Institute of Technology (AMIT)

FECE

Fundamentals of Electrical Engineering

Chapter 3
Electric Circuit Laws and analysis techniques

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Introduction
• The interconnection of various electric elements in a prescribed manner considered as an
electric circuit in order to perform a desired function.
• Analysis of electric circuits refers to computations required to determine the unknown
quantities such as:
• voltage,
• current and
• power associated with one or more elements in the circuit.

• To get the solution of engineering problems one must acquire the basic knowledge of electric
circuit laws and analysis techniques.
• Therefore in this chapter, we shall discuss briefly some of the basic laws and analysis
techniques.
 Ohm’s law
• Ohm's law states that the voltage across a resistor is directly proportional to the current I flowing
through it, that is V i

• The resistance of the resistor, measured in ohms is the constant of proportionality between the
voltage and current. V=IR or I=V/R

Georg Simon Ohm (1787–1854), a German physicist, is credited with finding the relationship
between current and voltage for a resistor. This relationship is known as Ohm’s law.
Ohm’s law
• Since the value of R can range from zero to infinite, it is important that we consider the two
extreme possible values of R.
• An elements with value of R=0 is called a short circuit as shown in fig a and for short circuit,
• V = Ri = 0(i) = 0 showing that the voltage is zero but the current can be any value.
• A short circuit is a circuit elements with approaching zero resistance (perfect conductor).
• Similarly, An elements with value of R = is called an open circuit as shown in fig b and for an
open circuit, showing that the current is zero but the voltage can be any value.
• An open circuit is a circuit elements with approaching infinite resistance
Important terminology
•Node-is the common point at which two or more devices (passive or active) are
connected as shown in fig a.
•Loop-is any closed path through the circuit in which no node is encountered more than
once or closed path that allows electrical current to flow continuously.
•Mesh-a loop that does not contain any other loop within it.
•Branch- is a portion of a circuit containing only a single element.

Fig. (a) (b) Loops Branches (c)

From fig c) ABEF is both a loop and a mesh, but ABCDEF is a loop but not a mesh
Important terminology

• A network with b branches, n nodes, and l independent loops will satisfy the
fundamental theorem of network topology:

Problem: How many branches and nodes does the circuit in Fig below have?
Identify the elements that are in series and in parallel.
Kirchhoff's law

• Ohm’s law by itself is not sufficient to analyze circuits.

• However, when it is coupled with Kirchhoff’s two laws, we have a sufficient, powerful
set of tools for analyzing a large variety of electric circuits.
• The most common and useful set of laws for solving electric circuits are the Kirchhoff’s
voltage and current laws.
• Several other useful relationships can be derived based on these laws.
• These laws are formally known as Kirchhoff’s current law (KCL) or Kirchhoff’s first
law and Kirchhoff’s voltage law or (KVL) Kirchhoff’s second law.
• Kirchhoff’s laws were first introduced by the German physicist Gustav Robert
Kirchhoff’s in 1847.
Kirchhoff's current law (KCL)

• KCL stats that the algebraic Sum of the currents entering any node is zero.
Mathematically,
• where n is the number of branches connected to the node and is the nth current
entering (or leaving) the node.
• By this law, currents entering a node may be regarded as positive, while currents
leaving the node may be taken as negative or vice versa.
• Or it can also be stated as the Sum of all currents entering a node is equal to the
sum of the currents leaving the node.
 Kirchhoff's voltage law (KVL)
• States that the algebraic sum of the voltages around any loop is zero.
Mathematically,

Or it states that the algebraic sum of the voltage drops (voltages from + to −) or voltage rises
(voltages from − to +) around any closed path (mesh or loop) in a circuit is equal to zero.
• We can start with any branch and go around the loop either clockwise or counterclockwise.
• Now, if we assign a (+) sign to the voltage drops, we must assign a (−) sign to the voltage rises.
Then, by KVL starting at node A and going clockwise
we get: – v1 – v2 + v3 + v4 = 0 or
going counterclockwise, we get: – v4 – v3 + v2 + v1 = 0
Series Resistors and Voltage division rule

The source voltage Vs is divided between the resistors R1 and R2 in direct proportion
to their resistances.

• The two resistors are in series, since the same current i flows in both of them. Applying Ohm’s law to
each of the resistors, we obtain (1)
• If we apply KVL to the loop (2)
Combine 1 and 2 we get, or (3)
• To determine the voltage across each resistor, we substitute Eq. (3) into (1) and obtain
and for ‘N’ resistor it is given by;
Parallel Resistors and Current division rule

For two parallel branches, the current through either branch is equal to the product of the other parallel
resistor and the input current divided by the sum of the two parallel resistances.

Iₙ = Iₜ * (Rₜ / Rₙ) General formula for current divider circuit

Where two resistors are connected in parallel and therefore have

the same voltage across them. From Ohm’s law,
or (1)
Apply KCL, then (2)
Substituting Eq. (1) into (2), we get (3)

Given the total current i entering node a, how do we obtain current We know that the
equivalent resistor has the same voltage, or (4)
Substituting Eqns. (4) into (1) results in (principle of current division)
 Nodal Analysis
• It is a method used in electrical circuit analysis to determine the voltages at different points, or
"nodes," within a circuit.
• In a nodal analysis, the variables in the circuit are selected to be the node voltages.
• One node is selected as the reference node (voltage=0v), and all other node voltages are defined with
respect to that node.
• Usually, the reference node (ground/zero potential) is the node with many branches connected to it.
And it is usually labeled as;

• Nodal analysis is based on a systematic application of Kirchhoff’s current law (KCL)

 Nodal Analysis

• In nodal analysis, the primary quantity to be solved is the node voltage.

• The other quantities like current can be found from the node voltage by using Ohm’s
law, voltage division rules, etc.
Nodal analysis without voltage sources
Steps to determine Node Voltages:
• Select a node as the reference node.

• Assign voltages to the remaining nodes.

• The voltages are referenced with respect to the reference node.

• Apply KCL to each of the non-reference nodes.

• Use Ohm’s law to express the branch currents in terms of node voltages.

• Solve the resulting simultaneous equations to obtain the unknown node voltages.
Nodal analysis with voltage sources

CASE 1
If a voltage source is connected between the reference node and a non-reference node, we simply set
the voltage at the non- reference node equal to the voltage of the voltage source.
CASE 2
If the voltage source (dependent or independent) is connected between two non-reference nodes, the
two non-reference nodes form a generalized node or super node we apply both KCL and KVL to
determine the node voltages.
Current flows from a higher potential to a lower potential in a resistor. We can express this principle as
 Super node
• A super node is formed by consisting a (dependent or independent) voltage source connected between
two nonreference nodes and any elements connected in parallel with it.

• We analyze a circuit with super nodes using the same steps mentioned in the previous section except
that the super nodes are treated differently.

• Because an essential component of nodal analysis is applying KCL, which requires knowing the
current through each element. There is no way of knowing the current through a voltage source in
advance. However, KCL must be satisfied at a super node like any other node. Hence, at the super
node
𝑖1 + 𝑖4 = 𝑖2 + 𝑖3 and V2-
V3=5
 Mesh Analysis
• It is a technique used in electrical circuit analysis to determine the currents flowing
through a network.
• A loop analysis uses KVL to determine a set of loop currents in the circuit.
• Once these loop currents are known, Ohm's law can be used to calculate any voltages in the network.

• There are exactly B -N + 1 linearly independent KVL equations for any network, where B is the
number of branches in the circuit and N is the number of nodes.

Steps to Determine Mesh Currents:

1. Assign mesh currents to the n meshes.

2. Apply KVL to each of the n meshes.

3. Use Ohm’s law to express the voltages in terms of the mesh currents.
4. Solve the resulting n simultaneous equations to get the mesh currents.
Mesh Analysis with Current Sources
Case 1-When a current source exists only in one mesh
We set i2=-5A, write mesh equation for the other meshes in the usual way

CASE 2-When a current source exists between two meshes

We create a super mesh by excluding the current source and any elements connected in series with it.
Super mesh
A super mesh results when two meshes have a (dependent or independent) current
source in common.
Nodal vs mesh analysis
• Given a network to be analyzed, how do we know which method is better or more efficient?
The choice of the better method is dictated by two factors.

The first factor is the nature of the particular network-

• Networks that contain many series-connected elements, voltage sources, or super meshes are
more suitable for mesh analysis, whereas networks with parallel-connected elements, current
sources, or super nodes are more suitable for nodal analysis.
• Also, a circuit with fewer nodes than meshes is better analyzed using nodal analysis, while a
circuit with fewer meshes than nodes is better analyzed using mesh analysis.
• The key is to select the method that results in the smaller number of equations.

The second factor is the information required.

• If node voltages are required, it may be expedient to apply nodal analysis. If branch or mesh
currents are required, it may be better to use mesh analysis.
Source transformation

• The source transformation of a circuit is the transformation of a power source from a

voltage source to a current source, or a current source to a voltage source.

• Or it is a process of replacing a voltage source V in series with a resistor R by a current

source I in parallel with a resistor R or vice versa as shown in the circuit below.
.

Where I=V/R or V=IR

 Linearity and Superposition
• a linear circuit is an electric circuit in which circuit parameters (R, L & C) are constant.
• In other words, a circuit whose parameters are not changed with respect to Current and Voltage is
called Linear Circuit.
• Although the property applies to many circuit elements, we shall limit its applicability to resistors R.
• Current flowing through a circuit is directly proportional to the applied Voltage i.e. V = IR
Linearity Theorem:
• The linearity property is a combination of both the homogeneity (scaling) and additivity property.
• The homogeneity property requires that if the input (also called the excitation) is multiplied by a
constant, then the output (also called the response) is multiplied by the same constant.
•If we multiply the sources by some number, the output is also multiplied.
Cont.
• If the current is increased by a constant k, then the voltage increases correspondingly
by k; that is,
(Homogeneity)
• The additivity property requires that the response to a sum of inputs is the sum of the
responses to each input applied separately.
• Using the voltage-current relationship of a resistor, if

• Then applying (i1 + i2) gives

(Additivity)
Cont.
• We say that a resistor is a linear element because the voltage-current

relationship satisfies both the homogeneity and the additivity properties.

• In general, a circuit is linear if it is both additive and homogeneous.

• A linear circuit consists of only linear elements, linear dependent sources, and

independent sources.
• A linear circuit is one whose output is linearly related (or directly proportional)

to its input.
Superposition

•The superposition theorem states that the current through, or voltage across, an
element in a linear bilateral network is equal to the algebraic sum of the currents or
voltages produced independently by each source.
•Bilateral network the circuit whose characteristics does not change due to change
of direction of voltage and current.
•Number of networks to be analyzed = Number of independent sources.
•Note: The superposition principle gives us the way to reduce a complex network
into smaller simple networks.
Superposition
Step 1. In a network containing multiple independent sources, each source can be applied
independently with the remaining sources turned off.
Step 2. To turn off a voltage source, replace it with a short circuit, and to turn off a current source,
replace it with an open circuit.
Step 3. When the individual sources are applied to the circuit, all the circuit laws and techniques we
have learned, or will soon learn, can be applied to obtain a solution.
Step 4. The results obtained by applying each source independently are then added together
algebraically to obtain a solution.
 Cont.
• One disadvantage of using superposition is it involve more work.

• If the circuit has three independent sources, we may have to analyze three simpler
circuits. However, superposition does help reduce a complex circuit to simpler one.

• Keep in mind that superposition is based on linearity. So, it is not applicable to the
effect on power due to each source, because the power absorbed by a resistor depends
on the square of the voltage or current.

• If the power value is needed, the current through (voltage across) the element must be
calculated first using superposition.
 Thevenin’s Theorem
• Thevenin’s Theorem states that any two-terminal, linear bilateral dc network can be replaced by an
equivalent circuit consisting of a voltage source and a series resistor.

• The Thevenin equivalent circuit provides equivalence at the terminals only the internal construction
and characteristics of the original network and the Thevenin equivalent are usually quite different.
Thevenin’s Theorem-steps to apply
1. Remove that portion of the network across which the Thevenin equivalent circuit is to be found. This
requires that the load resistor RL be temporarily removed from the network.
2. Mark the terminals of the remaining two-terminal network.

3. Calculate RTh by first setting all sources to zero (voltage sources are replaced by short circuits, and current
sources by open circuits) and then finding the resultant resistance between the two marked terminals. (If the
internal resistance of the voltage and/or current sources is included in the original network, it must remain
when the sources are set to zero.)

4. Calculate ETh by first returning all sources to their original position and finding the open-circuit voltage
between the marked terminals. In all cases, keep in mind that it is the open-circuit potential between the two
terminals marked in step 2.)

5. Draw the Thevenin equivalent circuit with the portion of the circuit previously removed replaced between the terminals
of the equivalent circuit. This step is indicated by the placement of the resistor RL between the terminals of the Thevenin
equivalent circuit.
Cont.
To apply this idea in finding the Thevenin resistance , we need to consider two
cases.

CASE 1 If the network has no dependent sources, we turn off all independent
sources. is the input resistance of the network looking between terminals a and
b, as shown in Figure above (b).

CASE 2 If the network has dependent sources, we turn off all independent
sources. As with superposition, dependent sources are not to be turned off
because they are controlled by circuit variables.

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 Cont.
 Thevenin’s theorem is very important in circuit analysis. It helps simplify a circuit.
 A large circuit may be replaced by a single independent voltage source and a single
resistor.
 This replacement technique is a powerful tool in circuit design.
 The equivalent network behaves the same way externally as the original circuit.
 Consider a linear circuit terminated by a load , as shown in Figure below (a).

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Cont.
The current through the load and the voltage across the load are easily
determined once the Thevenin equivalent of the circuit at the load’s terminals
is obtained, as shown in Figure (b) below. From this we can obtain

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Norton’s theorem
States that any two-terminal linear bilateral dc network can be replaced by an equivalent circuit
consisting of a current source and a parallel resistor.

Norton’s theorem-steps to apply

1. Remove that portion of the network across which the Norton equivalent circuit is found.

2. Mark the terminals of the remaining two-terminal network.

Norton’s theorem-steps to apply

3. Calculate RN by first setting all sources to zero (voltage sources are replaced with short circuits, and
current sources with open circuits) and then finding the resultant resistance between the two marked
terminals. (If the internal resistance of the voltage and/or current sources is included in the original
network, it must remain when the sources are set to zero.) Since RN =RTh, the procedure and value
obtained using the approach described for Thévenin’s theorem will determine the proper value of RN.

4. Calculate IN by first returning all sources to their original position and then finding the short-circuit
current between the marked terminals. It is the same current that would be measured by an ammeter
placed between the marked terminals.

5. Draw the Norton equivalent circuit with the portion of the circuit previously removed replaced
between the terminals of the equivalent circuit.
Converting b/n Thevenin and Norton equivalent circuit
The Norton and Thevenin equivalent circuits can also be found from each other by
using the source transformation.

We can calculate any two of the three using the method that takes the least effort
and use them to get the third using Ohm’s law.
Maximum Power transfer

•In circuit analysis we are sometimes interested in determining the maximum power
that can be delivered to a load.
•By employing Thevenin's theorem, we can determine the maximum power that a
circuit can supply and the manner in which to adjust the load to effect maximum
power transfer.
•The maximum power transfer theorem states that a load will receive maximum
power from a linear bilateral dc network when its total resistive value is exactly
equal to the Thevenin resistance of the network as “seen” by the load. i.e RL=R th
Maximum Power transfer
 The Thevenin equivalent is useful in finding the maximum power a linear circuit
can deliver to a load.

 The power delivered to the load is

• To prove the maximum power transfer theorem, we differentiate p in equation 1 w.r.t RL and set
the result equal to zero. We obtain
Maximum Power transfer