The Teacher and School Curriculum Semi-Final Reviewer

1. Elements of a Curriculum by Hilda Taba (1962)

Hilda Taba outlined essential elements of any curriculum, regardless of design. Her
observations provide a foundational understanding of curriculum components that can aid
educators and curriculum developers in designing effective educational programs. The key
elements she highlights include:
 Statement of Aims and Objectives: Every curriculum includes a clear set of aims
and objectives. These guide the overall direction and intent, clarifying what the
curriculum intends to achieve. This element helps in shaping the content and
methodology to meet these aims.
 Selection and Organization of Content: A curriculum isn’t merely a collection of
topics; it involves careful selection and organization. This arrangement ensures that
the content aligns with the objectives and creates a cohesive learning experience.
 Patterns of Learning and Teaching: Curricula embody certain patterns of teaching
and learning. These patterns may be implied by the objectives or required by the
content’s nature. For instance, a hands-on science curriculum might necessitate lab-
based learning methods.
 Evaluation of Outcomes: A curriculum also includes an evaluation process to
measure if objectives are being met. Evaluation methods can be formative (ongoing
checks during the process) or summative (final assessments), ensuring students meet
the intended learning goals.
Understanding these elements aids educators in curriculum design and in analyzing
curriculum materials offered to students. Taba’s framework is influential in modern
curriculum theory, emphasizing structured learning objectives, organization, and evaluation.

2. Expanded Elements of a Curriculum (Figure 1)

The second image elaborates on the curriculum components in a structured flow, highlighting
four major elements:
1. Curriculum Intent: This includes the purpose behind the curriculum—what it aims
to achieve in terms of skills, knowledge, and values. Curriculum intent comprises:
o Aims: Broad, general goals, such as social or educational expectations. They
articulate what the curriculum hopes to accomplish.
o Goals: More specific than aims, these indicate particular skills, values, or
knowledge to be achieved.
o Objectives: These are detailed learning outcomes and describe specific,
measurable achievements expected from students. Objectives are vital for
instructional planning and assessment.
 2. Content: The knowledge, values, or skills included in the curriculum. Content is
selected to match the curriculum’s aims and objectives and must be organized
effectively to support learning.
3. Learning Experiences: This includes teaching methods, activities, and strategies for
delivering the content. Learning experiences can vary widely, from group projects and
experiments to discussions and lectures, depending on the subject and learning
outcomes desired.
4. Evaluation: Evaluation assesses whether the curriculum’s objectives are met. It
involves tools and methods like tests, quizzes, observations, and other performance
measurements to ensure students achieve the set goals. Evaluation also provides
feedback for refining the curriculum.
These elements are interdependent, forming a cycle where intent drives content, content is
delivered through learning experiences, and evaluation assesses success, which can feed back
into refining curriculum intent.

3. Curriculum Conceptions
The third image discusses various approaches to curriculum development, describing six
curriculum conceptions from different perspectives. These conceptions illustrate the diversity
of curriculum theories and the values that can influence educational design.
1. Academic Rationalist Conception: This is the traditional approach, emphasizing
discipline-based knowledge. It prioritizes academic subjects like science, math, and
literature, seeking to instill foundational knowledge and intellectual discipline. This
model often emphasizes cognitive development and mastery of subject areas.
2. Cognitive Processes Conception: This approach focuses on developing students’
cognitive skills, such as critical thinking, problem-solving, and information
processing. It emphasizes transferable skills that students can apply across various
intellectual challenges, making the curriculum an instrument for cognitive growth
rather than just content mastery.
3. Humanistic Conception: Rooted in personal development, this conception aims to
nurture students’ unique potential and personal growth. It prioritizes self-expression,
creativity, and individual interests, making the curriculum flexible to accommodate
each student's learning path. Humanistic approaches often incorporate student choice
and focus on holistic development.
4. Social Reconstructionist Conception: This approach views education as a tool for
social change, aiming to prepare students to address societal issues. The curriculum is
designed with a focus on current social problems, encouraging students to engage in
civic duties and understand social justice. This conception promotes critical awareness
and social responsibility.
5. Technological Conception: This perspective emphasizes systematic instruction and
uses technology to improve teaching efficiency and effectiveness. It treats education
as a structured process, often incorporating measurable outcomes, standardization,
 and sometimes automation. This model may include structured sequences, modular
learning, and data-driven approaches to ensure consistency.
6. Eclectic Conception: This conception blends elements from multiple theories to
create a flexible and responsive curriculum. Curriculum designers using this approach
can integrate traditional knowledge with cognitive skill-building, personal
development, and social awareness to meet the diverse needs of students. The eclectic
approach recognizes that no single conception fully addresses all educational goals.
Summary
These materials provide a comprehensive look at curriculum design, discussing both the
fundamental components and varying philosophies. Hilda Taba’s elements emphasize
objectives, content organization, teaching patterns, and evaluation, laying a structured
foundation for curriculum design. The Figure 1 elements expand on this, breaking down
curriculum intent, content, learning experiences, and evaluation in a linear model.
The six curriculum conceptions highlight different perspectives on education’s purpose,
from the development of academic knowledge to social transformation and personal growth.
Each conception offers a distinct approach to achieving educational goals, whether through
traditional academic content, cognitive skill-building, or a focus on social change.
Understanding these elements and conceptions equips educators with a broad perspective,
allowing them to design or adapt curricula that best meet their students' needs and
educational objectives.

Curriculum Foundations:
Curriculum development involves establishing educational content and methods that best
facilitate learning. Key curriculum scholars, including Tyler (1949), Taba (1962), Eisner
(1985), Saylor, Alexander, and Lewis (1981), Print (1993), Sowell (1996), and Tanner and
Tanner (2007), have studied and categorized the foundational sources that influence
curriculum design. These scholars have identified three major categories of foundations in
curriculum development:
1. Psychology: Studies of learners and learning theories.
2. Sociology and Anthropology: Studies of life and social contexts.
3. Philosophy: Studies of the nature and value of knowledge.
These foundations help curriculum developers structure and frame various curriculum
conceptions, ultimately affecting how educational content is developed and delivered. Let's
explore each foundation and its significance.

1. Psychological Foundations of Curriculum

Psychology plays a vital role in curriculum development because it provides insights into
human behavior, learning, and motivation. Understanding these psychological factors helps
curriculum designers make decisions that align with how people learn best.
According to Print (1993), psychology contributes to curriculum development by providing
information in five key areas:
 Educational Objectives: Psychology helps define what students should know and be
able to do after completing a curriculum. By understanding cognitive development
and motivation, curriculum developers can set realistic, developmentally appropriate
goals that encourage progress and achievement.
 Student Characteristics: Recognizing the varied characteristics of learners, such as
their developmental stage, cultural background, and individual learning preferences,
allows educators to create inclusive and adaptable curricula. These insights ensure
that the curriculum meets students where they are in their educational journey.
 Learning Processes: Psychology provides models and theories that explain how
people learn, such as constructivism, behaviorism, and cognitive development
theories. Understanding these processes allows curriculum developers to select
instructional strategies that align with how students best acquire, retain, and apply
knowledge.
 Teaching Methods: Effective teaching methods are derived from psychological
insights into how students respond to various forms of instruction. For example,
active learning techniques like discussion and hands-on activities are often based on
psychological theories that show students learn better when they are actively engaged.
 Evaluation Procedures: Psychology informs the ways we assess student learning and
development. Evaluation methods such as formative assessments, summative
assessments, and feedback mechanisms help educators understand student progress
and make data-driven adjustments to improve learning outcomes.
In summary, psychology provides a scientific basis for creating curricula that are responsive
to human learning needs, fostering environments where students can succeed.

2. Sociological and Anthropological Foundations of Curriculum

Sociology and anthropology examine how society and culture influence education. These
disciplines provide a contextual understanding of the community in which the curriculum will
be implemented, ensuring it is relevant and meaningful for students.
Sowell (1996) highlighted the importance of understanding society and its culture in
curriculum development. Key areas where sociology and anthropology influence curriculum
include:
 Content Relevance: Sociological and anthropological studies help curriculum
designers choose content that is relevant to students' lives. By incorporating culturally
significant topics, educators ensure that students can connect their learning to their
own experiences, making education more meaningful and motivating.
  Social Issues and Educational Needs: As society changes, so do the needs of
students. Sociological studies inform curriculum developers of the current social
issues and educational challenges faced by students. For example, topics like
environmental sustainability, digital literacy, and social justice have become more
prominent in recent curricula to reflect societal needs.
 Community Values and Norms: Curricula that align with community values and
norms are more likely to be supported and accepted. For instance, certain societies
emphasize collaborative learning and community involvement, so curricula that
incorporate group projects and service-learning opportunities may be more effective
and valued.
 Preparation for Social Roles: Education serves as a tool for preparing students for
their roles in society, whether as future workers, citizens, or community members.
Understanding societal expectations and workforce demands helps curriculum
developers create programs that equip students with the skills and knowledge they
need to thrive.
 Promoting Social Equity: Sociological insights into social structures and inequalities
guide the development of curricula that promote equity and access for all students.
This includes addressing disparities and incorporating perspectives from various
cultural and socioeconomic backgrounds, ensuring all students have equal
opportunities to succeed.
By integrating insights from sociology and anthropology, curriculum developers create
learning experiences that are responsive to societal demands and culturally inclusive.

3. Philosophical Foundations of Curriculum

Philosophy addresses fundamental questions about the purpose and value of education. It
helps curriculum developers establish the overarching goals of education and decide what
knowledge is most valuable for students to acquire.
Curriculum philosophies commonly fall into several categories:
 Perennialism: Focuses on timeless knowledge and universal truths. Perennialist
curricula emphasize classical subjects, such as literature, philosophy, and science, that
are thought to cultivate rationality and morality.
 Progressivism: Advocates for education that is student-centered and responsive to
individual needs and interests. Progressive curricula emphasize experiential learning,
critical thinking, and real-world problem-solving, preparing students to adapt in a
changing world.
 Essentialism: Emphasizes a core set of knowledge and skills necessary for all
students, particularly in subjects like reading, math, science, and social studies.
Essentialist curricula focus on foundational knowledge that is crucial for students to
succeed academically and socially.
  Reconstructionism: Argues that education should promote social reform and address
global issues. Reconstructionist curricula include topics such as social justice,
environmental sustainability, and civic responsibility, encouraging students to
contribute to society positively.
By understanding these philosophical perspectives, curriculum developers can define the
purpose of their educational programs, aligning them with broader societal and educational
goals.

Summary
In conclusion, curriculum development is influenced by three primary foundations:
psychology, sociology/anthropology, and philosophy. Each provides unique insights that
help shape educational content and delivery:
 Psychology provides knowledge about learning processes, student characteristics, and
effective teaching and assessment methods.
 Sociology and Anthropology emphasize the importance of societal relevance,
cultural understanding, and preparing students for their roles in the community.
 Philosophy guides the curriculum’s purpose, helping developers decide what
knowledge is most valuable for students’ intellectual and social growth.
Together, these foundations enable curriculum developers to design programs that are
educationally sound, culturally relevant, and aligned with societal values, ultimately fostering
environments where students are prepared for both personal and social success.