SOUTHERN LUZON STATE UNIVERSITY

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
LUCBAN, QUEZON

SURNAME GIVEN NAME M.I. SCHOOL YEAR:

SEMESTER:

TIME DAYS ROOM COURSE:

YEAR/SECTION:

MCE17 – CONTROL ENGINEERING

BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

(For SLSU M.E Use Only)

Prepared by:
GILBERT R. ESQUILLO, PME

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 SOUTHERN LUZON STATE UNIVERSITY
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
LUCBAN, QUEZON

COURSE DESCRIPTION

This course is intended to have an introduction to linear control

systems, Modelling of physical systems, Feedback control systems, and
Stability of control systems.

OBJECTIVES

The students should be able to:

1. Discuss the basic concepts and operating principles of feedback
control systems.
2. Explain the dynamic modelling of mechanical, electrical, electro-
mechanical, fluid and thermodynamic System in relation to
control.
3. Create and use models of physical systems suitable for use in the
analysis and design of control systems.
4. Determine the time and frequency-domain responses of first and
second-order systems to impulse, step, ramp, and sinusoidal
inputs.
5. Apply the concepts of control engineering to a project.

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 SOUTHERN LUZON STATE UNIVERSITY
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
LUCBAN, QUEZON

Module 1
Introduction to Control System

INTRODUCTION
Control Systems is an interdisciplinary topic involving all different
types of engineering and it has applications everywhere, from small
electronic circuits to a big industrial robot. Even our own body is a
very good example of a control system. How? We shall see!

In this set module, we shall start with the basic principles in

control systems and gradually work out the control concepts of
practical systems through analyzing their responses.

OBJECTIVE
After completing this module, you should be able to determine the
difference between open-loop control system and a closed-loop control
system.

DISCUSSION

What are Control Systems?

Before we find out what control systems are, let’s first understand
what is meant by a system. A system is a collection of things that
are put together with the intention to perform a specific task. When
we excite a system with an input, we get a certain response. A
resistor, a capacitor, an air conditioner, an automobile are some
examples of systems. Sometimes a system is referred to as a
“plant.”

A control system is a mechanism that directs the input it receives

through the systems and regulates their output.

The above figure shows the block diagram of a control system. A

control system alters the response of a plant or a system as desired.
For example, assume we have a system that will be controlled, let’s
say a motor whose position is to be controlled. We employ a
servomechanism here, which is the control system (or the controller),

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 SOUTHERN LUZON STATE UNIVERSITY
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
LUCBAN, QUEZON

which gives a certain

control input to the motor on how much to rotate. The end goal is for
the entire system (the system and the controller) to perform the
desired objective.

Now say we need to cook a potato in a traditional microwave, the

process would look like something below:

Now, the potato being cooked depends on a lot of factors like the
size of the potato, its freshness, etc. Simply setting a fixed time
in the timer doesn’t ensure that the potato is cooked. So, what do
we do?

We’ll now add a sensor/an instrument that senses if the potato is

cooked. Let’s call it a “cookometer”. This will make the microwave
smarter. Now the process should look like something below:

Here, if the potato is not fully cooked, the cookometer will add up
extra cooking time and make sure the potato is fully cooked.

Open Loop Control System

A Control System which doesn’t have any feedback connected to it is

called as Open Loop System. These types of systems don’t depend upon
its output i.e., in open loop systems, output is not used as a
control variable for the system and it has no effect on the input.

Open loop systems are one way signal flow systems. As these systems
doesn’t contain any feedback i.e., the output is not fed back to the
input, these are also known as Non-Feedback Systems.

The following image shows a simple block diagram of an Open Loop

System.

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 SOUTHERN LUZON STATE UNIVERSITY
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
LUCBAN, QUEZON

In an open loop system, the output can be adjusted / varied by

varying the input but the output has no effect on the input. The
output of the open loop system can be determined only by its present
state input. If the output is affected due to some external noise /
disturbance, the open loop system cannot correct it.

Also, there is no chance to correct the transition errors in open

loop systems so there is more chance to occur errors.
Advantages
 Low cost is a priority; open-loop control is inexpensive.
 An output changes rarely or not at all, for example, certain
cooling pumps.
 No quantitative measurement is possible, as with an
inaccessible process.
 An erratic process such as a sticking valve or erratic sensor.
 Process disturbances are extremely rare

Disadvantages
 The bandwidth of open loop control system is less.
 The non-feedback system doesn’t facilitate the process of
automation.
 Open loop systems are inaccurate in nature and also unreliable.
 If their output is affected by some external disturbances,
there is no way to correct them automatically as these are non-
feedback systems

Closed Loop Control System

A closed loop control system is a mechanical or electronic device

that automatically regulates a system to maintain a desired state or
set point without human interaction. It uses a feedback system or
sensor. Closed loop control is contrasted with open loop control,
where there is no self-regulating mechanism and human interaction is
typically required.

A simple example of a closed loop control system is a home

thermostat. The thermostat can send a signal to the heater to turn it
on or off. It uses a temperature sensor to detect the current air
temperature. When the temperature is below the set point, it turns

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 SOUTHERN LUZON STATE UNIVERSITY
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
LUCBAN, QUEZON

the heater on. When

the sensor detects the temperature is above the set point, it turns
the system off.

Most modern closed loop systems are electronically controlled. These

may use discrete analog electronic comparators for simple systems,
such as an oven thermostat. More complicated systems use a
microcontroller or programable logic controller to take several
inputs and to control multiple outputs. A complex system example
would be a building heating, ventilation and air conditioning system
in a data center that can use sensors for inside air temperature,
outside air temperature and relative humidity to control the
operation of a heater and AC. Another complex example is computer
room air handlers (CRAHs) in data centers that dissipate heat
produced by equipment using fans, cooling coils and a water chiller
system.

Example of Close Loop Controller

Advantages
 can control for external factors
 more reliable and stable output
 resilient to disturbances and changes
 more resource-efficient

Disadvantages
 more complex
 requires tuning or integration
 susceptible to oscillation or runaway conditions
 sensor failure can cause unwanted system performance

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 SOUTHERN LUZON STATE UNIVERSITY
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
LUCBAN, QUEZON

Name: ______________________________ Date: ___________

(Surname, Firstname, M.I)
Subject: ___________________________ Section: ________

SKILL-ASSESSMENT EXERCISES 1.1

State whether the following is an Open Loop System (OLS) or Close

Loop System (CLS).

___________1. Washing Machine

___________2. Electric Bulb
___________3. Electric Hand Drier
___________4. Time based Bread Toaster
___________5. Automatic Water Faucet
___________6. TV Remote Control
___________7. Electric Clothes Drier
___________8. Shades or Blinds on a window
___________9. Stepper Motor or Servo Motor
___________10. Inkjet Printers
___________11. Door Lock System
___________12. Traffic Control System
___________13. Voltage Stabilizer
___________14. Thermostat Heater
___________15. Modern Air Conditioner
___________16. Induction Cooker
___________17. Electric Iron
___________18. Water Level Controller
___________19. Automatic Street Light
___________20. Smoke Detection System
___________21. Automatic Toaster
___________22. Motor Speed Controller
___________23. Industrial Refrigerators
___________24. Servo Motor
___________25. Sunseeker solar system

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 SOUTHERN LUZON STATE UNIVERSITY
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
LUCBAN, QUEZON

MODULE 2
LAPLACE TRANSFORM

INTRODUCTION
Laplace Transform is widely used by electronic engineers to solve
quickly differential equations occurring in the analysis of
electronic circuits. In system modeling, Laplace Transform is used to
simplify calculations in system modeling, where large number of
differential equations are used.
The Laplace Transform can be interpreted as a transformation from
time domain where inputs and outputs are functions of time to the
frequency domain where inputs and outputs are functions of complex
angular frequency.
Laplace Transform methods have a key role to play in the modern
approach to the analysis and design of engineering system. The
concepts of Laplace Transforms are applied in the area of science and
technology such as Electric circuit analysis, Communication
engineering, Control engineering and Nuclear physics etc.
The Laplace equations are used to describe the steady-state
conduction heat transfer without any heat sources or sinks. Laplace
equations can be used to determine the potential at any point between
two surfaces when the potential of both surfaces is known.

OBJECTIVE
After completing this module, you should be able to have an
understanding how to use Laplace Transform in Science and
Engineering fields, specifically, Control Engineering.

DISCUSSION

The Laplace transform, named after its inventor Pierre-Simon

Laplace (/ləˈplɑːs/), is an integral transform that converts a
function of a real variable t (often time) to a function of
a complex variable (complex frequency). The transform has many
applications in science and engineering because it is a tool for
solving differential equations. In particular, it transforms
differential equations into algebraic equations
and convolution into multiplication.

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 SOUTHERN LUZON STATE UNIVERSITY
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
LUCBAN, QUEZON

Transform of Elementary Functions

Below are some functions f(t) and their Laplace transforms F(s).

Properties of Laplace Transform

1. Constant Multiple
If a is a constant and f(t) is a function of t, then

Laf(t)  aL f (t )

Example: L4cost   4 Lcos t 

2. Linearity Property
If a and b are constant while f(t) and g(t) are functions of t
whose Laplace transform exists, then

Laf(t)  bg(t)  aL f (t ) bLg (t )

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 SOUTHERN LUZON STATE UNIVERSITY
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
LUCBAN, QUEZON

Example: f (t )  5t  2

Solution:
L(5t  2)  5 L(t )  sL(1)
 1  1
L(5t  2)  5 2   2 
s  s
5 2
L(5t  2)  2 
s s
1
L(5t  2)  2 5  2 s 
s

3. First Shifting Property

If Lf(t)  F ( s ) . then,
 
L e at f(t)  F s  a 

Example: Find the Laplace transform of f (t )  e 2t t 3 .

Solution:
n!
L (t n ) 
s n 1
3!
L (t 3 )  31
s
6
L (t 3 )  4
s
Thus,
 
L e 2t t 3 
6
s  2 4

4. Secondary Shifting Property

 f t  a  ta
If Lf(t)  F ( s ) , and g t    , then
0 ta

Lg(t)  e  as F ( s )

 f t  12 t 1
Example: Find the Laplace transform of g (t )  
0 t 1

Solution:
Lg t   e  as F (s)
F ( s)  L(t 2 ) and a=1

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 SOUTHERN LUZON STATE UNIVERSITY
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
LUCBAN, QUEZON

2
F ( s) 
s3
Thus,
2
Lg t   e  s  3 
s 
2e  s
Lg t   3
s

5. Change of Scale Property

If Lf(t)  F ( s ) , then,
1 s
Lf(at) 
F 
a a
Example: Supposed that the Laplace transform of a certain function
s2  s 1
f t  is , find the Laplace transform of f(2t).
2s  1s  1

Solution:
1 s
If Lf(at)  F   , then by change of scale property,
a a
s2  s 1
Lf(t) 
2s  12 s  1
2
s s
     1
1 2 2
Lf(2t)  x    2 
2  s  s 
2 2   1  2  1
     

 s2   s 
     1
1  4   2 
Lf(2t)  x
2
s  12  s  1
2 

1 4
1 2

s  2s  4 
Lf(2t)  x
2 1 s  12 s  2 
2

Lf(2t) 

s  2s  4
2

4s  1 s  2 
2

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 SOUTHERN LUZON STATE UNIVERSITY
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
LUCBAN, QUEZON

6. Multiplication by Power of t
If Lf(t)  F ( s ) , then,

 
L t n f(t)  1
n dn
ds n
F s    1 F n  s 
n

Where n=1, 2, 3, …

Example: Find the Laplace transform of f t   t cos 2t .

Solution:

 
L t n f(t)  1
n dn
ds n
F s 

s
Lcos2t 
s  22
2

s
Lcos2t  2
s 4
1
1 d  s 
Ltcos2t  1 1  2
ds  s  4 
 ( s 2  4)(1)  s(2 s) 
Ltcos2t    
 ( s 2  4) 2 
 s 2  4  2s 2 
Ltcos2t    2 2 
 ( s  4) 
4  s2
Ltcos2t  

s2  4
2

s 4
2
Ltcos2t 
s 2
4 
2

7. Division by t
If Lf(t)  F ( s ) , then,
 f t  

L    F u du
 t  s
 f t 
Provided lim   exists.
t 0
 t 

sin t
Example: Find the Laplace transform of f (t )  .
t
Solution:

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 SOUTHERN LUZON STATE UNIVERSITY
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
LUCBAN, QUEZON

1
Lsint  
s 1
2


 sint  du
L  2
 t  s u 1
 sint 
  arctan u s

L
 t 
 sint 
  limarctan u s
a
L
 t  a  

 sint 
L   limarctan a  arctan s 
 t  a 

Let
z=arctan a - arctan s
x=arctan a, tan x = a
y=arctan s, tan y = s

Hence,
z = x - y

tan z = tan (x-y)

tan x  tan y
tan z 
1  tan x tan y
as
tan z 
1  as
as
z  arctan
1  as
 as 
arctan a  arctan s  arctan 
 1  as 

Thus,

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 SOUTHERN LUZON STATE UNIVERSITY
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
LUCBAN, QUEZON

 sint    a  s 
L   lim arctan 
 t  a  
  1  as  
  a s 
   
 sint 
L   lim arctan a a 
 t  a    1  as 
 
  a a 
  s 
  1  
 sint  a
L   lim arctan 
 t  a 
 1
  s 
 
 a 
 s 
1 
 sint 
L   arctan  
 t   1 s
 
a 
 s 
1 
 sint 
L   arctan  
 t   1 s
 
a 
 sint   1 0 
L   arctan 
 t  0 s 
 sint  1
L   arctan 
 t  s

8. Transforms of Derivatives
The Laplace transform of the derivative f’(t) exists when s > a,
and

Lf' (t)  sL f t  f 0 

In general, the Laplace transform of nth derivative is

 
L f n (t)  s n L f t  s n 1 f 0   s n  2 f ' 0   s n 3 f " 0 

For first-order derivative:

Lf' t   sL f t  f (0)

For second-order derivative:

Lf" t   s 2 L f t  sf (0)  f ' (0) Lf" t   s 2 L f t  sf (0)  f ' (0)

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 SOUTHERN LUZON STATE UNIVERSITY
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LUCBAN, QUEZON

For third-order derivative:

Lf" ' t   s 3 L f t  s 2 f (0)  sf ' (0)  f " (0)

Proof of Laplace Transform of Derivatives


Lf' t    e  st f ' (t )dt
0

Using integration by parts,

u  e  st
du   se  st dt
dv  f ' (t )dt
v  f (t )

Thus,


 
Lf' t   e  st f (t ) 0   f (t )( se  st dt )


0
 
 f (t ) 
Lf' t    st   s  e  st f (t )dt )
 e 0 0

 f (t ) 
Lf' t    st   sL f t 
 e 0

Apply the limits from 0 to ∞:


 f (t ) 
Lf' t    st   sL f t 
 e 0
 f ( ) f (0) 
Lf' t     0   sL f t 
 e e 
Lf' t   f (0)  sL f t 
Lf' t   sL f t   f (0)

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 SOUTHERN LUZON STATE UNIVERSITY
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
LUCBAN, QUEZON

Example: Find the Laplace transform of f (t )  t 3 using the transform

of derivatives.

Solution:

f (t )  t 3 ........... f (0)  0
f ' (t )  3t 2 ........ f ' (0)  0
f " (t )  6t......... f " (0)  0
f " ' (t )  6

L f " ' t   s 3 L f t  s 2 f (0)  sf ' (0)  f " (0)

L(6)  s 3 L(t 3 )  s 2 f (0)  sf ' (0)  f " (0)
L(1)  s 3 L(t 3 )  s 2 (0)  s(0)  (0)
1
6   s 3 L(t 3 )
s
6
s 3 L(t 3 ) 
s
6
L(t 3 )  4
s

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 SOUTHERN LUZON STATE UNIVERSITY
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
LUCBAN, QUEZON

Inverse of Transform

From Lf(t)  F ( s ) , the value f(t) is called the inverse Laplace

transform of F(s). In symbol,
L-1F(s)  f (t )
where L-1 is called the inverse Laplace Transform operator.

To find the inverse transform, express F(s) into partial fractions

which will, then, be recognizable as one of the following standard
forms.

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LUCBAN, QUEZON

Theorem 1.
If a and b are constants,
L-1af(s)  bg(s)  aL1 f ( s )  bL1 g ( s )

Theorem 2.
L-1f(s)  e  at L1 f s  a 

8  3s  s 2
Example 1: Find the inverse transform of .
s3

Solution:

 8  3s  s 2  1  8 3s s 2 
L1    L  3   
 s3  s s3 s3 
 8  3s  s 2  1  1  1  1  1  1 
L1  3   8 L  3   3L  2   L  
 s  s  s  s
 8  3s  s 2   t 31   t 21 
L1    8    3  1
 s3   3  1!  2  1!
 8  3s  s 2  t2 t
L1  3   8  3 1
 s  2 1
 8  3s  s 2 
L1  3   4t  3t  1
2

 s 

Example 2: Find the inverse transform of .

Solution:
 5 4s   1  1  s 
L1   2   5 L1    4L  2 
 s  2 s  9  s2  s 9
 5 4s  1  s 
L1   2   5e 2t L1    4 L1  2 2 
 s  2 s  9 s s 3  5 4s
 2
 5 4s  s2 s 9
L1   2   5e 2t 1  4 cos 3t
 s  2 s  9
 5 4s 
L1   2   5e  4 cos 3t
2t

 s  2 s  9

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 SOUTHERN LUZON STATE UNIVERSITY
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
LUCBAN, QUEZON

Name: ______________________________ Date: ___________

(Surname, Firstname, M.I)
Subject: ___________________________ Section: ________

SKILL-ASSESSMENT EXERCISES 2

7 7 6
1. Find the inverse transform of . (Ans. sin 6t )
s 6 2
6
 s5 
2. Perform the indicated operation: L1  2 .
 s  s  6
8 3
(Ans. e 3t  e 2t )
5 5
3. Find the Laplace transform of f (t )  sin 2 t using the transform of
2
derivatives. (Ans. )
s s 4
2
 
4. Find the Laplace transform of f (t )  e 5t using the transform of
1
derivatives. (Ans. )
s 5
sin 2 t 1  s2  4 
5. Find the Laplace transform of f (t )  . (Ans. ln 2  )
t 4  s 
2 s ( s 2  27)
6. Find the Laplace transform of f (t )  t 2 cos 3t . (Ans. )
9
3
s 2

7. Supposed that the Laplace transform of a certain funtion f (t ) is
s2  s 1
, find the Laplace transform of f(2t).
(2 s  1) 2 ( s  1)
s 2  2s  4
(Ans. )
4s  1 s  2
2

 f (t  2)3 t  2
8. Find the Laplace transform of g (t )  
0 t2
6e 2 s
(Ans. )
s4
2
9. Find the Laplace transform of f (t )  et sinh 2t .(Ans. )
s  2s  3
2

10. By using the linearity property, show that

s
L(cosh at )  .
s  a2
2

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LUCBAN, QUEZON

MODULE 3
TRANSFER FUNCTION

INTRODUCTION
In engineering, a transfer function (also known as system function or
network function) of a system, sub-system, or component is
mathematical function that theoretically models the system's output
for each possible input. They are widely used in electronics and
control systems. In some simple cases, this function is a two-
dimensional graph of an independent scalar input versus the dependent
scalar output, called a transfer curve or characteristic curve.
Transfer functions for components are used to design and analyze
systems assembled from components, particularly using the block
diagram technique, in electronics and control theory.

The dimensions and units of the transfer function model the output
response of the device for a range of possible inputs. For example,
the transfer function of a two-port electronic circuit like an
amplifier might be a two-dimensional graph of the scalar voltage at
the output as a function of the scalar voltage applied to the input;
the transfer function of an electromechanical actuator might be the
mechanical displacement of the movable arm as a function of
electrical current applied to the device; the transfer function of a
photodetector might be the output voltage as a function of the
luminous intensity of incident light of a given wavelength.

OBJECTIVE
After completing this module, you should be able to used transfer
functions to design and analyze systems assembled from components,
particularly using the block diagram technique, in electronics and
control theory.

DISCUSSION

The transfer function of a control system is defined as the ratio of

the Laplace transform of the output variable to Laplace transform of
the input variable assuming all initial conditions to be zero

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Procedure for determining the transfer function of a control system

are as follows:

1. We form the equations for the system.

2. Now we take Laplace transform of the system equations, assuming
initial conditions as zero.
3. Specify system output and input.
4. Lastly, we take the ratio of the Laplace transform of the output
and the Laplace transform of the input which is the required
transfer function.

It is not necessary that output and input of a control system are of

same category. For example, in electric motors the input is
electrical signal whereas the output is mechanical signal since
electrical energy required to rotate the motors. Similarly in an
electric generator, the input is mechanical signal and the output is
electrical signal, since mechanical energy is required to produce
electricity in a generator.

But for mathematical analysis, of a system all kinds of signals

should be represented in a similar form. This is done by transforming
all kinds of signal to their Laplace form. Also, the transfer
function of a system is represented by Laplace form by dividing
output Laplace transfer function to input Laplace transfer function.
Hence a basic block diagram of a control system can be represented as

Where r(t) and c(t) are time domain function of input and output
signal respectively.

Methods of Obtaining a Transfer Function

There two are major ways of obtaining a transfer function for the
control system. The ways are:

Block Diagram Method: It is not convenient to derive a complete

transfer function for a complex control system. Therefore, the
transfer function of each element of a control system is represented

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by a block diagram.
Block diagram reduction techniques are applied to obtain the desired
transfer function.
Signal Flow Graphs: The modified form of a block diagram is a signal
flow graph. Block diagram gives a pictorial representation of a
control system. Signal flow graph further shortens the representation
of a control system.

Example 1. Find the transfer function of the system given by:

Solution:

Example 2. The impulse response of a system is

What will be the transform function of the system?

Solution:
For impulse response, the output C(s) of the system is equal
to transfer function of the system.

Therefore, transfer function of the system is

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Example 3. A shaft of inertia J is rotated for an angle θ due to

applied torque T against a bearing friction f. Find the transfer
function of the system.

Solution:
The differential equation form of the above statement is

Taking Laplace transformation of both sides of the system,

As the applied torque is input and the output angular

displacement is output of the system.

Translational Mechanical System

Transfer Functions

Mechanical systems parallel electrical networks to such an extent

that there are analogies between electrical and mechanical components
and variables. Mechanical systems, like electrical networks, have
three passive, linear components. Two of them, the spring and the
mass, are energy-storage elements; one of them, the viscous damper,
dissipates energy. The two energy-storage elements are analogous to
the two electrical energy-storage elements, the inductor and
capacitor. The energy dissipator is analogous to electrical
resistance. Let us take a look at these mechanical elements, which
are shown in Table 1.0. In the table, K, f v, and M are called spring
constant, coefficient of viscous friction, and mass, respectively.

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The mechanical
system requires just one differential equation, called the equation
of motion, to describe it. We will begin by assuming a positive
direction of motion, for example, to the right. This assumed
positive direction of motion is similar to assuming a current
direction in an electrical loop. Using our assumed direction of
positive motion, we first draw a free-body diagram, placing on the
body all forces that act on the body either in the direction of
motion or opposite to it. Next, we use Newton’s law to form a
differential equation of motion by summing the forces and setting the
sum equal to zero. Finally, assuming zero initial conditions, we take
the Laplace transform of the differential equation, separate the
variables, and arrive at the transfer function.

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Example 1. Find the transfer function, X(s)/F(s), for the system of

Figure 1 below.

SOLUTION:
Begin the solution by drawing the free-body diagram shown in
Figure 1(a). Place on the mass all forces felt by the mass. We assume
the mass is traveling toward the right. Thus, only the applied force
points to the right; all other forces impede the motion and act to
oppose it. Hence, the spring, viscous damper, and the force due to
acceleration point to the left. We now write the differential
equation of motion using Newton’s law to sum to zero all of the
forces shown on the mass in Figure 1 (a.1):

Taking the Laplace transform, assuming zero initial conditions,

Or

Solving for the transfer function yields

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LUCBAN, QUEZON

which is represented
in Figure 1(b).

Example 2. Find the transfer function, X(s)/F(s), for the system of

Figure 2.0 (a).

SOLUTION:
The system has two degrees of freedom, since each mass can be
moved in the horizontal direction while the other is held still.
Thus, two simultaneous equations of motion will be required to
describe the system. The two equations come from free-body diagrams
of each mass. Superposition is used to draw the free body
diagrams. For example, the forces on M1 are due to (1) its own motion
and (2) the motion of M2 transmitted to M1 through the system. We
will consider these two sources separately. If we hold M2 still and
move M1 to the right, we see the forces shown in Figure 2.1(a). If we
hold M1 still and move M2 to the right, we see the forces shown
in Figure 2.1(b). The total force on M1 is the superposition, or sum,
of the forces just discussed. This result is shown in Figure 2.1(c).
For M2, we proceed in a similar fashion: First we move M2 to the
right while holding M1 still; then we move M1 to the right and hold
M2 still. For each case we evaluate the forces on M2. The results
appear in Figure 2.2.

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The Laplace transform of the equations of motion can now be written

from Figures 2.1(c) and 2.2(c) as

From this, the transfer function, X(s)/F(s), is

as shown in Figure 2.0 (b),where

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 SOUTHERN LUZON STATE UNIVERSITY
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
LUCBAN, QUEZON

Name: ______________________________ Date: ___________

(Surname, Firstname, M.I) Section: ________

SKILL-ASSESSMENT EXERCISES 1.3

1. Find the transfer function represented by

Ans.

2. Find the transfer function corresponding to the differential

equation .

Ans.
3. Find the differential equation corresponding to the transfer

function

Ans.
4. Find the ramp response for a system whose transfer function is

Ans.
5. Find the transfer function, G(s)= X(s)/F(s), for the translational
mechanical system shown in Figure below.

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Ans.

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MODULE 4
BLOCK DIAGRAM AND SIGNAL FLOW GRAPH

INTRODUCTION
In this section, multiple subsystems are represented in two ways: as block
diagrams and as signal-flow graphs. Although neither representation is
limited to a particular analysis and design technique, block diagrams are
usually used for frequency-domain analysis and design, and signal-flow
graphs for state-space analysis.

DISCUSSION
Block Diagram

As you already know, a subsystem is represented as a block with an input,

an output, and a transfer function. Many systems are composed of multiple
subsystems, as in Figure 3.0. When multiple subsystems are interconnected,
a few more schematic elements must be added to the block diagram. These
new elements are summing junctions and pickoff points. All component parts
of a block diagram for a linear,
time-invariant systems are shown in Figure 3.1. The characteristic of the
summing junction shown in Figure 3.1(c) is that the output signal, C(s),
is the algebraic sum of the input signals, R1(s), R2(s), and R3(s). The
figure shows three inputs, but any number can be present. A pickoff point,
as shown in Figure 3.1(d), distributes the input signal, R(s),
undiminished, to several output points.

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Figure 3.0. The space shuttle consists of multiple subsystems. Can you
identify those that are control systems or parts of control systems?

Figure 3.1 Components of a block diagram for a linear, time-invariant

system.

Block diagrams consist of

 Blocks – these represent subsystems – typically modeled by, and
labeled with, a transfer function
 Signals – inputs and outputs of blocks – signal direction indicated
by arrows – could be voltage, velocity, force, etc.

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 Summing junctions
– points were signals are algebraically summed (–)
subtraction indicated by a negative sign near where the
signal joins the summing junction

The basic input/output relationship for a single block is:

Block diagram blocks can be connected in three basic forms:

1.Cascade Form

Figure 3.2(a) shows an example of cascaded subsystems. Intermediate

signal values are shown at the output of each subsystem. Each signal is
derived from the product of the input times the transfer function. The
equivalent transfer function, Ge(s), shown in Figure 3.2(b), is the output
Laplace transform divided by the input Laplace transform from Figure 3.2
(a),

Figure 3.2 a. Cascaded subsystems; b. equivalent transfer function

Or

(1.0)
which is the product of the subsystems’ transfer functions.

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Equation (1.0) was derived

under the assumption that interconnected subsystems do not load adjacent
subsystems. That is, a subsystem’s output remains the same whether or
not the subsequent subsystem is connected. If there is a change in the
output, the subsequent subsystem loads the previous subsystem, and the
equivalent transfer function is not the product of the individual transfer
functions.
The network of Figure 3.3(a) demonstrates this concept. Its transfer
function is

(1.1)
Similarly, the network of Figure 3.3(b) has the following transfer
function:

(1.2)

Figure 3.3 Loading in cascaded systems

If the networks are placed in cascade, as in Figure 3.3(c), you can verify
that the transfer function found using loop or node equations is

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(1.3)

But, using Eq. (1.0)

(1.4)

Equations (1.3) and (1.4) are not the same: Eq. (1.3) has one more term
for the coefficient of s in the denominator and is correct.

One way to prevent loading is to use an amplifier between the two networks,
as shown in Figure 3.3(d). The amplifier has a high-impedance input, so
that it does not load the previous network. At the same time, it has a
low-impedance output, so that it
looks like a pure voltage source to the subsequent network. With the
amplifier included, the equivalent transfer function is the product of
the transfer functions and the gain, K, of the amplifier.

2.Parallel Form

Figure 3.4 shows an example of parallel subsystems. Again, by writing the

output of each subsystem, we can find the equivalent transfer function.
Parallel subsystems have a common input and an output formed by the
algebraic sum of the outputs from all of the subsystems. The equivalent
transfer function, Ge(s), is the output transform divided by the input
transform from Figure 3.4(a), or

(1.5)

which is the algebraic sum of the subsystems’ transfer functions; it

appears in Figure 3.4(b).

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Figure 3.4 a. Parallel subsystems; b. equivalent transfer function

3. Feedback Form

The third topology is the feedback form. The feedback system forms the
basis for our study of control systems engineering.
Let us derive the transfer function that represents the system from its
input to its output. The typical feedback system is shown in Figure 3.5(a);
a simplified model is shown in Figure 3.5(b). Directing our attention to
the simplified model,

(1.6)

But since C(s) = E(s)G(s),

(1.7)

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Figure 3.5 a. Feedback control system; b. simplified model; c.

equivalent transfer function

Substituting Eq. (1.7) into Eq. (1.6) and solving for the transfer
function, C(s)/R(s)= Ge(s), we obtain the equivalent, or closed-loop,
transfer function shown in Figure 3.5(c),

(1.8)

The product, G(s)H(s), in Eq. (1.8) is called the open-loop transfer

function, or loop gain.

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SAMPLE PROBLEMS

Example 1. Consider a closed-loop system shown here and find the transfer
function of the system:

SOLUTION:
Reducing the 3 directly connected blocks in series into a single block,
we will have:

Further, we can see 3 blocks are present that are connected in parallel.
Thus, on reducing blocks in parallel, we will have:

Further on simplifying the internal closed-loop system, the overall

internal gain will be

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Now reducing the two blocks in series:

So, this is the reduced canonical form of a closed-loop system. We know

gain of the closed-loop system is given as:

Therefore,

On simplifying the equation

This is the overall transfer function of the given control system.

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SIGNAL FLOW GRAPH

Signal flow graph is a graphical representation of algebraic equations.

Basic Elements of Signal Flow Graph

Nodes and branches are the basic elements of signal flow graph.

Node
Node is a point which represents either a variable or a signal. There are
three types of nodes — input node, output node and mixed node.The junction
points that are used to represent varaibles.

Input Node − It is a node, which has only outgoing branches.

Output Node − It is a node, which has only incoming branches.

Branch - Is a line segment which joins two nodes. It has both gain and
direction.

Mixed Node − It is a node, which has both incoming and outgoing branches.

Path – It is a traversal of connected branches in the direction of branch

arrows such that no node is traversal more than once.

Forward path – It is a path from input node to the output node.

Forward path gain – It is the product of branch gains encountered in

traversing a forward path.

Loop – It is a path which originates and terminates at the same node.

Loop gain – it is the product of the branch gains encountered in

traversing a loop.

Self loop – Loop with only one branch.

Non-Touching loop – If the loop do not possess ay common node.

Example 2. Let us consider the following signal flow graph to identify

these nodes.

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The nodes present in this signal flow graph are y1, y2, y3 and y4.
 y1 and y4 are the input node and output node, respectively.
 y2 and y3 are mixed nodes

Construction of Signal Flow Graph

Let us construct a signal flow graph by considering the following

algebraic equations

y2 = a12y1+a42y4
y3=a23y2+a53y5
y4=a34y3
y5=a45y4+a35y3
y6=a56y5
There will be six nodes (y1, y2, y3, y4, y5 and y6) and eight branches
in this signal flow graph. The gains of the branches are a12, a23, a34,
a45, a56, a42, a53 and a35.

To get the overall signal flow graph, draw the signal flow graph for each
equation, then combine all these signal flow graphs and then follow the
steps given below

Step 1 − Signal flow graph for y2=a13y1+a42y4 is shown in the following

figure.

Step 2 − Signal flow graph for y3=a23y2+a53y5 is shown in the following

figure.

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Step 3 − Signal flow graph for y4=a34y3 is shown in the following figure.

Step 4 − Signal flow graph for y5=a45y4+a35y3 is shown in the following

figure.

Step 5 − Signal flow graph for y6=a56y5 is shown in the following figure.

Step 6 − Signal flow graph of overall system is shown in the following

figure.

Conversion of Block Diagrams into Signal Flow Graphs

Follow these steps for converting a block diagram into its equivalent
signal flow graph.

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 Represent all the signals, variables, summing points and take-off

points of block diagram as nodes in signal flow graph.
 Represent the blocks of block diagram as branches in signal flow
graph.
 Represent the transfer functions inside the blocks of block diagram
as gains of the branches in signal flow graph.
 Connect the nodes as per the block diagram. If there is connection
between two nodes (but there is no block in between), then represent
the gain of the branch as one. For example, between summing points,
between summing point and takeoff point, between input and summing
point, between take-off point and output

Example 3. Let us convert the following block diagram into its equivalent
signal flow graph.

Represent the input signal R(s) and output signal C(s) of block diagram
as input node R(s) and output node C(s) of signal flow graph.

Just for reference, the remaining nodes (y1 to y9) are labelled in the
block diagram. There are nine nodes other than input and output nodes.
That is four nodes for four summing points, four nodes for four take-off
points and one node for the variable between blocks G1 and G2.

The following figure shows the equivalent signal flow graph.

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LUCBAN, QUEZON

Name: ______________________________ Date: ___________

(Surname, Firstname, M.I) Section: ________

SKILL-ASSESSMENT EXERCISES 1.4

1. Find the closed‐loop transfer function of the following system through

block‐diagram simplification.

2. Using Block Diagram Reduction, find the transfer function of the system
whose block diagram is shown in the below figure.

3. Using the block diagram reduction technique, determine the closed loop
transfer function C(s)/R(s).

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4. In the signal flow graph of figure, the gain c/r will be:

5. The signal flow graph of a system is shown in the below figure. The
transfer function c(s)/R(s) of the system is:

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