Eur J Echocardiography (2001) 2, 8–21

doi:10.1053/euje.2000.0066, available online at http://www.idealibrary.com on

GUIDELINES FROM THE WORKING GROUP

Recommendations for Performing Transoesophageal
Echocardiography
F. A. Flachskampf*1, P. Decoodt2, A. G. Fraser3, W. G. Daniel4 and
J. R. T. C. Roelandt4 for the Subgroup on Transoesophageal Echocardiography
and Valvular Heart Disease, on behalf of the Working Group on
Echocardiography of the European Society of Cardiology
1
Med. Klinik II, University of Erlangen-Nürnberg, Germany; 2Department of Cardiology, Centre Hospitalier
Universitaire Brugmann, Université Libre de Bruxelles, Belgium; 3University of Wales College of Medicine, Cardiff,
United Kingdom; 4Erasmus Medical Centre Rotterdam, The Netherlands

Please see the Appendix on pages 20 and 21 for an General Recommendations

explanation of the abbreviations used within this article.
Indications
The indications for TEE have widened continuously in
Introduction: the Need for Guidelines recent years. It is clear that this technique is extremely
valuable in many conditions, such as aortic dissection,
Transoesophageal echocardiography (TEE) is a diag- prosthetic valve disease, the search for cardiac source of
nostic tool with widespread utilization. Due to its unique emboli, detection of endocarditic abscess, emergency
potential in improving cardiological diagnosis, the pro- care, and intra- and perioperative monitoring. In gen-
cedure is increasingly applied in small hospitals, private eral, TEE is indicated whenever the transthoracic exami-
practice, and new settings such as the emergency room. nation is inconclusive and the clinical question is
In spite of its frequent usage, there is no generally important enough to warrant the (very small) risk and
accepted standard protocol of the examination pro- (moderate) discomfort of the procedure. This may in-
cedure, which is distinctly different from transthoracic clude classic indications for transthoracic echocardiog-
echocardiography. Indeed, this procedure involves raphy, such as evaluation of left ventricular function, in
patient discomfort, carries a minute risk to the patient, patients who are extremely difficult to examine trans-
and hence is not easily repeated. thoracically (e.g. postoperative and ventilated patients).
This paper represents an effort by the Subgroup on Essential points for the principal indications are given
Transesophageal Echocardiography and Valvular in Tables 1–5.
Heart Disease of the Working Group Echocardiogra-
phy of the European Society of Cardiology to state
succinctly the essential points of the typical TEE exam
Competence
in adults. The recommendations have been worded In most European countries TEE must be performed by
from ‘desirable’ to ‘mandatory’ according to the indi- physicians. Physicians performing TEE should be ex-
vidual strength that the authors felt they carry. The perienced in transthoracic echocardiography (including
wealth of potential indications, pathological findings, Doppler) and have performed at least 100 TEE exami-
and variations in examination technique preclude a nations under the supervision of a cardiologist with
comprehensive review, which is available in textbooks extensive experience. A minimum of 50 examinations,
and review articles[1–4]. Similarly, it was not the pur- but preferably more than 100 per year, are necessary for
pose to write an educational text but rather to briefly maintaining competence. This is in line with the require-
describe the minimal requirements for a complete TEE ment of ‘level 2’ proficiency in general echocardiography
examination. Similar efforts have been undertaken for TEE trainees stated in the guidelines of the American
for intraoperative echocardiography by the American Society of Echocardiography[6], the American College of
Society of Echocardiography[5]. Cardiology and in the unpublished report of the task
force on Standardization and Education of the Working
Group Echocardiography of the European Society of
Address correspondence to: F. A. Flachskampf, O
} stl.Stadtmauer- Cardiology. The recommended number of TEE exami-
str.29, D-91054 Erlangen, Germany. nations for basic training is slightly higher than in the

1525-2167/01/010008+14 $35.00/0  2001 The European Society of Cardiology

 Guidelines from the Working Group 9

Tables. Principal TEE indications: essential views and structures in specific clinical conditions.

1. Source of embolism.

Left ventricular apex or aneurysm (transgastric and low transoesophageal two-chamber views).
Aortic and mitral valve.
Ascending and descending aorta, aortic arch.
Left atrial appendage (including pulsed wave Doppler exam); note spontaneous contrast.
Left atrial body including interatrial septum; note spontaneous contrast.
Fossa ovalis/foramen ovale/atrial septal defect/atrial septal aneurysm; contrast+Valsalva.

2. Infective endocarditis.

Mitral valve in multiple cross-sections.

Aortic valve in long- and short-axis views; para-aortic tissue (in particular, short-axis views of aortic valve and aortic root) to rule out
abscess.
Tricuspid valve in transgastric views, low oesophageal view, and right ventricular inflow-outflow view.
Pacemaker, central intravenous lines, aortic grafts, Eustachian valve, pulmonic valve in longitudinal right atrial views and high basal
short-axis view of the right heart (inflow-outflow view of the right ventricle).

3 Aortic dissection, aortic aneurysm.

Ascending aorta in long-axis and short-axis views, maximal diameter, note flap or intramural haematoma, para-aortic fluid.
Descending aorta in long- and short-axis views, note maximal diameter, flap, intramural haematoma, para-aortic fluid.
Aortic arch, note maximal diameter, flap, intramural haematoma, para-aortic fluid.
Aortic valve (regurgitation, annular diameter, number of cusps).
Relation of dissection membrane to coronary ostia.
Pericardial effusion, pleural effusion.
Entry/re-entry sites of dissection (use colour Doppler).
Spontaneous contrast or thrombus formation in false lumen (use colour Doppler to characterize flow/absence of flow in false lumen).

4. Mitral regurgitation.

Mitral anatomy (transgastric basal short-axis view, multiple lower transoesophageal views). Emphasis on detection of mechanism and
origin of regurgitation (detection and mapping of prolapse/flail to leaflets and scallops, papillary muscle and chordal integrity, vegetations,
paraprosthetic leaks).
Left atrial colour Doppler mapping with emphasis on jet width and proximal convergence zone.
Left upper pulmonary, and, if eccentric jet present, also right upper pulmonary venous pulsed Doppler.

Note systolic or mean blood pressure!

5. Prosthetic valve evaluation.

Morphological and/or Doppler evidence of obstruction (reduced opening/mobility of cusps/disks/leaflets and elevated velocities by CW
Doppler).
Morphological and Doppler evidence of regurgitation, with mapping of the origin of regurgitation to specific sites (transprosthetic,
paraprosthetic); presence of dehiscence.
Presence of morphological changes in the prosthetic structure: calcification, perforation of bioprostheses, absence of occluder.
Presence of additional paraprosthetic structures (vegetation/thrombus/pannus, suture material, strand, abscess, pseudoaneurysm, fistula).

American guidelines, which specify 25 oesophageal intu- Patient Consent, Preparation, and
bations plus 50 supervised TEEs. Since a small, but
finite, risk is involved in both the TEE examination and Equipment
the sedation, physicians must be familiar with resusci-
tation measures, for which equipment must be readily A history of swallowing problems or evidence of oeso-
available in the laboratory. Certain settings, such as phageal disease or recent gastroesophageal surgery
congenital heart disease or intra-operative TEE, require should be obtained. A discussion with the patient of the
specialized additional training. procedure, risks, and benefits, including implications of

Eur J Echocardiography, Vol. 2, issue 1, March 2001

10 F. A. Flachskampf et al.

110°–130°

LA
LV

Ao

RV

90°–100°

0°–30°
LA
LV
LAA

LV

Diagram 1. Transgastric views, with exemplary cross-sections corresponding to (counter-

clockwise) the transgastric short axis view at midpapillary level (Fig. 1), the transgastric
two-chamber view (Fig. 2), and the transgastric long-axis view of the left ventricle (Fig. 3).

topical anesthesia (oral intake should be avoided for tives should be used sparingly, if needed, especially in
about 2 h after the examination) and sedation (e.g. frail or severely compromised patients. A typical dose
unfitness for driving for at least 12 h), should precede in a stable patient is 2–4 mg of intravenous midazolam
the examination. Informed patient consent is mandatory (0·075 mg/kg), but lower doses may be sufficient; other
in conscious patients. While ideally a written informed sedatives or analgesics such as fentanyl may be used as
consent should be documented, at least a clinical note is well. Whenever sedatives are used, availability of, and
recommended indicating that consent was sought and experience with, resuscitation equipment is mandatory.
obtained. At least a 4-hour fast (preferably 6 h, with A benzodiazepine antagonist, for example flumazenil
clear liquids allowed until 2 h prior to the examination) (0·3–0·6 mg), must be available. Some centres use a
before TEE should be observed, except in emergency drying agent, such as glycopyrrolate bromide.
situations; the possibility of diabetic gastroparesis The instrument tip has to be unlocked during
should be kept in mind. Use of antibiotics is optional in intubation of the oesophagus. Awake patients are
patients at very high risk of endocarditis, e.g. patients usually intubated in the lateral decubitus position, to
with a history of endocarditis. However, benefit from facilitate drainage of saliva. In ventilated patients,
such prophylaxis remains unproven[8]. use of a laryngoscope can facilitate oesophageal
Ideally, TEE should be performed with multiplane intubation. Any clear persistent resistance to advanc-
equipment. The ECG must be monitored throughout the ing the instrument mandates termination of the
procedure. An intravenous line should be in place both examination, and endoscopy should be performed
for sedation and in the event of complications, and a before re-examination. After each examination,
supply of oxygen as well as equipment for suction probes have to be disinfected, inspected for damage,
should be at hand. Blood pressure and oxygen satur- and checked for electrical safety according to manu-
ation monitoring, including baseline values prior to the facturer’s guidelines. Rubber covers for the TEE
examination, are desirable. probe in theory protect against transmission of infec-
Dental fixtures have to be removed, and a bite guard tious agents and provide some electrical insulation in
should be in place. Topical oropharyngeal anesthesia case of a current leak, as long as no tear of the cover
with an agent such as lidocaine is usually given. Seda- occurs.

Eur J Echocardiography, Vol. 2, issue 1, March 2001

 Guidelines from the Working Group 11

Figure 3. Transgastric long-axis view of the left ventricle.

Figure 1. Transgastric short-axis view of the left ven-

tricle at the midpapillary level.

Figure 2. Transgastric two-chamber view. The apex is

to the left, and the mitral valve to the right in the image.

Figure 4. Deep transgastric long-axis view of the left

Documentation ventricle.

Video recording or extensive digital documentation of

the examination is mandatory. A written report and a General Course of the Examination
log of examinations, the use of echo contrast, adjunc-
tive medication, and examiners must be kept. In the Unlike transthoracic echocardiography, TEE is uncom-
report it is desirable (especially with computerized fortable for the patient. Therefore the examination time
report generation) to specify whether cardiac struc- is limited, and the procedure cannot be repeated as
tures have or have not been studied, in order to frequently as a transthoracic echo. The examiner must
convey the information as to whether a structure is therefore ensure that: (i) the diagnostic goal is satisfied;
truly normal or simply has not been (sufficiently) (ii) preferentially the structures not well visualized by
visualized. It is mandatory to note all side-effects and transthoracic echo are thoroughly investigated (e.g. the
complications. left atrial appendage and the aorta), and (iii) that the

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12 F. A. Flachskampf et al.

130°–150°

LA

LV

90°

LA

LAA
115°–130°

0°
LA
LV
IVC LA
SVC RA

RA RV
LV

Diagram 2. Lower-middle transoesophageal views, with exemplary cross-sections corresponding to

(counter-clockwise) the four-chamber view (Fig. 6), transoesophageal two-chamber view (Fig. 7), and
transoesophageal long axis view of the left ventricle (cf. Fig. 8). From this transducer location, right
heart structures can be visualized. A right atrial longitudinal view is visualized at 115–130 degrees
(Fig. 10).

study is complete. If possible, the following protocol of the direction of the ultrasound beam. Plane rotation
the examination should be followed and the boldfaced (or switching from transverse to longitudinal in biplane
views obtained (sometimes not all of these views are probes), shaft rotation, anteflexion, retroflexion, and
of satisfactory quality). Although any number of ad- sideward flexion of the tip, and finally probe advance-
ditional views may be necessary to better delineate ment and withdrawal are the maneouvres available to
pathological findings (e.g. vegetations, thrombi, etc.), the examiner to change the position of the view.
and the patient’s tolerance sometimes limits the avail- Anteflexion flexes the tip mechanically upward an-
able examination time, the boldfaced views are essen- teriorly, thereby usually improving contact with the
tial for a complete TEE examination, and colour anterior gastric or oesophageal wall, and retroflexion
Doppler, pulsed wave and continuous Doppler should flexes it upward posteriorly, thereby often deteriorating
be used as indicated. Analogous to transthoracic transducer contact with the gastric or oesophageal
echocardiography, views are mainly defined by internal wall. Sideward flexion (to the right or left of the
landmarks, not by specification of probe position and transducer face) can be used instead of plane rotation
plane angulation. In the following, the designations of to fine-tune views and improve acoustic coupling, but
views are in analogy to the classic two-dimensional is less important with the use of multiplane trans-
(2D) transthoracic views. For example, the term ‘long- ducers. Probe shaft rotation is described as clockwise
axis view of the left ventricle’ denotes a view that or counterclockwise as seen from the examiner’s view-
incorporates the apex, inflow and outflow tract of the point looking down the shaft of the probe.
left ventricle, the mitral valve, the aortic valve, and The following description is intended to outline a
which cuts tangentially through the right ventricle. complete examination. Patient discomfort or conse-
Where degrees of viewing plane are given, 0 degrees quences of the findings (e.g. in the presence of aortic
denotes a transverse and 90 degrees a longitudinal dissection) may necessitate shortening the examination
view, with clockwise plane rotation when looking in to focus on the clinical question. On the other hand,

Eur J Echocardiography, Vol. 2, issue 1, March 2001

 Guidelines from the Working Group 13

Figure 5. Diaphragmatic right ventricular inflow view. Figure 6. Transoesophageal four-chamber view.

pathological findings or special questions may necessi-

tate a more detailed examination of particular struc-
tures, which is beyond the scope of this article.
The typical TEE examination comprises three major
steps:

v the transgastric examination

v the proper transoesophageal examination,
which may be conceptually divided into (i)
lower oesophageal views, mainly to image the
ventricles, and (ii) upper transoesophageal
views, mainly to image the valves, atria, and
great vessels. However, sharply defined trans-
ducer positions do not exist, since they vary
individually and have to be adjusted for each
view.
v the examination of the aorta.

Figure 7. Transoesophageal two-chamber view.

The sequence of these elements may be chosen individu-
ally; the following is one widely used approach.
at the bottom of the sector. The apex, which often is not
well visualized, is to the left and the mitral valve to the
A: Transgastric Views (Diagram 1) right of the sector. Wall motion abnormalities, thrombi,
and pathology of the subvalvular mitral apparatus,
The transducer initially is positioned in the upper which is particularly well displayed in the transgastric
stomach, enabling left ventricular short-axis and two- two-chamber view, should be noted.
chamber views (Figs 1 and 2). In the left ventricular The long-axis view of the left ventricle, with assessment
short-axis view at the mid-papillary level (at 0–30 de- of left ventricular outflow tract and aortic valve, is
grees), the anterolateral papillary muscle is seen at obtained at approximately 110–130 degrees and some-
approximately 5 o’clock and the posteromedial approxi- times minor clockwise shaft rotation (Fig. 3). The aortic
mately between 11 and 2 o’clock. The free wall of the valve is seen in the far field. Elevated or reversed flow
right ventricle is seen on the left sector side. Counter- velocities in the outflow tract or through the aortic valve
clockwise, the mid segments of the septal, anteroseptal, should be documented. It is frequently difficult to
anterior (farthest from the transducer), lateral, pos- achieve this view, and the ascending aorta is not seen
terior, and inferior (closest to the transducer) left well. Additionally, or alternatively in case of difficulty in
ventricular walls are seen. In the left ventricular two- obtaining the long-axis view of the left ventricle from the
chamber view (at 90–100 degrees), the inferior wall is typical transgastric position, a deep transgastric long-
seen in the near field of the sector and the anterior wall axis view or five-chamber view (Fig. 4), including the

Eur J Echocardiography, Vol. 2, issue 1, March 2001

14 F. A. Flachskampf et al.

seen, which is analogous to the left ventricular two-

chamber view in that the apex is to the left and the right
atrium to the right. Further rotation discloses the right
ventricular outflow tract, with the pulmonary valve
located at the bottom of the sector.

B: Lower Transoesophageal Views

(Diagram 2)
Withdrawal of the probe to a low transoesophageal
position is usually performed with the imaging plane
in the transverse (0 degrees) position. Passing the dia-
phragm, the inflow tract of the right ventricle and the
tricuspid valve are visualized in a long-axis view (Fig. 5).
Immediately adjacent to the septal tricuspid leaflet, the
orifice of the coronary sinus is seen, which courses
upward. The anterior tricuspid leaflet is seen to the left,
and the septal to the right.
Reaching the lower oesophagus, a (foreshortened)
transoesophageal four-chamber view (at approximately 0
Figure 8. Transoesophageal long-axis view of the left degrees) is obtained (Fig. 6). Sometimes a low degree of
ventricle. rotation (10–20 degrees) is useful to exclude the aortic
valve. The probe should be straightened after with-
drawal from the stomach to minimize foreshortening, as
long as image quality is maintained. In the tran-
aortic valve, can be obtained by advancing the probe soesophageal four-chamber view the left ventricle is on
further into the gastric fundus and using maximal ante- the right side of the sector and the right ventricle on the
flexion of the probe, thus achieving an inverted trans- left. The left atrium is on top, and septal and lateral
ducer position. Note that this view will display cardiac walls of the left ventricle, as well as the right ventricular
structures roughly like a transthoracic apical four- free wall, are seen. The anterior mitral leaflet is seen on
chamber view, i.e. upside down compared to the trans- the left and the posterior on the right side; the septal
oesophageal four-chamber view. Rotation to 60–90 tricuspid leaflet is on the right side and the anterior
degrees creates a modified transgastric apical long-axis tricuspid leaflet on the left side. From the same trans-
view of the left ventricle. These views are particularly ducer position, the mitral valve and left ventricle can be
useful for the Doppler examination of the left ventricu- comprehensively scanned, the left atrium always remain-
lar outflow tract and aortic valve. ing on top. The transoesophageal two-chamber view (Fig.
A short-axis view of the mitral valve is obtained further 7) is obtained at approximately 60–90 degrees together
basally from the mid-papillary muscle short-axis view by with a small amount of retroflexion of the tip to visualize
slightly withdrawing and anteflexing the instrument, and the true apex, with the convex anterior wall to the right,
sometimes adding 10–20 degrees of rotation. The origin the straight inferior wall to the left, and the apex in the
of mitral regurgitation jets by colour Doppler, as well as far field. The posterior mitral leaflet is on the left side
flail or prolapsing portions, and systolic anterior motion and the anterior leaflet on the right side, or, in inter-
of the leaflets, can be detected in this view. Although this mediate views between four-chamber and two-chamber
view is often not easy to obtain, it is very helpful in view, portions of the posterior mitral leaflet are seen on
assessing the origin of mitral regurgitant jets. both sides of the anterior leaflet. Frequently the left
Additional views of the right heart, which are not atrial appendage is seen on the right side of the base of
routinely obtained but are important whenever right the left ventricle (in the sector image). Further plane
heart pathology has to be evaluated, are generated by rotation brings into view the transoesophageal long-axis
rotating the probe from the transgastric left ventricular view of the left ventricle (Fig. 8) at approximately
short-axis position to the right, positioning the right 130–150 degrees, with the anterior mitral leaflet, the
ventricle in the centre of the sector, and steering the aortic valve and ascending aorta, and the anteroseptal
plane angulation first to approximately 30 degrees, left ventricular segments on the right side (from near to
producing a short-axis view of the tricuspid valve, with far field), and the posterior mitral leaflet and posterior
the posterior leaflet to the upper left, the septal leaflet to left ventricular wall on the left side. The left atrium
the upper right, and the large anterior leaflet in the lower continues in the near field of the transducer, and the left
half of valve cross-section. A right ventricular inflow view ventricular apex in the far field. These three views of the
can be obtained by further rotation. At approximately left ventricle (four-chamber, two-chamber, and long-
90 degrees a long axis of the right ventricular inflow is axis) are the essential oesophageal views for evaluating

Eur J Echocardiography, Vol. 2, issue 1, March 2001

 Guidelines from the Working Group 15

Ao
AL
aML pML/CS

0°

CS

135° PM

pML/CS
aML 45°

90°
pML/PM pML/AL
aML

pML/PM
aML

Diagram 3. Mapping of mitral pathology. Four cross-sections centred on the mitral valve and the
relationship of the anterior (aML) and posterior (pML) mitral leaflets are seen in these cross-sections: at
0 degrees, corresponding to a four-chamber view (Fig. 6), at 45 degrees, representing an intermediate view,
at 90 degrees, corresponding to a two-chamber view (Fig. 7), and at 135 degrees, corresponding to a long-
axis view (Fig. 8) of the left ventricle. Different scallops of the pML are visualized in the different views:
the central scallop (PML/CS) is seen in the four-chamber and the long-axis views, the anterolateral scallop
(PML/AL) in the 45 degrees intermediate view, and the posteromedial (PML/PM) in the two-chamber and
in the intermediate view.

the left ventricle, including segmental wall motion restriction, annular dilatation, perforation, etc.). Pulsed
abnormalities, in a fashion that allows application of the Doppler tracings of pulmonary venous flow should be
16 segment model[9]. recorded (ideally in both the left and the right upper
From the same probe location right heart structures pulmonary veins in the presence of an eccentric jet, and
can be visualized. By positioning, for example, the at 1 cm or more distance from the orifice). If there is a
interatrial septum and the right atrium in the centre mitral prosthesis, the whole circumference should be
of the image (approximately 115–130 degrees), the visualized by positioning the prosthesis in the centre of
fossa ovalis, inferior and superior vena cava and the sector image and rotating the cross-section system-
the Eustachian valve are visualized. atically in small increments. If a biplane probe is used,
The mitral valve can be studied in detail (after appro- the mitral valve and left atrium should be scanned by
priate depth reduction) in the same views enumerated systematic anteflexion and retroflexion of the transverse
for the left ventricle. The use of multiple transoesopha- (horizontal) plane and sideward rotation of the longi-
geal cross-sections of the mitral valve (Diagram 3), es- tudinal (vertical) plane, as well as sideward flexion of the
pecially with a multiplane transducer, including spectral probe tip, if necessary.
Doppler of transmitral flow and colour Doppler map- Spontaneous echo contrast (‘smoke’) in the left atrium
ping of the left atrium, allows mapping of mitral pathol- and/or appendage should be noted. Since spontaneous
ogy and regurgitant jet origin to leaflets and leaflet echo contrast is somewhat gain-dependent, it should be
segments (scallops in the posterior mitral leaflet). In the ensured that gain levels are high enough not to miss it,
presence of more than mild mitral regurgitation, particu- and that there is a swirling motion in the left atrium
lar care should be taken to identify and localize the which distinguishes it from pure noise at too high a gain
morphological basis of regurgitation (e.g. prolapse, flail, level.

Eur J Echocardiography, Vol. 2, issue 1, March 2001

16 F. A. Flachskampf et al.

130°–150°

LA

Ao
LV

50°–75°

LA

RA PA

RV

Diagram 4. Upper transoesophageal views of the aortic valve in long-axis (130–150

degrees, Fig. 9c) and short axis views (55–75 degrees, Fig 9a,b).

C: Upper Transoesophageal Views ultrasound beam and flow direction; presence of high
velocities will, however, indicate significant stenosis.
Further withdrawal of the probe will display the aortic More reliable Doppler assessment of aortic velocities is
valve and both atria from a upper transoesophageal achieved in transgastric long-axis views. The maximal
position. Image depth should be reduced from the visualizable extent of the ascending aorta in a long-axis
setting used for the left ventricle. Short- and long-axis view (usually several centimetres) should be docu-
views of the aortic valve (Diagram 4, Fig. 9) should be mented, which necessitates some withdrawal of the
obtained by looking for a circular aortic root in the probe to display the upper part of the ascending aorta
short axis (at 50–75 degrees) views and a central closure (displayed on the right sector side), with an angle
of the two visualized aortic leaflets, as well as a maximal between 130 and 150 degrees.
visualized length of the ascending aorta in the long axis The right atrium, the tricuspid valve, inflow and
view (at 130–160 degrees). The short-axis view shows the outflow tract of the right ventricle, the pulmonary valve,
left coronary cusp in the upper right third, the non- and the main pulmonary trunk are seen in counterclock-
coronary cusp in the upper left third, and the right wise continuity, with the aortic valve in the centre, in the
coronary cusp in the lower third (anteriorly), while the short-axis view of the aortic valve (Fig. 9a). This view
long-axis view has the non-coronary aortic cusp on top (also called the right ventricular inflow-outflow view[5])
and the right coronary cusp at the bottom (i.e. anteri- resembles a parasternal aortic valve short-axis view
orly). If the transducer is withdrawn a few millimetres (although upside down). Colour Doppler evaluation of
from the aortic valve short-axis view, both coronary the tricuspid and — less satisfactorily — the pulmonary
ostia can be identified, located at approximately 2 valve can be performed. If visualization of the distal
o’clock (left coronary ostium) and 6 o’clock (right right ventricular outflow tract, the pulmonary valve, and
coronary ostium) of the circumference of the aortic root the proximal main pulmonary artery are of particular
(Fig. 9b). The right coronary ostium is frequently more interest, a plane rotation to a lower angle (100–130) or
easily visualized in the long-axis view of the aortic valve counter-clockwise shaft rotation brings into view these
and the ascending aorta. Colour Doppler mapping structures.
should be performed in both aortic valve views, and in From an upper transoesophageal window the inter-
the presence of stenosis a continuous wave Doppler atrial septum with the fossa ovalis should be visualized
can be attempted, although this will yield significant in at least two planes (transverse and longitudinal view).
underestimation because of the large angle between The transverse view of the right atrium is usually a minor

Eur J Echocardiography, Vol. 2, issue 1, March 2001

 Guidelines from the Working Group 17

Figure 10. Interatrial septum and right atrium in longi-

tudinal view.

modification of the transoesophageal four-chamber

view with reduced depth. It shows the left atrium on
top, then the interatrial septum as an approximately
horizontal structure, and the tricuspid valve to the
right. Neither caval vein is seen in this view. The
longitudinal view of the right atrium (at 90 degrees,
Diagram 2; also called the bicaval view[5]) displays the
orifices of the superior (right sector side) and inferior
caval vein (left sector side) and the right atrial append-
age (sector bottom) (Fig. 10); the tricuspid valve is not
seen. This view particularly allows the evaluation of
pacemaker leads, intravenous lines and masses at-
tached to them. Colour Doppler mapping of the inter-
atrial septum should be performed at a low pulse
repetition frequency (low-velocity scale) to better rec-
ognize low-velocity jets. If patency of the foramen
ovale is an important consideration (stroke, pulmonary
embolism, positive end-expiratory pressure ventilation,
congenital heart disease, risk assessment of decompres-
sion sickness, and other conditions), echo contrast
should be applied and monitored during spontaneous
breathing and, importantly, on release of a Valsalva
maneouvre. Any kind of echo contrast can be used,
including agitated blood or infusion solutions, as
long as it yields dense opacification of the right
atrium.
Views of the cranial structures of the heart and great
vessels (Diagram 5) are obtained by withdrawing and

Figure 9. (a) Aortic valve short axis (with view of right

atrium at 9–11 o’clock, tricuspid valve at 9 o’clock, and
right ventricle). (b) Coronary ostia immediately superior
of aortic valve (short axis view of ascending aorta).
(c) Aortic valve long-axis view.

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18 F. A. Flachskampf et al.

0°–20°

RPA
LDA
SVC

Ao
MPA

35°–45°

RLPV

LA
0°–30°

SVC
LA
LUPV RUPV Ao

Ao
PA
RV

Diagram 5. Upper transoesophageal views of the great vessels and atrial appendage
(counter-clockwise): the transverse view of the left atrial appendage and the left upper
pulmonary vein (35–45 degrees, Figs 11 and 12), the intermediate view of ascending
aorta, left atrium and right pulmonary veins, and with anterioflexion of the probe a
transverse view of the ascending aorta, superior vena cava and main pulmonary artery
with its bifurcation are obtained (0–20 degrees, Fig. 13b).

atrial appendage is seen (Fig. 11); careful study of this

structure of varying size, shape and orientation may
require additional plane rotation. Pulsed Doppler re-
cording of appendage flow is useful to assess the risk of
thrombus formation. Further withdrawal and ante-
flexion displays the left upper pulmonary vein (Fig. 12).
Clockwise shaft rotation displays the short-axis view of
the ascending aorta, accompanied on the left side by the
superior vena cava (Fig. 13a), and on the right side by
the main pulmonary artery. The right pulmonary artery
courses to the left side of the sector posteriorly of the
ascending aorta (Fig. 13b). The left pulmonary artery
is poorly seen and courses to the right side of the
sector.
The right upper pulmonary vein is seen coursing down-
Figure 11. (Left). Left atrial appendage, with pulsed ward and rightward at the junction of right atrium and
Doppler sample volume. (Right). Recording of emptying superior vena cava and posterior to the latter, both
(upward) and filling (downward) velocities in atrial in transverse and longitudinal views (Fig. 13a). This
fibrillation. junction is the location of the transthoracically (often
poorly) visualized sinus venosus atrial defects. In a
anteflecting the probe in the transverse (0 degree) plane longitudinal (90 degrees) view, the orifice of the right
from a position showing the mitral valve in the centre upper pulmonary vein can be located between left
of the sector. On the right side of the screen, the left atrium and right pulmonary artery.

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 Guidelines from the Working Group 19

Figure 13. (a) Short-axis view of ascending aorta,

Figure 12. (a) Left atrial appendage and left upper
superior vena cava, and right upper pulmonary vein. (b)
pulmonary vein. (b) Pulsed Doppler recording of normal
Short-axis view of ascending aorta and main pulmonary
pulmonary venous inflow in the left upper pulmonary
artery, with bifurcation and origin of right pulmonary
vein.
artery.

Aortic Views
Finally, the probe should be rotated towards the Conclusion
descending aorta. Especially in older patients, the TEE offers unique advantages in certain clinical
complete length of the thoracic descending aorta scenarios (Tables 1–5) and is superior to conventional
(Fig. 14) should be scanned in short-axis views, transthoracic echocardiography for visualizing specific
supplemented by long-axis views if pathology is structures. For optimal use, the operator should be
detected. The location of findings in the descending aware of the clinical circumstances and critical questions
aorta can be described either by the distance of the and follow a systematic approach for collecting the data
probe tip to the frontal teeth, or by the cardiac necessary to answer the clinical question.
structures at the same depth level. The take-off of the
(left) subclavian artery can usually be seen, and often
part of the distal arch and the supra-aortic branches Acknowledgements
can be visualized. Clockwise shaft rotation and slight The authors wish to acknowledge valuable input from
probe withdrawal at the junction of aortic arch and many members of the Working Group Echocardiography of the
descending aorta displays the long axis of the aortic European Society of Cardiology, in particular Leo Baur, Leiden,
arch, with the anterior aortic arch wall at the bottom The Netherlands; Raimund Erbel, Essen, Germany; Andreas
Franke, Aachen, Germany; Adrian Ionescu, Cardiff, United
of the sector, and partially the superior ascending Kingdom; Maria Lengyel, Budapest, Hungary; Petros
aorta. At 90 degrees, a short-axis view of the aortic Nihoyannopoulos, London, United Kingdom; Mauro Pepi,
arch is obtained. Milano, Italy; and William Stewart, Cleveland, U.S.A.

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20 F. A. Flachskampf et al.

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Appendix
The following abbreviations are used in the figures:
AL anterolateral commissure or scallop of the
posterior mitral leaflet
AL-PM anterolateral papillary muscle
AML anterior mitral leaflet
ANT anterior wall of aortic arch
ANTSEP anteroseptal wall of left ventricle
AOA ascending aorta
AV aortic valve
AW anterior wall of left ventricle
CS central scallop
D diastolic inflow wave of pulmonary venous
flow velocity
IVC inferior vena cava
IW inferior wall of left ventricle
LA left atrium
LAA left atrial appendage
LM left main coronary artery
LPA left pulmonary artery
LUPV left upper pulmonary vein
Figure 14. Descending aorta: (a) short-axis view; (b) LV left ventricle
long-axis view. MPA main pulmonary artery
PM posteromedial commissure or scallop of the
posterior mitral leaflet
References PML posterior mitral leaflet
PM-PM posteromedial papillary muscle
[1] Sutherland GR, Roelandt JRTC, Fraser AG, Anderson RA. POST posterior wall of aortic arch
Transesophageal Echocardiography in Clinical Practice.
London: Gower Medical Publishing, 1991.
R reverse end-diastolic flow wave of pulmon-
[2] Roelandt JRTC, Pandian N (eds). Multiplane Transesophageal ary venous flow velocity
Echocardiography. New York: Churchill Livingstone, 1996. RCA right coronary artery

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 Guidelines from the Working Group 21

RPA right pulmonary artery S systolic inflow wave of pulmonary venous

RV right ventricle flow velocity
RUPV right upper pulmonary vein SC coronary sinus
RLPV right lower pulmonary vein SVC superior vena cava

Eur J Echocardiography, Vol. 2, issue 1, March 2001