JIJIN P JOSEPH

B.TECH

CIVIL ENGINEERING

3rd SEMESTER

SURVEYING AND GEOMATICS

BTCE 306

31.10.2024
 MODULE I

1. What are the general principles of surveying?

Some principles of surveying in civil engineering include:

 Working from the whole to the part: The area is first enclosed by main stations
and survey lines.
 Locating a new station by at least two measurements: The relative position of a
new station is determined by measuring from at least two fixed reference points.
 Accuracy: Accurate measurements are essential in surveying and engineering.
 Reconnaissance: The first step in the surveying process is to carefully and
thoroughly reconnoiter the area. This helps the surveyor decide on the
techniques and instruments needed to complete the work.
Some surveying methods used in civil engineering include:
 Triangulation
The area is divided into a network of triangles, and one side of each triangle is
measured with high precision.
 Aerial surveying
Data and information about a large area of land is collected from an aerial
perspective.
 Levelling
The height of specified points is established, verified, or measured relative to a
datum.
 Photographic surveying
Also known as photogrammetry, this method uses aerial and spatial imagery to
create topographic maps.
Surveying is used in civil engineering for a variety of purposes,
including: Establishing and demarcating boundaries between properties,
Resolving disputes, and Ensuring proper land ownership.
 2. Define back sight, foresight and intermediate sight.

Backsight, foresight, and intermediate sight are all terms used in surveying to
describe rod readings taken at different points and at different times during the
leveling process:
 Backsight (BS): The first reading taken by a surveyor after setting up a leveling
instrument. It's taken on a point with a known elevation, such as a benchmark or
turning point. Also known as a plus sight.
 Foresight (FS): The last reading taken before moving the leveling instrument to a
new position. It's taken on a point where the elevation is to be determined. Also
known as a minus sight.
 Intermediate sight (IS): Any reading taken between the backsight and the
foresight.
The purpose of leveling is to compare the heights of points on the Earth's
surface. The data collected from leveling is used to create contour lines and spot
heights on maps, and to generate data for cross-sections and longitudinal
sections.

3. Define contour. What are the characteristics of contour?

A contour is an imaginary line that connects points of equal value in a raster

dataset. On a topographic map, a contour line is a curved line that joins points of
equal elevation above a reference level, such as sea level.

Here are some characteristics of contours:

 Depicts terrain
Contour lines show the shape and elevation of the terrain, including hills,
valleys, mountains, and other geographical features.
 Shows steepness
 The closer the contour lines are together, the steeper the slope. Widely spaced
contour lines indicate gentle slopes or flat areas.

 Also known as isolines

A contour map is also known as an isoline map.
 Can represent other values
Contours can also represent other values such as temperature, precipitation,
pollution, or atmospheric pressure.

4. How ranging of a line is accomplished across a rising ground? Illustrate

with necessary diagrams.

Ranging across a rising ground is accomplished using the method of reciprocal

ranging, also known as indirect ranging. This method is used when the endpoints
of a survey line are not visible due to high ground or distance between them.

Here are the steps for reciprocal ranging:

1. Select two intermediate points, M and N, where both endpoints are visible.
 2. Have a surveyor at A and another at B.
3. The surveyor at A directs the person at M to move to M2 so that AM2N1 are in a
line.
4. The surveyor at B directs the person at N to move to N2 so that BN2M2 are in a
line.
5. Repeat the process until AMNB are in a line.
Ranging is the process of establishing intermediate points along a survey line that
is longer than a chain length. It must be done before a survey line is chained.
5. Define Benchmark Level Surface reduced level.

In surveying, a benchmark is a permanent reference point with a known

elevation, while a reduced level (RL) is the vertical distance between a survey
point and a datum surface:
 Benchmark
A relatively permanent reference point with a known elevation. Benchmarks are
used as starting points for leveling or as points to close for a check. The height of
a benchmark is calculated relative to the heights of nearby benchmarks.
 Reduced level
The vertical distance between a survey point and a datum surface. The RL of a
point is its height above or below the adopted datum. The datum is a level
surface to which all heights are referred, and is usually given a value of zero. The
most common datum is mean sea level.
 Level surface
A surface that is perpendicular to the plumb line or the direction in which gravity
acts at every point. The surface of a body of still water is an example of a level
surface.

6. Explain profile levelling and cross sectioning with the help of sketches.

Profile leveling, also known as longitudinal sectioning, is a process that

determines the elevation of points along a fixed line. Cross sectioning is a process
that measures the transverse of the ground by taking measurements at regular
intervals on either side of the longitudinal profile.
Profile Levelling

This type of levelling is known as longitudinal sectioning. In high way, railway,

canal or sewage line projects profile of the ground along selected routes are
required. In such cases, along the route, at regular interval readings are taken and
RL of various points are found. Then the section of the route is drawn to get the
profile. Figure 15.8 (a) shows the plan view of the scheme of levelling and Fig.
15.8 (b)
shows the profile of the route. For drawing profile of the route, vertical scale is
usually larger compared to scale for horizontal distances. It gives clear picture of
the profile of the route.

The typical page of field book for this work will be having an additional
column to note distances as shown in Table 15.3.
Cross-Sectioning
In many engineering projects, not only longitudinal profile but also the profile of
cross-sections at regular intervals are required. These profiles help in calculating
the earth works involved in the projects.
Figure 15.9 shows the scheme of such work in which longitudinal profile is found
by taking readings at 20 m interval along chain lines AB, BC and readings are taken
at an interval of 3 m on either side. The distances on the cross-sections are
treated as left or right of the lines as they are found while facing the forward
station of survey. The cross-sectional length depends upon the nature of the
project.
MODULE II
1. How do you determine the intervisibilty of triangulation stations?

 To determine the intervisibility of triangulation stations, you can draw a line

between the stations and plot the elevations of the points and contours
that the line intersects. If the ground between the stations is above the
line, then the intervisibility is obstructed.
 Intervisibility is a crucial condition for triangulation. If the distance between
stations is too large or the elevation difference is too small, you can elevate
the signal and station to overcome the effect of the Earth's curvature.
 Triangulation is a surveying method that uses a network of triangles to
determine the positions of points on the Earth's surface. The method
involves measuring the length of one side of a triangle, called the baseline,
and then using observation to calculate the angles and lengths of the other
two sides.

2. The following perpendicular offsets were taken at 10m intervals from a survey line AB to an
irregular boundary line: 2.50, 3.80, 4.33, 6.76, 5.30, 7.25, 8.95, 8.25 and 5.50.Calculate the area in
sqm, enclosed between the survey line, the irregular boundary ,the first and the last offsets by i)
Simpsons rule ii) Trapezoidal rule.

1- by the Simpson’s rule

Area = d/3 [h1 + hn + 2 ∑ odd offset + 4 ∑ even offset]
= 10/3(2.5+5.5+2(4.33+5.3+8.95) +4(3.8+6.76+7.25+8.25)
=3.33*(8.05+37.16+104.24)
= 499.134 m2
2- by the trapezoidal rule
Area = d/2 [h1 + hn + 2 (h2 + h3 ……. + hn-1)]
=10/2(2.5+5.5+2(3.8+4.33+6.76+5.3+7.25+8.95+8.25)
=486.4 m2
3. Explain Mass diagram and its characteristics features.
A mass diagram, or mass haul diagram (MHD), is a graph that shows the
cumulative amount of earthwork moved along a project's centerline. It's used to
calculate and estimate material hauling needs, and to determine the most
economical hauling methods.

4. State the fundamental principle of method of least squares. How is the most
probable value in direct observations of equal weights determined?
PRINCIPLES OF LEAST SQUARES
It is found from the probability equation that the most probable values of a series
of errors arising from observations of equal weight are those for which the sum of
the squares is a minimum. The fundamental law of least squares is derived from
this. According to the principle of least squares, the most probable value of an
observed quantity available from a given set of observations is the one for which
the sum of the squares of the residual errors is a minimum. When a quantity is
being deduced from a series of observations, the residual errors will be the
difference between the adopted value and the several observed values,
Let V1, V2, V3 etc. be the observed values x = most probable value

5. Explain Trapezoidal rule and Simpson’s rule for the calculation of area?
Trapezoidal Rule is a rule that evaluates the area under the curves by dividing the
total area into smaller trapezoids rather than using rectangles. This integration
works by approximating the region under the graph of a function as a trapezoid,
and it calculates the area. This rule takes the average of the left and the right sum.

Trapezoidal Rule Formula

Let f(x) is a continuous function on the interval [a, b]. Now divide the intervals [a,
b] into n equal subintervals with each of width,
 Δx = (b-a)/n, Such that a = x0 < x1< x2< x3<…..<xn = b

Then the Trapezoidal Rule formula for area approximating the definite integral
∫ab f(x) dx is given by:

Tn = (Δx/2)[f(x0)+ 2f(x1)+ 2f(x2)+2f(x3) +……+ f(xn)]

Simpson's rule
Simpson's rule is a method of numerical integration which is a good deal more
accurate than the Trapezoidal rule, and should always be used before you try
anything fancier. It also divides the area under the function to be integrated, f(x),
into vertical strips, but instead of joining the points f(xi) with straight lines, every
set of three such successive points is fitted with a parabola. To ensure that there
are always an even number of panels, the step-length h is usually chosen so that
there are 2n panels, i.e., n=(b−a)/(2h).
Using the same notation as above, Simpson's rule estimates the integral as
(14.4)S=h3[f(a)+f(b)+2∑i=1n−1f(x2i)+4∑i=1nf(x2i−1)].

MODULE III

1. What is the principle of stadia tachometry?

The principle of stadia tacheometry is that the ratio of the perpendicular to the
base is constant in similar isosceles triangles. It's based on trigonometric
principles and can be used to measure distances quickly with a theodolite, transit,
or level.

Here are some other principles of stadia tacheometry:

 Intercepts on measuring rods are proportional to the distance.
 Trigonometrical formulae can be used to calculate distances from vertical angles.
 Knowing the side and two angles of a triangle, another side can be calculated.
The stadia method is the most popular method of tacheometric surveying. It
allows you to determine the horizontal distance between the instrument station
and the staff station, and the elevation of the staff station with respect to the line
of sight.

2. How will you determine probable error of computed quantities?

The probable error of a computed quantity can be determined using different

formulas depending on the type of quantity:

 Single observation

The probable error of a single observation is calculated using the formula

Es=±0.6745√(∑V2/n−1)cap

𝐸𝑠=±0.6745√(𝑉2/𝑛−1)

𝐸𝑠 is the probable error,

𝑣 is the difference between the observation and the mean, and

𝑛 is the number of observations.

o Mean

The probable error of the mean is calculated using the formula

Em=±0.6745√(∑V2/n(n−1))cap

𝐸𝑚=±0.6745√(𝑉2/𝑛(𝑛−1))

o Sum

The probable error of the sum is calculated using the formula

Esum=√(E12+E22+E32+…+En2)cap

𝐸𝑠𝑢𝑚=√(𝐸12+𝐸22+𝐸32+…+𝐸𝑛2)

𝐸1,2,𝐸3,…,𝐸𝑛 are the probable errors of the individual observations.

 o Correlation coefficient

The probable error of the correlation coefficient is calculated using the

formula

𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑏𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟=0.674×1−𝑟2√𝑁

o The probable error is valid when the population is normal, and the
data is bell-shaped, unbiased, and independent. The probable error is
also within the bounds of -1 and +1.

4. What are the different methods of orientation in plane table surveying?

Here are some methods of orientation in plane table surveying:

 Trough compass
Used for approximate orientation before final adjustment. The compass is
placed under the plane table to orient it to magnetic north. This method is less
accurate and is used when speed is more important than accuracy.
 Back sighting
Used when it's not possible to set the plane table over station marks, or to
obtain more accurate values.
 Resection
Used to determine the location of a plane table when it's unknown. This is done
by looking at the plane table in relation to known points.
 Plumbing fork
Used to center the plane table. The pointed end of the plumbing fork is placed
on the paper, while the other end is attached to a plumb bob.
 Telescopic alidade
Used to take inclined sights.
 5. Explain the method of observing the horizontal angle by the method of
repetition and reiteration in triangulation survey

The repetition method and the reiteration method are two ways to measure
horizontal angles using a theodolite in a triangulation survey:
 Repetition method
In this method, the same angle is measured multiple times, usually six times, to
increase accuracy. The accumulated reading is divided by the number of
repetitions to get the correct angle value. This method is used when high
accuracy is required.
 Reiteration method
In this method, angles are measured successively, and the horizon is closed by
measuring the initial angle again. This method is useful when multiple angles
need to be measured at a single point. The sum of the measured angles should
be 360 degrees.
The repetition method can eliminate errors due to the eccentricity of centers and
Vernier's, and errors due to inaccurate graduations.

6. Distinguish between a) closed traverse and open traverse b) loose needle

method and fast needle method of traverse surveying

The main difference between a closed traverse and an open traverse is where
the lines end:
 Closed traverse: The lines form a circuit that ends at the starting point.
 Open traverse: The lines form a circuit that ends at a different point.
The main difference between the loose needle method and the fast needle
method is the instrument used:
 Loose needle method: Uses a compass at each station.
 Fast needle method: Uses a theodolite.
Traverse surveying involves taking linear and angular measurements to
determine the directions of survey lines. The order of accuracy for these
methods is: Method of included angles, Fast needle method, and loose needle
method.
 MODULE IV
1. What are the elements of a compound curve?

A compound curve is made up of the following elements:

 Arcs: Two or more circular arcs of different or successively shorter or longer radii
 Tangent points: The arcs meet at common tangent points
 Direction: The arcs turn in the same direction between the two main tangents
 Side: The arcs lie on the same side of their common tangent
 Center: The center is on the same side of the curve

Compound curves are used on highways and railroad tracks to provide a less
abrupt transition from a tangent to a full curve. They are mainly found in
interchange loops and ramps.
Compound curves are more hazardous than simple curves and should not be used
where a simple curve will do. However, they fit the topography better than simple
curves because their tangent lengths vary.
2. Explain the two theodolite method of setting out of simple curve?
The two-theodolite method, also known as the double theodolite method or the
repeated angle method, is a method for setting out a curve that uses two
theodolites to measure angles and determine precise coordinates for points along
the curve.
3. What are the advantages and applications of Total Station survey?

Total stations are surveying instruments that combine an electronic theodolite

and an electronic distance measuring device (EDM). They have many advantages
and applications, including:
 Accuracy
Total stations can provide sub-centimeter level measurements, ensuring reliable
results.
 Construction
Total stations can be used to lay out construction sites, check elevations,
calculate dimensions, and ensure equipment is installed correctly.
 GPS integration
GPS integration can streamline surveying, especially in remote or large areas.
 Reflector less measurement
Reflector less measurement technology allows distances to be measured
without a physical reflector.
 Imaging and laser
Digital cameras can be mounted in the telescope to document the site and take
notes.
 Disaster risk management
Total stations can be used to map hazards and assess vulnerable areas.
 Civil engineering
Total stations can measure distances, angles, and elevations with precision,
making them a staple in topographic and geodetic works.
 Robotic total stations
Robotic total stations can be used to measure distances and angles for a variety
of projects, including construction, mapping, engineering, and land surveying.

4. What is transition curve? What are its functions? What are the
methods to find out the length of transition curve?

A transition curve is a mathematically designed curve used in road, railway, and

canal engineering. Its purpose is to smooth the transition between a straight
section and a circular section of a track, road, or canal.

Primary functions of a transition curves (or easement curves) are: To accomplish

gradual transition from the straight to circular curve, so that curvature changes
from zero to a finite value. To provide a medium for gradual introduction or
change of required super elevation.
The length of the transition curve should be determined as the maximum of the
following three criteria: rate of change of centrifugal acceleration, rate of change
of super-elevation, and an empirical formula given by IRC. According to IRC, C =
80/ (75+V) and C should be (0.5<C<0.8).
 5. Explain the principle behind electromagnetic distance
measurement.

Electronic distance measurement (EDM) uses electromagnetic waves to measure

the distance between two points by generating, propagating, reflecting, and
receiving the waves:
1. Generation: EDM instruments generate electromagnetic waves, such as
microwaves, infrared, or visible light.
2. Propagation: The waves travel from the instrument to the target.
3. Reflection: The waves reflect off the target and return to the instrument.
4. Reception: The instrument receives the waves.

The distance is calculated by measuring the time it takes for the waves to travel
the distance and back, or by measuring the phase difference between the
transmitted and received waves. The distance is calculated based on the wave
velocity and the length of the wave.
EDM instruments are reliable and can measure distances up to 100
kilometers. They are often used in surveying to measure horizontal distances and
slopes. However, EDM is not as effective in areas with large terrain variations or
obstructions.

MODULE V
1. What is multi spectral scanning? Differentiate along track and across track
scanning.

Multispectral scanning is a process that uses a scanning system to collect data

across a range of wavelengths to create a two-dimensional image of a
surface. There are two types of multispectral scanning: along-track and across-
track:
 Across-track scanning
 A rotating mirror scans the Earth in lines that are perpendicular to the direction
of the sensor's motion. As the platform moves forward, successive scans build
up a two-dimensional image.
 Along-track scanning
Also known as pushbroom scanning, this method uses a linear array of detectors
to record successive scan lines. The detectors are pushed along in the direction
of the flight track.
Multispectral scanners are commonly used on aircraft and satellite platforms. The
spatial resolution of a sensor is determined by its Instantaneous Field of View
(IFOV).
2.What is meant by satellite ranging?
Satellite ranging is a technique that measures the distance between a satellite
and a ground-based instrument. Satellite laser ranging (SLR) is a type of satellite
ranging that uses a laser to measure the distance between a satellite and a
ground-based instrument.

Here are some details about satellite ranging:

 How it works
A global network of stations measures the time it takes for a laser pulse to travel
to a satellite and back. The satellite has a special reflector that helps the laser
find it.
 Accuracy
SLR can measure distances with an uncertainty of about 7 centimeters. This
allows for precise measurements of satellite orbits, which are important for
geodesy, environmental monitoring, and establishing global coordinate
systems.
 Scientific applications
SLR is used to study the Earth, atmosphere, and oceans. It can also measure
changes in the Earth's gravity field and the motion of the station network.
 Space debris tracking
The laser pulse can also be reflected by the surface of a satellite without a
retroreflector, which can be used to track space debris.
 3. Explain the principle of position determination by satellite ranging?

The principle of position determination by satellite ranging is based on calculating

the distance between a receiver and a satellite using the time it takes for a signal
to travel from the satellite to the receiver:
 Satellite transmission
The satellite sends a ranging signal at a precise time.
 Signal reception
The receiver receives the signal with a delay that depends on the distance
between the satellite and the receiver.
 Distance calculation
The receiver uses the time difference between the signal's transmission and
reception to calculate the distance. The formula is: Distance = Speed of Light ×
Time Difference.
 Position determination
Once the receiver has the distance to at least four satellites, it can use geometry
to calculate its position on Earth.
The GPS (Global Positioning System) uses this principle to determine a device's
location:
 GPS satellites: Carry atomic clocks that broadcast precise time information.
 GPS receiver: Compares the time signals received from the satellites with its
internal clock to calculate the distance to each satellite.
 Position determination: The receiver uses the distance information to calculate
the device's latitude, longitude, altitude, and time.
The accuracy of the GPS positioning depends on the positions of the satellites
tracked. If the satellites are spread evenly across the Earth, the positioning
accuracy will be higher.
4. What are the components of GPS? Illustrate with figure. Explain the functions
of each of them in detail.

The Global Positioning System (GPS) has three main components: satellites,
ground stations, and receivers:
 Satellites
 Transmit signals that indicate their position and time. A constellation of at least
24 satellites is required for GPS.

 Ground stations
Use radar to verify the location of the satellites. These stations also monitor and
control the satellites, adjusting their clocks and orbits.
 Receivers
Devices that receive signals from the satellites and calculate the user's position
and time. GPS receivers typically have three components:
 Antenna: Receives the signal, and may have anti-jamming capabilities
 Receiver-processor unit: Converts the radio signal into a navigation solution
 Control/display unit: Displays the positioning information
GPS is used in many applications, including navigation, transportation, safety, and
emergency services.
5.What are the applications of GIS?

Geographic Information System (GIS) has many applications in civil engineering,

including:
 Asset management
GIS can help engineers track the location of assets, monitor their condition,
schedule maintenance, and plan for upgrades or replacements.
 Economic feasibility
GIS can help identify the most economically advantageous location for a new
infrastructure project by adding layers for employment, population growth, and
economic trends.
 Data analysis
GIS allows civil engineers to manage, share, reuse, and analyze data more
easily.
 Transportation
GIS data can help plan and construct environment-friendly roads, railways, or
airports.
 Urban planning
 GIS can help analyze urban growth and its direction during expansion.
 Structural engineering
GIS can help civil engineers incorporate material data and regional historical
data into the design process.
 Disaster management
GIS can provide real-time information about the location and extent of a disaster
to help first responders make informed decisions.
GIS is a tool used in many engineering disciplines, including environmental,
petroleum, ocean, and civil.