Applied Physics

Lab Manual

Submitted MuhammadAbdul R
by afae
Roll 2024-AU-013
Number
Semester Fall 2024

Submitted to Sir Nasir

Department of Automotive Engineering Technology

 Applied Physics Lab 1
EXPERIMENT 1
CAPACITORS IN SERIES

1. OBJECTIVE:
The objective of this experiment is to measure the equivalent capacitance of several
capacitors connected in series. First the individual capacitances and their equivalent will be
measured. Then we will charge the capacitors by connecting the combination to a battery and then
measuring the voltage across each capacitor. This will allow us to calculate the charge on the
capacitors and then calculate the equivalent capacitance using the equation C = Q/V.

2. INTRODUCTION:
A capacitor consists of two conducting objects (Plates) separated by a non-conducting medium
(dielectric). Figure (1) shows a capacitor connected to a battery. The capacitance of this capacitor is
defined as the ratio of the magnitude of the charge on one of the conducting plates to the potential
difference across them.

C = Q/V (1)

The SI unit of capacitance is the Farad (F), named after Michael Faraday (1791-1867). Since
capacitance is the charge per unit voltage, one farad is one coulomb per one volt.

1F = 1C/1V (2)

Figure 1: Capacitor connected to a battery

Capacitors may be combined in series or parallel. Figure (2) shows three capacitors connected in series and
connected to a battery. Note the polarity in each case. Theoretically the equivalent capacitance for the series
connection is given by.

= …….. (3)

3. APPARATUS:

3 capacitors of different values, 6-volt battery, voltmeter, multi-meter and connecting wires (leads).

4. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE:
 Make sure that each capacitor is discharged (V=0) by connecting a wire lead across the capacitor for
about 30 seconds.
 Use the multi-meter to measure the capacitance of each capacitor. Record the values in your data
table.
 Make sure each of the capacitors is still discharged by repeating the first step here.
 Wire the capacitors in series as shown in Fig. (2) (but do not connect them to the battery). Pay close
attention to the polarity of the capacitors and the way they are connected. The capacitors used un this
experiment are electrolytic capacitors and the polarity of the plates is important. Make sure the ends
of the lead wires do not come in contact with each other.

Figure 2: Capacitors In Series

  Using a multi-meter, measure the capacitance of the series combination(connect the meter to the
free ends). This is Ceq, measured.
 Connect the battery to the series combination of capacitors.
 Measure the voltage across each capacitor and the battery voltage and record these values in your
data table. You are finished with the series combination.

5. ANALYSIS:

Series Connection:

 For each case calculate the charge on each capacitor using the relation Q1 = CiVi where i = 1,2,3.
 The values of the charges should be the same within the limits of experimental error. Find the
average value of the charge.

This is the charge on the equivalent capacitor.

 Calculate the experimental equivalent capacitance C eq = Qave/Vbatt and record it in the data
table.
 Use eq. (2) to calculate the equivalent capacitance predicted my theory, C eq, predicted and
record it in the data table.
 Calculate the percent difference between the equivalent capacitance predicted by theory and
the measured equivalent capacitance.

 Calculate the percent difference between the equivalent capacitance predicted by theory and
the measured equivalent equivalent capacitance, Ceq.
6. QUESTIONS
 For each connection, calculate the amount of energy stored in each of the three capacitors.
Add up these energies to get the total energy stored in each of the series and parallel.
 Calculate the amount of energy stored in the equivalent capacitance and show that this energy
is equal to the sum of the energies stored in the individual capacitors for the series and
parallel connections.
 Which way should capacitors be connected to give you the largest amount of energy stored.
7. DATA TABLE

SERIES CONNECTION

Capacitance Voltage Charge

C V Q
(mF) (Volts) (mC)

Ceq = Vbatt = Qave =

Ceq. Measured =
Ceq. Predicted =
 Applied Physics Lab 2
EXPERIMENT 2
CAPACITORS IN SERIES (2 Capacitors)

8. OBJECTIVE:
The objective of this experiment is to measure the equivalent capacitance of several
capacitors connected in series. First the individual capacitances and their equivalent will be
measured. Then we will charge the capacitors by connecting the combination to a battery and then
measuring the voltage across each capacitor. This will allow us to calculate the charge on the
capacitors and then calculate the equivalent capacitance using the equation C = Q/V.

9. INTRODUCTION:
A capacitor consists of two conducting objects (Plates) separated by a non-conducting medium
(dielectric). Figure (1) shows a capacitor connected to a battery. The capacitance of this capacitor is
defined as the ratio of the magnitude of the charge on one of the conducting plates to the potential
difference across them.

C = Q/V (1)

The SI unit of capacitance is the Farad (F), named after Michael Faraday (1791-1867). Since
capacitance is the charge per unit voltage, one farad is one coulomb per one volt.

1F = 1C/1V (2)

Figure 1: Capacitor connected to a battery

Capacitors may be combined in series or parallel. Figure (2) shows three capacitors connected in series and
connected to a battery. Note the polarity in each case. Theoretically the equivalent capacitance for the series
connection is given by.

= (3)

10. APPARATUS:

3 capacitors of different values, 9-volt battery, voltmeter, multi-meter and connecting wires (leads).

11. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE:

 Make sure that each capacitor is discharged (V=0) by connecting a wire lead across the capacitor for
about 30 seconds.
 Use the multi-meter to measure the capacitance of each capacitor. Record the values in your data
table.
 Make sure each of the capacitors is still discharged by repeating the first step here.
 Wire the capacitors in series as shown in Fig. (2) (but do not connect them to the battery). Pay close
attention to the polarity of the capacitors and the way they are connected. The capacitors used un this
experiment are electrolytic capacitors and the polarity of the plates is important. Make sure the ends
of the lead wires do not come in contact with each other.

Figure 2: Capacitors In Series

  Using a multi-meter, measure the capacitance of the series combination (connect the meter to the
free ends). This is Ceq, measured.
 Connect the battery to the series combination of capacitors.
 Measure the voltage across each capacitor and the battery voltage and record these values in your
data table. You are finished with the series combination.

12. ANALYSIS:

Series Connection:

 For each case calculate the charge on each capacitor using the relation Q1 = CiVi where i = 1,2,.
 The values of the charges should be the same within the limits of experimental error. Find the
average value of the charge.

This is the charge on the equivalent capacitor.

 Calculate the experimental equivalent capacitance C eq = Qave/Vbatt and record it in the data
table.
 Use eq. (2) to calculate the equivalent capacitance predicted my theory, C eq, predicted and
record it in the data table.
 Calculate the percent difference between the equivalent capacitance predicted by theory and
the measured equivalent capacitance.

 Calculate the percent difference between the equivalent capacitance predicted by theory and
the measured equivalent equivalent capacitance, Ceq.
13. QUESTIONS
 For each connection, calculate the amount of energy stored in each of the three capacitors.
Add up these energies to get the total energy stored in each of the series and parallel.
 Calculate the amount of energy stored in the equivalent capacitance and show that this energy
is equal to the sum of the energies stored in the individual capacitors for the series and
parallel connections.
 Which way should capacitors be connected to give you the largest amount of energy stored.
14. DATA TABLE

Capacitance Voltage Charge

C V Q
(mF) (Volts) (mC)

Ceq = Vbatt = Qave =

Ceq. Measured =
Ceq. Predicted =
 Applied Physics Lab 3
EXPERIMENT 3
CAPACITORS IN SERIES (3 Capacitors)

15. OBJECTIVE:
The objective of this experiment is to measure the equivalent capacitance of several
capacitors connected in series. First the individual capacitances and their equivalent will be
measured. Then we will charge the capacitors by connecting the combination to a battery and then
measuring the voltage across each capacitor. This will allow us to calculate the charge on the
capacitors and then calculate the equivalent capacitance using the equation C = Q/V.

16. INTRODUCTION:
A capacitor consists of two conducting objects (Plates) separated by a non-conducting medium
(dielectric). Figure (1) shows a capacitor connected to a battery. The capacitance of this capacitor is
defined as the ratio of the magnitude of the charge on one of the conducting plates to the potential
difference across them.

C = Q/V (1)

The SI unit of capacitance is the Farad (F), named after Michael Faraday (1791-1867). Since
capacitance is the charge per unit voltage, one farad is one coulomb per one volt.

1F = 1C/1V (2)

Figure 1: Capacitor connected to a battery

Capacitors may be combined in series or parallel. Figure (2) shows three capacitors connected in series and
connected to a battery. Note the polarity in each case. Theoretically the equivalent capacitance for the series
connection is given by.

= …….. (3)

17. APPARATUS:

3 capacitors of different values, 9-volt battery, voltmeter, multi-meter and connecting wires (leads).

18. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE:

 Make sure that each capacitor is discharged (V=0) by connecting a wire lead across the capacitor for
about 30 seconds.
 Use the multi-meter to measure the capacitance of each capacitor. Record the values in your data
table.
 Make sure each of the capacitors is still discharged by repeating the first step here.
 Wire the capacitors in series as shown in Fig. (2) (but do not connect them to the battery). Pay close
attention to the polarity of the capacitors and the way they are connected. The capacitors used un this
experiment are electrolytic capacitors and the polarity of the plates is important. Make sure the ends
of the lead wires do not come in contact with each other.

Figure 2: Capacitors In Series

  Using a multi-meter, measure the capacitance of the series combination (connect the meter to the
free ends). This is Ceq, measured.
 Connect the battery to the series combination of capacitors.
 Measure the voltage across each capacitor and the battery voltage and record these values in your
data table. You are finished with the series combination.

19. ANALYSIS:

Series Connection:

 For each case calculate the charge on each capacitor using the relation Q1 = CiVi where i = 1,2,3.
 The values of the charges should be the same within the limits of experimental error. Find the
average value of the charge.

This is the charge on the equivalent capacitor.

 Calculate the experimental equivalent capacitance C eq = Qave/Vbatt and record it in the data
table.
 Use eq. (2) to calculate the equivalent capacitance predicted my theory, C eq, predicted and
record it in the data table.
 Calculate the percent difference between the equivalent capacitance predicted by theory and
the measured equivalent capacitance.

 Calculate the percent difference between the equivalent capacitance predicted by theory and
the measured equivalent equivalent capacitance, Ceq.
20. QUESTIONS
 For each connection, calculate the amount of energy stored in each of the three capacitors.
Add up these energies to get the total energy stored in each of the series and parallel.
 Calculate the amount of energy stored in the equivalent capacitance and show that this energy
is equal to the sum of the energies stored in the individual capacitors for the series and
parallel connections.
 Which way should capacitors be connected to give you the largest amount of energy stored.
 DATA TABLE SERIES CONNECTION

21. Capacitance Voltage Charge

C V Q
(mF) (Volts) (mC)

Ceq = Vbatt = Qave =

Ceq. Measured =
Ceq. Predicted =

Applied Physics Lab 4

EXPERIMENT 4
CAPACITORS IN PARALLEL (2 Capacitors)
OBJECTIVE:
The objective of this experiment is to measure the equivalent capacitance of several capacitors in
parallel. First the individual capacitances and their equivalent will be measured. Then we will charge the
capacitors by connecting the combination to a battery and then measuring the voltage across each capacitor.
This will allow us to calculate the charges on the capacitors and then calculate the equivalent capacitance
using the equation C = Q\V.
INTRODUCTION:
A capacitor consists of two conducting objects (plates) separated by a non-conducting medium.
Figure (1) shows a capacitor connected to a battery. The capacitance of this capacitor is defined as the ratio
of the magnitude of the charge on one of the conducting plates to the potential difference across them.

Figure 1: Capacitor connected to a battery

Capacitor combined in parallel. Two capacitors connected in parallel and connected to a battery. Note the
polarity in each case. Theoretically the equivalent capacitance for the series connection is given by

APPARATUS:
2 capacitors of different values, 9-volt battery, voltmeter, capacitance meter and connecting wires (leads).

EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE:
 Make sure that each capacitor is discharged (V=0) by connecting a wire lead across the capacitor for
about 30 seconds.
 Use the capacitance meter to measure the capacitance of each capacitor. Record the values in your
data table.
 Make sure each capacitor is still discharged by repeating step 1.
 Disconnect the capacitors, discharge each capacitor as you did before and wire the circuit in parallel
(but do not connect the battery).
 Using the capacitance meter, measure the capacitance of parallel combination this is Ceq. measured.
 Connect the battery to parallel combination of capacitors.
 Measure the voltage across each capacitor and the voltage across the battery and record in your data
table.
  Show your data to the instructor or the lab assistant to make sure your data is ok. If so, you are
finished with the experimental procedure.
DIAGRAM:

Figure 2: Capacitors in parallel

ANALYSIS:
Parallel connection:
 For each case calculate the charge on each capacitor.
 Calculate the total charge. O.total = Q1+Q2
 Calculate the experiment equivalent capacitance Ceq = and record it in the data table.
 Use the above equation to calculate the equivalent capacitance predicted by theory, (Ceq. Predicted)
and record it in the data table.
 Calculate the percent difference between the equivalent capacitance predicted by theory and
measured equivalent capacitance.

 Calculate the percent difference between the equivalent capacitance predicted by theory and the
experimental equivalent capacitance, Ceq.

MATHIMATICAL FORMULAE:
 Equivalent Capacitance Ceq= C1 + C2
 Charges Across the capacitors Qtotal = Q1+Q2
 Equivalent Capacitance
 Percentage Difference

EXPERIMENT DATA TABLE

Capacitance Voltage Charge

C V Q
(mF) (Volts) (mC)
C1= V1= Q1=
C2= V2= Q2=
 Ceq= Vbatt = Qtotal =

Ceq measured =
Ceq predicted =

Applied Physics Lab 5

EXPERIMENT 5
CAPACITORS IN PARALLEL (3 Capacitors)
OBJECTIVE:
The objective of this experiment is to measure the equivalent capacitance of several capacitors in
parallel. First the individual capacitances and their equivalent will be measured. Then we will charge the
capacitors by connecting the combination to a battery and then measuring the voltage across each capacitor.
This will allow us to calculate the charges on the capacitors and then calculate the equivalent capacitance
using the equation C = Q\V.
INTRODUCTION:
A capacitor consists of two conducting objects (plates) separated by a non-conducting medium.
Figure (1) shows a capacitor connected to a battery. The capacitance of this capacitor is defined as the ratio
of the magnitude of the charge on one of the conducting plates to the potential difference across them.
 Figure 1: Capacitor connected to a battery

Capacitor combined in parallel. Two capacitors connected in parallel and connected to a battery. Note the
polarity in each case. Theoretically the equivalent capacitance for the series connection is given by
+ C3
APPARATUS:
3 capacitors of different values, 9-volt battery, voltmeter, capacitance meter and connecting wires (leads).

EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE:
 Make sure that each capacitor is discharged (V=0) by connecting a wire lead across the capacitor for
about 30 seconds.
 Use the capacitance meter to measure the capacitance of each capacitor. Record the values in your
data table.
 Make sure each capacitor is still discharged by repeating step 1.
 Disconnect the capacitors, discharge each capacitor as you did before and wire the circuit in parallel
(but do not connect the battery).
 Using the capacitance meter, measure the capacitance of parallel combination this is Ceq. measured.
 Connect the battery to parallel combination of capacitors.
 Measure the voltage across each capacitor and the voltage across the battery and record in your data
table.
 Show your data to the instructor or the lab assistant to make sure your data is ok. If so, you are
finished with the experimental procedure.
DIAGRAM:
 Figure 2: Capacitors in parallel

ANALYSIS:
Parallel connection:
 For each case calculate the charge on each capacitor.
 Calculate the total charge. O.total = Q1+Q2+Q3
 Calculate the experiment equivalent capacitance Ceq = and record it in the data table.
 Use the above equation to calculate the equivalent capacitance predicted by theory, (Ceq. Predicted)
and record it in the data table.
 Calculate the percent difference between the equivalent capacitance predicted by theory and
measured equivalent capacitance.

 Calculate the percent difference between the equivalent capacitance predicted by theory and the
experimental equivalent capacitance, Ceq.

MATHIMATICAL FORMULAE:
 Equivalent Capacitance Ceq= C1 + C2 + C3
 Charges Across the capacitors Qtotal = Q1+Q2+Q3
 Equivalent Capacitance
 Percentage Difference

EXPERIMENT DATA TABLE

Capacitance Voltage Charge

C V Q
(mF) (Volts) (mC)
C1= V1= Q1=
C2= V2= Q2=
C3= V3= Q3=
Ceq= Vbatt = Qtotal =
Ceq measured =
Ceq predicted =
 Applied Physics Lab 6
EXPERIMENT 5
To study the variation of photoelectric current with intensity of incident light using photocell:
Photoelectric Effect: (OBJECTIVE)

The photoelectric effect is a phenomenon in which electrons are ejected from the surface of a metal
when light is incident on it. These ejected electrons are called photoelectrons. It is important to note that the
emission of photoelectrons and the kinetic energy of the ejected photoelectrons is dependent on the
frequency of the light that is incident on the metal surface. The process through which photoelectrons are
ejected from the surface of the metal due to the action of light is commonly referred to as photoemission.

The photoelectric effect occurs because the electrons at the surface of the metal tend to absorb energy
from the incident light and use it to overcome the attractive forces that bind them to the metallic nuclei. An
illustration detailing the emission of photoelectrons as a result of the photoelectric effect is provided below.
APPARATUS:

Wooden box with moving lamp inside the box and photocell at one end of the box. Ammeter, etc.

DIAGRAM:

FIGURE 1: DIAGRAM OF PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT

PROCEDURE:

 The negative terminal of the battery was connected to cathode of the photo cell C. The anode A of
the photocell C was connected to the positive terminal of the battery through a key.
 When switched on the lamp, the light fell on cathode and it emitted electrons. Since cathode was
negatively charged therefore, it repelled the electrons and emitted them towards anode, the positive
terminal of the photocell. The movement of electrons from cathode to anode produced photoelectric
current in the circuit.
 When the apparatus is well arranged and photoelectric current is being produced, change the distance
of the lamp from cathode of photocell and noted down the new distance. While changing the
distance, checked the deflection in the micro ammeter. Note down the reading of deflection of Micro
ammeter. The relation between intensity of illumination and distance is as follows

It means that the intensity of light is inversely proportional to the square of distance. Since we are
taking the readings of distance and galvanometer therefore, this formula could be used to determine the
intensity of light.

 Similarly take 10 readings of the galvanometer by changing the distance in the regular steps.
 After taking all readings, plot a graph between 1/d^2 and theta, which is the deflection.
GRAPH TABLE:

Relationship between distance and

photoelectric effect current
0.7

0.6

0.5

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

0
0 0.002 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.01 0.012

TABLE:

SR# Distance Current D2 1/d2

(cm) I
(mA)
1 55 0.07 3025 0.00033
2 50 0.08 2500 0.0004
3 45 0.09 2025 0.00049
4 40 0.10 1600 0.00062
5 35 0.12 1225 0.00081
6 30 0.16 900 0.0011
7 25 0.20 625 0.0016
8 20 0.27 400 0.0025
9 15 0.39 225 0.0044
10 10 0.63 100 0.01
RESULT:

As the distance decreases the value of the photoelectric current increases. Meaning the photoelectric
current is inversely proportional to the square of the distance.