highly
significantly (P<0.01) and seeding rate significantly (P<0.05) affected harvest index (%).
However, the interaction of seeding rate and variety show non-significant influence on
harvest index (Appendix Table 1).

Tested varieties (Fentale-2, Kakaba and Ogelcho) were significantly different from each
other. Variety Fentale-2 gave the highest harvest index of (33.26%) followed by Kakaba
49
(31.01%) while Ogelcho gave lowest (29.81%) compared to Fentale-2 and Kakaba
varieties (Table 4.4). The ability of a cultivar to convert the dry matter into economic yield
is indicated by its harvest index. The higher the harvest index value, the greater the
physiological potential of the crop for the converting dry matter to grain yield. The current
result of this study is in line with the results of El-Lattief (2014), who found that one of the
tested varieties (Giza 168) gave a significantly higher harvest index compared to the other
tested variety (Sohag 3) over two consecutive years of research. Jamal Abdulkerim et al.
(2015) also noted significant differences between cultivars in the bread wheat harvest
index.

From the current results it has been observed that, planting irrigated wheat at a seeding
rate of 200 kg ha-1 exhibited the maximum harvest index (32.63%) while planting irrigated
wheat at a seeding rate of 100 kg ha-1 showed the minimum harvest index (29.9%)
however, statistically similar medium result of harvest index (31.02 and 31.21%) were
observed at a seeding rate of 125 and 150 kg ha-1 respectively (Table 4.4). The highest
harvest index along with increased seeding rate could be due to an increase in biological
yield with a simultaneous increase in grain yield at a high seed rate. The result was in line
with Abiot Mekonen, (2017) who found the highest harvest index (38.15%) at relatively
highest seeding rate of 150 kg ha-1 and lowest harvest index (31.69%) at the seeding rate
of 100 kg ha-1 of tested bread wheat. Another researcher, Jamal Abdulkerim et al. (2015)
found that the seeding rate has a significant effect on the yield index, but it is the lowest
harvest index at the highest seeding rate. Non-significant effect of seeding rate on harvest
index of wheat in bed planting condition was reported by Mollah et al. (2009).

4.4 Correlation Analysis on Yield and Yield Related Parameters of Bread Wheat

Correlation analysis among growth parameters, yield and yield related traits is indicated in
Table 4.6.

Grain yield was positively and highly significantly correlated with spike length, thousand
kernel weights, total and effective number of tiller, biological yield, thousand kernels

50
weight, straw yield and harvest index shown in (Table 4.6). Among them, the most yields
correlated traits were harvest index followed by number of effective tiller, total number of
tiller, biological yield, spike length and 1000 grain weight. This indicates that value of
grain yield was significantly increasing with an increasing in number of effective tillers,
total number of tiller, spike length, biomass yield and thousand kernels weight and vice
versa. This is in line with Iqbal (2020) who showed positive relationship of yield with
tillers and Abiot Mekonnen (2017) who found that grain yield was positively and
significantly correlated with straw yield and harvest index. As grain yield is result of these
parameters, the current correlation analysis indicated that increasing these attributes,
invariably resulted increased in grain yield. Grain yield had a highly significant negative
correlation with days to heading and days to physiological maturity. This means that these
traits negatively influence the grain yield (Table 4.6).

Among growth parameters plant height had positive significant correlation with biomass
and straw yield. Along with increasing plant height, biomass production and straw yield
ha-1 could be increased. While negative significant correlation showed with thousand
kernel weight. Negative non-significant relationship of number of tillers with number of
kernel per spike indicated that increase in competition among tillers for available plant
resources. Moreover, the growth parameters number of effective tiller had positive
significant correlation with total number of tiller m-2, biomass yield, grain yield and straw
yield but negatively correlated with harvest index (Table 4.6).

51
 Table 4.6. Correlation Analysis of Bread Wheat Agronomic Parameters

DH DPM PH SL NET TNT NKPS BY GY SY TKW HI

DH 1
DPM 0.96*** 1
PH 0.75** 0.69** 1
SL -0.09ns -0.05ns -0.09ns 1
NET 0.06ns -0.03ns 0.28ns -0.49*** 1
TNT 0.01ns -0.08ns 0.27ns -0.26ns 0.69** 1
NKPS -0.723ns -0.66** -0.72** 0.02ns -0.34* -0.42** 1
BY 0.09ns -0.07ns 0.36* -0.31* 0.79** 0.63** -0.36* 1
GY -0.44** -0.54** -0.08ns 0.33* 0.76** 0.60** 0.08ns 0.66*** 1
SY 0.35* 0.31* 0.51* -0.20ns 0.59** 0.53*** -0.51** 0.86*** 0.31* 1
TKW -0.72** -0.69** -0.45** 0.36* -0.31* -0.12ns 0.52** -0.17ns 0.18* -0.31* 1
HI -0.52** -0.61** -0.293ns -0.31* -0.51** -0.39** 0.26ns -0.12ns 0.86*** -0.21ns 0.20ns 1

DE=days to emergence, DH=days to heading, DPM=days to 90% physiological maturity, PH=plant height, SL=spike length,
NET= number of effective tiller, TNT= total number of tiller, NKPS=number of kernels per spike, GY=grain yield, BY=biomass
yield, SY=straw yield, TKW=thousand kernel weight and HI=harvest index* =significant difference at 5% probability level,
**=highly significant difference at 1% probability level and *** =very highly significant difference at 0.1% probability level.

52
4.5 Partial Budget Analysis

The result of Partial budgeting analysis showed that the maximum net benefit (ETB
65,778.8 ha-1) was obtained from a combination of 200 kg ha-1 seeding rates with variety
Fentale-2 (Table 4.7). This has resulted in the net benefit advantage of birr 14,612.6, over
the least net benefit of (ETB 51,166.2 ha-1) a combination of 100 kg ha-1 seeding rates with
variety Ogelcho and birr 14,554.5, over the 2nd least net benefit of (ETB 51,224.3 ha-1)
from treatment combination of 100 kg ha-1 seeding rates with Kakaba variety. The second
most economical seeding rate and variety were 175 kg seed ha-1 with the same variety that
gave a net benefit value of 63,402.4 Birr ha-1 (Table 4.7). This has also resulted in the net
benefit advantage of birr 12,236.2, over the least net benefit of (ETB 51,166.2 ha-1) a
combination of 100 kg ha-1 seeding rates with variety Ogelcho and birr 12,178.1, over the
2nd least net benefit of (ETB 51,224.3 ha-1) from treatment combination of 125 kg ha-1
seeding rates with Kakab variety.

The marginal rate of return of none dominated treatments in Table 4.7 showed that a
positive marginal rate of return. According to CIMMYT (1988), experience and empirical
evidence have shown that for the majority of situations the minimum rate of return
acceptable to farmers will be between 50 and 100%, and it is better when the MRR was
>100 %. The result of current study reviled that treatment that received a combination of
200 kg ha-1 seeding rates with variety Fentale-2 (Fentale-2/200 kg ha-1) MRR was 224%.

53
 Table 4.7. Summary of partial budget analysis of bread wheat crop in 2021 in Jawi District, North west Ethiopia

Treatments (Seeding AGY (kg TVC (ETB NB (ETB Domin MRR

GB (ETB ha-1) Rank
rate by Variety) ha-1) ha-1) ha-1) ance (%)
Ogelcho/100 kg ha-1 2,792.9 67,589.2 16,423 51,166.2
Kakaba/100 kg ha-1 2,795.4 67,648.0 16,424 51,224.3
Fentale-2/100 kg ha-1 3,145.7 76,126.1 16,714 59,411.7 2816
Ogelcho/125 kg ha-1 2,880.4 69,704.7 17,621 52,084.0 D
Kakaba/125 kg ha-1 2,882.4 69,754.8 17,621 52,133.6 D
Fentale-2/125 kg ha-1 3,175.8 76,853.6 17,947 58,906.4 D
Ogelcho/150 kg ha-1 2,966.2 71,781.0 18,618 53,163.1 D
Kakaba/150 kg ha-1 3,063.2 74,128.2 18,643 55,485.2 D
Fentale-2/150 kg ha-1 3,273.6 79,221.9 18,998 60,224.4 36
Ogelcho/175 kg ha-1 3,017.8 73,025.5 19,606 53,419.3 D
Kakaba/175 kg ha-1 3,123.5 75,588.1 19,634 55,954.5 D
Fentale-2/175 kg ha-1 3,449.2 83,470.3 20,068 63,402.4 297 2
Ogelcho/200 kg ha-1 3,095.6 74,914.5 20,601 54,313.1 D
Kakaba/200 kg ha-1 3,149.9 76,226.3 20,615 55,610.8 D
Fentale-2/200 kg ha-1 3,591.3 86,908.5 21,130 65,778.8 224 1

AGY, ASY, GB, TVC, NB, D and MRR indicate: Adjusted grain yield, Adjusted straw yield, Gross benefit, Total variable cost, Net
benefit, Dominance and Marginal rate of return, respectively. Sale Price of Bread wheat= Birr 24.20/kg, Seed cost of bread wheat =
Birr 33/kg for Fentale-2 and Birr 31/kg for Ogelcho and Kakaba, man power needed for planting of bread wheat = 63, 65, 66,
67and 68 man days/ha, for 100, 125, 150, 175 and 200 kg ha-1 seeding rates respectively and labor cost/ man day= Birr 200 for
planting weeding and irrigating.

54
 Chapter 5 . CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 Conclusion

Results revealed both the main effects of seeding rate and variety affects most of growth
and yield related parameters of bread wheat except days to emergence. The interaction of
seeding rate and variety significantly affected days to heading, number of effective tillers,
grain yield and thousand kernels weight.

Planting Fentale-2, Kakaba and Ogelcho wheat variety with 200 kg seed ha-1, 175 kg seed
ha-1 200 kg seed ha-1, respectively gave the statistically significant highest grain yields
(3.99, 3.5 and 3.4 t ha-1, respectively) while the lowest grain yield (3.5.44, 3.11 and 3.10 t
ha-1) was recorded when variety Fentale-2, Kakaba and Ogelcho were planted with 100 kg
seed ha-1 respectively. However, 200 kg of seeds ha-1 of Fentale-2 variety turned out to be
high yielding and proved to be the most profitable combinations with a net benefit of
65,778.8 birr ha-1.

Spike length, number of kernels per spike and thousand kernels weight were significantly
decreased as seeding rate increased from 100 kg ha-1 to 200 kg ha-1. Although a denser
population is characterized by greater competition among plants for water, nutrients and
sunlight, lower seeding rates are not beneficial in terms of yield. Biomass yield, grain yield
and straw yield were significantly increased as the seeding rate was increased from 100 to
200 kg ha-1. The grain yield of irrigated wheat varieties was improved by increase in seed
rate and variety Fentale-2 performed better among all varieties. Increasing the seed rate
resulted in increase in number of tillers per unit area. Therefore, it can be conclude that,
increase in seed rate improved the grain yield of irrigated wheat by increasing the number
of productive tillers per unit area and could be exploit to improve the wheat productivity in
lowland irrigated areas of the region.

55
5.2 Recommendations

Planting wheat variety Fentale-2 and Ogelcho at a seeding rate of 200 kg ha-1 and and
Kakaba at a seeding rate of 175 kg ha-1 gave significantly higher productivity and
profitability and can be recommended for lowland irrigated areas of Jawi and similar agro
ecologies. However, to use these levels of seeding rate further research should be
conducted over locations and seasons with consideration of cost of production to reach at
conclusive recommendation. And also since the production system is relatively, new, this
reach should be repeated under different irrigation methods, wheat row spacing and
fertilizer rates.

56
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APPENDICES

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 Appendix Table 1. Means square of ANOVA for Phynological, Growth, Yield and Yield
related parameters of bread wheat Crop Varieties in 2020/2021 irrigation season at Jawi
District

Source of variation

Parameters Seeding rate

Replication Seeding rate Variety ERROR CV
x variety
(DF=2) (DF=4) (DF=2) (DF=28) (%)
(DF=8)
DE (Days) 0.20ns 0.92ns 2.06ns 0.54ns 1.15 17.69
DH (Days) 0.40ns 24.81** 765.60** 2.07* 0.47 1.21
DPM (Days) 0.44ns 12.46** 1152.61** 0.54ns 0.29 0.59
PH (CM) 0.43ns 42.24* 274.18** 4.50ns 10.3 3.84
SL (CM) 0.036ns 2.37** 2.83** 0.36ns 0.40 7.00
TNT 103.93ns 8574.16** 3669.40* 581.23ns 578.7 7.54
NET 29.92ns 9071.59** 734.19** 234.75** 16.83 1.61
BY (Kg/Ha) 0.031ns 2.97*** 0.64** 0.22ns 0.14 3.57
GY(Kg/Ha) 0.0023ns 0.26** 0.78** 0.01* 0.05 2.07
SY Kg/Ha) 0.02ns 1.51** 0.81* 0.17ns 0.15 5.58
HI (%) 0.188ns 9.77* 45.95** 2.04ns 1.73 4.19
NKPS 1.25ns 7.24** 36.83** 0.42ns 0.94 2.78
TKW(gram) 1.32ns 17.2** 60.35** 4.21** 1.34 3.00

DE=days to emergence, DH=days to heading, DPM=days to 90% physiological maturity,

PH=plant height, SL=spike length, NET= number of effective tiller, TNT= total number of
tiller, NKPS=number of kernels per spike, GY=grain yield, BY=biomass yield, SY=straw
yield, TKW=thousand kernel weight and HI=harvest index, CV%= Coefficient of
Variance, SE+ =standard error, DF= Degree of Freedom, * =significant difference at 5%
probability level, **=highly significant difference at 1% probability level and *** =very
highly significant difference at 0.1% probability level.

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Appendix Table 2. List of released wheat varieties recommended for irrigated areas

S Variety Type Year of Maturity Yield

N Release days (t/ha)
1 Gaambo Irrigated 2011 85 4.5-5.0
2 Lucy Irrigated 2013 81 4.0-5.0
3 Werer-2 Irrigated 2013 82 4.0-4.5
4 Fentale-1 Irrigated 2015 82 5.0-5.7
5 Amibera-1 Irrigated 2015 90 5.0-5.1
6 Fentale-2 Irrigated 2017 81 5.5-6.5
7 Amibera-2 Irrigated 2017 79 5.0-6.0
8 Dandaa All season 2012 115 3.0-3.3
9 Kakaba All season 2010 106 2.9-3.1
10 Tay All season 2005 115 2.5-6.1
11 Ogelcho All season 2012 102 3.3-5.0
12 Kingbird All season 2015 144 4.6-6.3

Appendix Table 3. Trends of irrigated wheat production 2012/13-2019/2020 consecutive

years

Production year Area covered Productivity (t/ha) Total production (ton)

2012/13 1 2.90 2.9
2013/14 3 3.80 11.6
2014/15 30 4.20 126.0
2015/16 58 3.70 213.7
2016/17 109 2.90 316.7
2017/18 804 3.70 3,029.8
2018/19 3,502 4.40 15,400.0
2019/20 20,000 3.00 600,000
Nd =no data
Source: EIAR (2020) and MoA (2021) Irrigation-based Wheat Production:

74
Appendix Figure 1. Field layout of treatments

75
 6,000,000

5,000,000
Production (ton)
4,000,000

3,000,000

2,000,000 Area (ha)

1,000,000 Production (ton)

Production Year

Appendix Figure 2. Five years wheat production trends of Ethiopia (source FAOSTAT,
2021)

1.8
Amount of Wheat imported tons

1.6
1.4
1.2
1
0.8 Imports (Million tons)
0.6 Groth Rate (%)
0.4
0.2
0
2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022
Marketing Year

Appendix Figure 3. Amount of wheat imported during the past 5 years (source FAOSTAT,
2021)

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Picture pack1: site preparation, layout, sowing and plant emergence January 5-22/2021

Picture Pack2: While Advisor visiting the research plots March 6, 2021

77
Picture: data collection through vegetative growth maturity and harvesting from March 10
- April 25/2021

Appendix Figure 4. Pictures taken through site preparation to harvesting of, irrigated
wheat evaluation of seeding rate on three varieties, Jawi district, NorthWestern Ethiopia

78
 AUTHOR’S BIOGRAPHY

The author, Solomon Shigedib Kebede was born in 1984 at Lay Armachiho District of North
Gondar Zone Amhara Regional State of Ethiopia. He attended primary and secondary
education at Limat Ber Primary and Junior Secondary School from 1990 to 1998. He pursued
senior secondary high school education (9th -10th grade) at Limat Ber Senior Secondary School
from 1999 to 2000. In September 2001, he joined Mertulemariam TVET College of
Agriculture.

In November 2003, he graduated with Diploma in Agriculture (Plant Sciences). After

graduation, he was employed in Ministry of Agriculture in Amhara Regional State and served
the organization at Quara District in Agricultural Development Office of North Gondar Zone
as a Junior Crop Production and Protection Expert. After two years of service, he then joined
Bahir Dar University College of Agriculture and Environmental Sciences in 2006 and
graduated with the Degree of Bachelor of Science in plant Science in 2010. After completion
of the under graduate Degree, he relocated to North Gondar, Metema District Trade and
transport office in 2011 and worked for three years as crop marketing expert.

After that, he relocated and worked in North Gondar Zone, as urban agricultural expert for two
and half years until 2015. From this year onwards he is working for Amhara Regional State
Plant and other Agricultural Input Quality Control Authority as seed quality inspection expert.
And In October 2019 he got an opportunity to join Bahir Dar University to pursue his post
graduate study.

79