1.

Fundamental laws of electrical circuits

1.1 Introduction Notes
An electric circuit is an interconnection of electric devices (elements) by conducting
wires. Figure 1.1 shows a circuit consisting of a voltage source, two resistors, a
transistor, a capacitor, and a transformer. Any junction in the circuit where terminals of
the elements are joined together is called a node. On the circuit diagrams they are
marked with dots.

Fig. 1.1. An example of a circuit

1 i 2

v
Fig. 1.2. Reference directions of current i and voltage v

In the circuits we consider currents flowing through the elements (branches) and
voltages between any two nodes. The unit for voltage is the volt (V), whereas the unit
for current is the ampere (A). Figure 1.2 shows the reference direction of current i and
voltage v represented by arrows.

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If at some time current is positive, then it flows into the element by node 1. If the Notes
current is negative it flows out of the element by node 1. The reference direction of the
voltage across the element is represented by an arrow v. If at some time voltage is
positive, it means that the electric potential of node 1 is larger than the electric potential
of node 2. If it is negative then the electric potential of node 1 is smaller than the
electric potential of node 2. The reference direction of each current and each voltage can
be assigned arbitrarily. When they are chosen as shown in Fig. 1.2, we say that we have
chosen associated reference directions. This is the convention we will follow throughout
the whole course.

1.2 Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL)

The fundamental laws governing electric circuits are Kirchhoff’s voltage and current
laws and Tellegen’s theorem. In an electric circuit we consider a path traversing some
branches in succession. If the starting node of a path is the same as the ending node, the
path is called a loop.
Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law
For any electric circuit, for any of its loop, and at any time, the algebraic sum of the
branch voltages around the loop is equal to zero.
To write KVL equation we select a loop and assume arbitrarily its reference direction,
clock-wise or counter clock-wise. Next we assign the plus sign to the branch voltages
whose reference directions agree with that of the loop and the minus sign to the others.

Example 1.1
KVL equation for the loop 1, 2, 3 in the circuit shown in Fig. 1.3:
v1 (t ) − v 2 (t ) + v3 (t ) = 0 .

KVL equation for loop 1, 4, 5, 7:

− v1 (t ) + v 4 (t ) + v5 (t ) − v7 (t ) = 0 .

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 v7(t) Notes

v5(t)
v2(t)

v6(t)

v3(t)

v1(t) v4(t)

Fig. 1.3. An example circuit for illustrating KVL

KVL can also be expressed in terms of voltages between nodes creating a closed node
sequence. A node sequence is called a closed node sequence if it starts and ends at the
some node.

Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (general version)

For any electric circuit, for any closed node sequence, and for any time, the algebraic
sum of all node-to-node voltages around the chosen closed node sequence is equal to
zero.

Example 1.2
1 2 3

v2 v4
v1 v2,5 v6
v3 v5

4 5 6
Fig. 1.4. An example circuit for illustrating KVL

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Let us consider closed node sequences: 1, 2, 5, 4, 1 and 1, 2, 3, 6, 5, 4, 1. Notes
KVL equations:
1, 2, 5, 4, 1: − v 2 − v 2 ,5 + v3 + v1 = 0 .
1, 2, 3, 6, 5, 4, 1: − v 2 + v 4 + v6 − v5 + v3 + v1 = 0 .

1.3 Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL)

Another fundamental law governing electric circuits is Kirchhoff’s Current Law, as
follows.
For any electric circuit, for any of its nodes, and at any time the algebraic sum of all the
branch currents meeting at the node is zero.
In the algebraic sum we assign the plus sign to the currents leaving the node and the
minus sign to the currents entering the node.

Example 1.3
i 1(t)

i 2(t)
1 2

i3(t) 3 i 4(t)

Fig. 1.5. An example circuit for illustrating KCL

1: i1 (t ) − i2 (t ) + i3 (t ) = 0 ,
or simply
i1 − i2 + i3 = 0 .

3: − i3 − i 4 = 0 .

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To formulate KCL in a more general form we consider gaussian surface defined as a Notes
balloon-like closed surface, as illustrated in Fig. 1.6.

i1 the gaussian
surface

i2

i3

Fig. 1.6. The gaussian surface

KCL (general version)

For all circuits, for all gaussian surfaces, for all times t, the algebraic sum of all currents
crossing the gaussian surface at time t is equal to zero.
In the algebraic sum we assign the plus sign to the currents leaving the gaussian surface
and the minus sign to the currents entering the surface.

Example 1.4
In the circuit shown in Fig. 1.6 we write KCL equation
− i1 + i2 − i3 = 0 .

The topological properties of a circuit can be exhibited using a graph obtained by

replacing each branch by a line. Each branch of the graph has orientation indicated by
an arrow on the branch. This arrow is the same as the reference direction of the current
flowing through the corresponding branch of the circuit. Thus, the graph can be used to
write KVL and KCL equations.

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 1.4 Independence of KCL equations Notes
For a given circuit we can write many KCL equations. Hence, the question arises
how many of them are linearly independent.

1
1 2

2
3 4

Fig. 1.7. An example graph

To answer this question we consider the graph shown in Fig. 1.7 and write KCL
equations at each node
i1 − i2 − i3 = 0 ,
− i1 + i2 + i4 = 0 ,
i3 − i 4 = 0 .

If we add the first two equations together, we obtain

− i3 + i 4 = 0 .

Multiplying both sides of this equation by (− 1) yields

i3 − i 4 = 0 ,
which is exactly the third equation.

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It means that the third equation is a linear combination of the first two equations. Thus, Notes
not each equation brings new information not contained in the others and at least one
equation repeats the information contained in the others. However, if we reject the third
equation, then the remaining ones are linearly independent. Thus, the third equation is
redundant, it is useless and can be discarded. Generally, the following independence
property of KCL equations holds. For any graph with n nodes KCL equations for any
(n − 1) of these nodes form a set of (n − 1) linearly independent equations.
1.5 Independence of KVL equations
Similarly as in the case of KCL equations the question arises how to write a set of
linearly independent KVL equations. The simplest answer is as follows. We write KVL
equations selecting the loops so that any equation contains at least one voltage that has
not been included in any of the previous equations.
It can be shown that for a circuit having b branches and n nodes b − n + 1 linearly
independent equations can be formulated.
3

5
2 II
4 III
1
I
6

7 IV

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Fig. 1.8. A graph for illustrating independence of KVL equations

Example 1.5
Let us consider the graph shown in Fig. 1.8. In this graph we write linearly independent
KVL equations using the provided rule. As a result we obtain the following set of
equations

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 v1 + v 7 + v 2 = 0 , Notes
− v 2 − v3 − v 4 = 0 ,

v 4 + v5 + v 6 = 0 ,

v 7 + v 6 + v8 = 0 .

1.6 Tellegen’s theorem

Let us consider a graph having b branches and n nodes. Let us use the associated
reference directions.

Tellegen’s theorem
Let { i1 , i2 , … , ib } be any set of branch currents satisfying KCL at any node and let
{ v1 , v2 , … , vb } be any set of branch voltages satisfying KVL at any loop. Then it holds
b
∑ v k ik = 0 .
k =1

Note that the set of branch currents and the set of branch voltages are associated with
the given graph but not necessarily with the same circuit. For example, let us consider
the graph shown in Fig. 1.9 and two different circuits depicted in Figs 1.10 and 1.11
having this graph.
Tellegen’s theorem enables us to write the following equations:
v1i1 + v2i2 + v3i3 + v4i4 = 0 ,
~ ~ ~ ~ ~
v1 i1 + ~
v2 i 2 + ~
v3 i 3 + ~
v4 i 4 = 0 ,
~ ~ ~ ~
v1 i1 + v2 i 2 + v3 i 3 + v4 i 4 = 0 ,
~
v1i1 + ~
v2i2 + v~3i3 + ~
v4i4 = 0 .

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 1 Notes

1 2
2

3 4

Fig. 1.9. A graph having three nodes and four branches

v1 ~
v1

i1 ~
i1

~
i2 ~ i2
v2 i3 ~
v2
i3 i4
~
i4
v3 v4 ~
v3 ~
v4

Fig. 1.10. A circuit having the graph of Fig. 1.9 Fig. 1.11. A circuit having the graph of Fig. 1.9

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