. .

Introduction
❑ Cell: Cell is the basic structural and functional Unit of Life.
▪ Structural Unit: All organisms are made up of cells.
▪ Functional Unit: All the functions of a body are carried out by cells.

❑ Cell Biology: It is the branch of biology that deals with the study of structure, biochemistry,
physiology, reproduction, evolution and genetics of cells.
Fig.1

❑ Cytology: Study of form and structure of cells as well as their organelles with the help of microscope.

➢ Discovery of a cell:
▪ Cell was discovered by Robert Hooke . In a 1665 publication called “Micrographia‘’,
experimental scientist Robert Hooke coined the term “cell” for the honey comb like
structures he observed when viewing cork tissue through a lens. (fig.1)

▪ The first Living cell was observed by Antoine van Leeuwenhoek. In the 1670s, van
Leeuwenhoek discovered bacteria and protozoa. He was a Dutch shopkeeper who had
great skill in crafting lenses. He observed the movements of Protista (a type of single-
celled organism) and sperm, which he collectively termed “animalcules. ”.
 Cell Theory
. .

❑ In 1838, M.J. Schleiden (German Botanist) published his

findings as follows:
a) All types of plant tissues are made up of one or other types of
cells.
b)Cells are structural units of all plant tissues.
c)Each cell has a broadly similar structure of cell wall, nucleus
and a surrounding jelly like substance.
❑ In 1839, Theodore Schwann (German Zoologist) said that:
a) Animal tissues were also made up of cells.
b) Animal cells differ from plant cells in lacking cell walls.

➢ Later on they hypothesized that Plants and animals are

made up of cells.
Fig.2
Drawback: They were not clear about the origin of new cells
according to them cells generated spontaneously. 1. The curve of the flask prevents outside air from
entering the flask. No contamination occurs.
2. When the neck of the flask is broken off, bacteria
❑ Rudolf Virchow (1855) later made important contributions to reach the sterile broth and organism growth
this theory. He famously stated ‘Omnis cellula-e-cellula’ occurs.
i.e.; All new cells arise from pre-existing cells.
❑ It was experimentally demonstrated by Louis Pasteur in
1862. (Fig. 2)
. .

❑ The three scientists that contributed to the development of cell theory are Matthias Schleiden,
Theodor Schwann, and Rudolf Virchow. Components of cell theory are:
I)All living things are composed of one or more cells.
II) The cell is the basic unit of life.
III) All new cells arise from existing cells.
Exceptions:
A) Viruses: According to cell theory Viruses are not living as they are not made up of cells. But when they
enter into the host’s body they can replicate like a living cell by using the host's machinery.
Note: Viruses are considered to be a connecting link between non living and living.
B) Mitochondria and Chloroplast: According to cell theory, a cell is the smallest unit which can
replicate itself but organelles like mitochondria and chloroplast have their own genetic material , and
reproduce independently from the rest of the cell.
C) Origin of the first cell: According to the cell theory new cells originate from pre-existing cells. But, the
first cell did not originate from a pre-existing cell it was the result of chemical reactions.
 Cell Sizes
▪ Smallest cell is Mycoplasma/Pleuropneumonia Like Organism(PPLO)- (0.1-0.5) µm. Mycoplasma is a bacteria which lacks a cell wall.

▪ Largest bacterial cell is Theomargarita namibiensis .

▪ Generally bacteria measure from (0.1-5.0) µm.

▪ Largest cell is an Ostrich egg 170x150mm (1.1X 10 15 µm3).

▪ Largest single celled organism is Caulerpa taxifolia, an aquatic Algae, that can grow to a length of 6-12 inches.

▪ Longest human cell is Neuron-90cm in length.

▪ Smallest human cell is sperm cell-50 µm length.

▪ Largest human cell is egg cell-100 µm diameter.

❑ Properties of a metabolically active cell or fastly dividing cells:

1) Surface area/Volume ratio: If the cell grows too large its Surface area/Volume ratio>1; (i.e.; Surface area of the cell > Volume of the cell)
the plasma membrane will not have sufficient surface area to support the rate of diffusion required for the increased volume. In other words, as
a cell grows, it becomes less efficient.

2) Nucleoplasm/Cytoplasm ratio: In case of a fastly diving cell this ratio will be > 1.
Explanation: The nucleus of a fastly dividing cell is larger than a non dividing cell. As a larger nucleus can control the cellular activities better.
 Cell Shapes

Shape of cells vary. Some of the cell shapes are as follows:

1) Spherical- Coccus (bacteria)

2) Rod- Lacto bacillus (bacteria)
3) Spiral- Spirillum (bacteria)
4) Comma- Vibrio cholerae (bacteria)
5) Hexagonal – Liver cells
6) Cube- Epithelial cell
7) Biconcave – Human RBC
8) Biconvex- Camel RBC
9) Spindle- Smooth muscle cells
10) Cylindrical- Skeletal muscle cells
11) Spoon shaped- Human sperm
12) Oval- Egg cell
13) Cylindrical and branched- Cardiac muscle cells
14) Elongated- Neuron
15) Slipper- Paramoecium.
 Microscopy

▪ The study of a fine structure of an object under microscope is called Microscopy.

❑ Microscope: A microscope (micro- = “small”; -scope = “to look at”) is an instrument consisting of convex lenses magniy and resolve small
objects not visible to unaided eye for the study of their detail.

❑ Magnification power = Size of retinal image seen with the instrument

Size of retinal image seen with the unaided eye

Or

❑ Magnification power = Power of objective lens X Power of eyepiece or Ocular lens

❑ Limit of resolution: It is the smallest separation between two point objects at which they appear just separated. Smaller the limit of
resolution more closer objects we can study.

❑ Resolving power: It is the ability of an objective lens to distinguish two close objects as distinct. Higher the value of resolving power more
fine structures we can study. smaller wavelengths lead to the ability to resolve smaller structures and finer details.
I) Light microscopes: They are commonly used in schools
and undergraduate college laboratories.
▪ They magnify up to approximately 400 times.
▪ They use light as a source of illumination.
▪ They are advantageous for viewing living organisms (Phase
Contrast microscope),but since individual cells are generally
transparent, their components are not distinguishable unless they are
colored with special stains.
▪ Staining, however, usually kills the cells.
▪ Stain or dye is the synthetic chemical which is used commonly in
microbiology to increase the contrast between microorganisms or
parts of it and the background, so that it can be easily visible.
▪ Example: Methylene blue (Blue color)- Cheek cell staining
Safranin(Red color)- Plant cell .

❑ Parts of Compound Light microscope:

1)Eyepiece: The lens the viewer looks through to see the specimen.
The eyepiece usually contains a 10X or 15X power lens.

2)Body tube (Head): The body tube connects the eyepiece to the
objective lenses.

3)Arm: The arm connects the body tube to the base of the microscope.
Compound Light Microscope.
4) Coarse adjustment: Brings the specimen into general focus.
5)Fine adjustment: It tunes the focus and increases the detail of the specimen.

6)Objective lenses: One of the most important parts of a compound microscope, as they are the lenses closest to the specimen. A standard
microscope has three, four, or five objective lenses that range in power from 4X to 100X.

7) Nosepiece: A rotating turret that houses the objective lenses. The viewer spins the nosepiece to select different objective lenses.

8) Stage: The flat platform where the slide is placed.

9) Stage clips: Metal clips that hold the slide in place.

10) Aperture: The hole in the middle of the stage that allows light from the illuminator to reach the specimen.

11) Specimen or slide: The specimen is the object being examined. Most specimens are mounted on slides, flat rectangles of thin glass.

12) Aperture: The hole in the middle of the stage that allows light from the illuminator to reach the specimen.

13) Condenser: Gathers and focuses light from the illuminator onto the specimen being viewed.

14) Iris diaphragm: Adjusts the amount of light that reaches the specimen.

15) Mirror: It reflect light from an external source up through the bottom of the stage.
II) Electron microscopes: In contrast to light microscopes, electron microscopes use a beam of electrons instead of a beam of light. Not only does
this allow for higher magnification and, thus, more detail.

▪ It also provides higher resolving power.

▪ The method used to prepare the specimen for viewing with an electron microscope kills the specimen. Electrons have short wavelengths (shorter
than photons) that move best in a vacuum, so living cells cannot be viewed with an electron microscope.

Transmission electron microscope Scanning electron microscope

1) The electron beam penetrates the cell and provides details A beam of electrons moves back and forth across a
of a cell’s internal structures. cell’s surface, creating details of cell surface characteristics.

2)It delivers a 2 dimensional picture. It delivers a 3 dimensional picture.

3)Magnification power 50 millions. Magnification power 2 millions.

4) Resolution 0.05 nm. Resolution 0.4 nm.

 Types of cell
(O.T.B.O Nucleus)

Prokaryotic cell Eukaryotic cell

Primitive Nucleus True Nucleus

Eg: Bacteria, Archaebacteria, Eg: Plant and Animal cell.

Cyanobacetria/Blue Green Algae
(Nostoc, Anabaena etc).

True Nucleus