CHAPTER ONE

1. TRODUCTION

 Leveling
What Is Leveling?
Leveling is a branch of surveying in civil engineering to measure levels of different points
with respect to a fixed point such as elevation of a building, height of one point from ground
etc.
Types of Leveling in Surveying

1. Direct leveling

2. Trigonometric leveling

3. Barometric leveling

4. Stadia leveling

Direct Leveling

It is the most commonly used method of leveling. In this method, measurements are observed
directly from leveling instrument. Based on the observation points and instrument positions
direct leveling is divided into different types as follows:

 Simple leveling

 Differential leveling

 Fly leveling

 Profile leveling

 Precise leveling

 Reciprocal leveling

Simple Leveling

It is a simple and basic form of leveling in which the leveling instrument is placed between
the points which elevation is to be find. Leveling rods are placed at that points and sighted
them through leveling instrument.

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It is performed only when the points are nearer to each other without any obstacles.

Differential Leveling

Differential leveling is performed when the distance between two points is more. In this
process, number of inter stations are located and instrument is shifted to each station and
observed the elevation of inter station points. Finally difference between original two points
isdetermined.

Fly Leveling

Fly leveling is conducted when the benchmark is very far from the work station. In such case,
a temporary bench mark is located at the work station which is located based on the original

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benchmark. Even it is not highly precise it is used for determining approximate level.

Profile Leveling

Profile leveling is generally adopted to find elevation of points along a line such as for road,
rails or rivers etc. In this case, readings of intermediate stations are taken and reduced level
of each station is found. From this cross section of the alignment is drawn.

Precise Leveling

Precise leveling is similar to differential leveling but in this case higher precise is wanted. To
achieve high precise, serious observation procedure is performed. The accuracy of 1 mm per
1 km is achieved.

Reciprocal Leveling

When it is not possible to locate the leveling instrument in between the inter visible points,
reciprocal leveling is performed. This case appears in case of ponds or rivers etc. in case of

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reciprocal leveling, instrument is set nearer to 1 st station and sighted towards 2nd station.

Trigonometric Leveling

The process of leveling in which the elevation of point or the difference between points is
measured from the observed horizontal distances and vertical angles in the field is called

trigonometric leveling.
In this method, trigonometric relations are used to find the elevation of a point from angle
and horizontal distance so, it is called as trigonometric leveling. It is also called as indirect
leveling.

Barometric Leveling

Barometer is an instrument used to measure atmosphere at any altitude. So, in this method of
leveling, atmospheric pressure at two different points is observed, based on which the
vertical difference between two points is determined. It is a rough estimation

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and used rarely.

Stadia Leveling

It is a modified form of trigonometric leveling in which Tachometer principle is used to

determine the elevation of point. In this case the line of sight is inclined from the horizontal. It is
more accurate and suitable for surveying in hilly terrains. Read More: Types of Levels Used for
Leveling in Surveying

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 1.1METHOD OF PROFILE LEVELLING

This method is also called the longitudinal leveling or sectioning. In this method the object of
the leveling operation is to determine the undulations of the ground surface along a
predetermined line, which can be the centre line of a road, railway, canal or pipe line. The
line of the section may be a single straight line or may consist of a series of straight lines
changing direction, or connected by curves.
The leveling operations always start from a bench mark and end on a benchmark. If the
permanent bench mark is not near the line of section, flying levels may be run from the
permanent bench mark to establish a bench mark near the line of section.
In Fig. 1.1, let AB be the line of section. Staff is stationed, i.e. marked on the ground at every
20 or 30 meters. The level is set up on firm ground at some suitable position (I1) to the right
or left of the section line so as to command a large number of points on the line and
accurately leveled. A back-sight is then taken on the bench mark to determine the reduced
level of the plane of collimation (H.I.) and entered in the B.S. column of the level book.
Having stretched the chain in line from A, the staff readings are taken at the starting point A,
10 m points and entered in the I.S. column against the respective chainages along the line,
which are recorded in the 'Distance' column. Besides these points, the staff readings are taken
at the representative points, i.e. the points at which the slope of the ground surface changes
such as a, b, c, d, e, f, g, etc. as shown in Fig. 1.2 (a), and similarly entered in the level book.
Fig. 1.2 (b) shows the misrepresentation of the slopes, which will be produced if the points c
and e are omitted.

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 Fig.1.2 Misrepresentation of slopes
When it is found necessary to shift the instrument on account of the length of sight exceeding
about 100 m or the further points not being possible to be observed owing to the irregularities
of the ground, the staff man selects a suitable change point (C.P.) on firm ground or a
permanent object and the foresight is taken on it, and entered in the F.S. column. The change
point may or may not be on the section line. The instrument is then moved forward and set up
on firm ground at I2, as before, and a back sight is then taken on the same change point, to
find the elevation of the new plane of collimation. Chaining and readings are then continued
as before until the reading is obtained at the last point B. The previously established bench
marks should be checked during the progress of work. New Bench marks may be established
at the end of every ten chains for future reference. They may be used as change points
whenever required. These bench marks, should be connected with the permanent bench
marks by taking flying levels. The fore and back bearings of the section line should be taken
and recorded in the appropriate columns. Sketches may supplement the field data, if felt
necessary.
The following points should be borne in mind while running a profile,
(i) The chain age of the staff points should remain continuous.
(ii) The back-sight and fore-sight distances should be approximately equal.
(iii) Readings on bench marks and change (or turning) points should be taken to the
nearest thousandth of a meter and those on intermediate points to the nearest
hundredth of a meter.
(iv) The bubble must be in the centre of its run when the backsights and foresights are
taken.

1.2 LOCATION OF INTERMEDIATE POINTS

A foresight is taken on a bench mark to establish the height of instrument. A foresight is
taken on the stations as required (such as every 20 - 30 m). Foresights are also taken at breaks
in the ground surface and at critical points. This is repeated until the limit of accurate sighting
is reached, at which point a turning point is established and the level is moved. The level is
usually set up off the center line.

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Profile levels are taken along a path that holds interest for the designer. In roadwork,
preliminary surveys often profile the proposed location of the centerline; see Figure 1.3. The
level is set up in a convenient location so that the benchmark, and as many intermediate
points as possible, can be sighted. Rod readings are taken at the even station locations and at
any other point where the ground surface has a significant change in slope. When the rod is
moved to a new location and it cannot be seen from the instrument, a turning point is nec-
essary so that the instrument can be moved ahead and the remaining stations leveled. The
turning point can be taken on a wood stake, the corner of a concrete step or concrete
headwall, a lug on the flange of a hydrant, and so on. The turning point should be a solid,
well-defined point that can be described precisely and, it is hoped, found again in the future.
In the case of leveling across fields, it usually is not possible to find turning point features of
any permanence. In that case, stakes are driven in and then abandoned when the survey is
finished. In the example shown in Figure 1.3, the survey was closed acceptably to BM 461.
Had there been no benchmark at the end of the profile survey, the surveyor would have
looped back and closed into the initial benchmark. The note in table 1.1 at the BM 461
elevation shows that the correct elevation of BM 461 is 164.591 m. This means that there
was a survey error of 0.005 m over a distance of 200 m. The intermediate sights (ISs) in table
1.1 are shown in a separate column, and the elevations at the intermediate sights show the
same number of decimals as are shown in the rod readings. Rod readings on turf, ground, and

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the like, are usually taken to the closest 0.01 m. Rod readings taken on concrete, steel,
asphalt, and so on, are usually taken to the closest 0.003 m. It is a waste of time and money to
read the rod more precisely than conditions warrant.
When the final route of the facility has been selected, further surveying is required. Once
again the center line is staked (if necessary), and cross sections are taken at all even stations.

1.2.1 FIELED BOOK FOR PROFIEL LEVELLING

Before actual operation of the leveling, a number of points at equal distances along the
centre line of the proposed alignment are marked on the ground. The level is set up at a
convenient station say I1 and a back sight is taken on a leveling staff held vertically on the
B.M.The leveling staff is then held successively on the points along the profile line and their
readings are entered as intermediate staff readings

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 Fig.1.4. Location of the instrument
When it is not possible to read the staff clearly at a great distance, a fore sight is taken on a
relatively permanent point CP1 not necessarily on the line of the profile. Shift the level to
another convenient station say I2 and take a back sight reading on the change point CP1.
Proceed in a similar manner till the readings on all the points are observed. In case, it is not
possible to locate the points at equal distances due to irregular undulations, the chaining is
done simultaneously to locate the positions of the intermediate points on the profile. The
chaining of each point is noted from the point of commencement. The distance between the
points along the profile line depends upon the undulations and unevenness of the surface of
the ground. It may be noted that it is always preferred to set up level a bit away from the
central line and successively on either side of the profile.
Table No. 1.2. shows a field book for profile leveling
Tab. 1.2

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Checks: ∑ B.S.- ∑ F.S. = R. L. of last point - R.S. of first point
= 4.935 - 9.230 = 495.705 - 500.00 = 4.295 m

1.2.2 PLOTTING THE PROFILE

The following procedure is adopted. Draw a straight line AB to represent the total horizontal
distance between the end stations to a convenient scale. The distances between the
consecutive points are marked thereon. Verticals are drawn at each point and their elevations
plotted along these verticals. Each ground point is thus plotted by the cartesian co-ordinates
i.e. horizontal distance as .x-ordinate and elevation as y ordinates. The end points of all
verticals are joined by straight lines, to show the profile of the ground. A closure check
should be done if the profile line runs between bench marks.

Fig. 1.5. Profile plotting

The elevations of the datum line, may be assumed as the elevation of the first point. But, for
easy calculation of the difference between the elevation of the datum line and the elevation of
different points, it is always preferred to, to assume an elevation having full meters.
Generally, horizontal scale is adopted as 1 cm = 10 m and vertical scale is kept 10 times the
horizontal scale i.e. 1 cm = 1 m so that inequalities of the ground, may be shown clearly

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 Fig.1.6 Plotted profile and grade lines along a proposed road center line.
In profile leveling, you determine the elevations of a series of points lengthwise along a
highway. In cross-section leveling, you determine the elevations of points on a succession of
lines running at right angles to the lengthwise line of the highway. The principal purpose of
profile leveling is to provide data from which the depth of fill or cut required to bring the
existing surface up to, or down to, the grade elevation required for the highway can be
determined. Note that profile leveling provides this data relative to the center line. In Fig.1.6
you can see along the top the depth of cut or fill required at each station to bring the existing
surface to grade - the prescribed grade line for the highway is indicated by the smoothly
curved grade line shown. At each station, you can determine the cut or fill by counting the
squares between the profile and the grade line

1.3 METHOD OF CROSS-SECTIONING

Cross-sections at right angles to the centre line, are run on either side for the purpose of
determining the lateral out-line of the ground surface. The cross-sections are taken at every
20 m or 30 m stations depending upon the nature of the ground. They are numbered
consecutively from the point of commencement of the longitudinal profile and are set out at
right angles to it with a chain, a tape and an optical square. The distances are measured right
or left from the centre line peg. The length of the cross-sections also depends upon the
topography of the ground and the type of the project. (Fig. 1.7) The cross sections must
extend a sufficient distance on each side of the center line to provide a view of the

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surrounding terrain. Rod readings should be taken at equal intervals on both sides of the
center line and at significant changes in the terrain.

Fig. 1.7. Layout of cross section on straight line

Fig. 1.8.

Layout of cross section on any curved line

The cross-section lines are established at regular stations, at any plus stations, and at
intermediate breaks in the ground. Short cross- lines are laid out by eye, but long cross lines
are laid out at a 90° angle to the center line with the transit. For short cross lines, most
surveyors prefer to use an angle prism for sighting 900 angles from the center line. Figure 1.9
illustrates how the rod readings are used to define the ground surface. In Figure 1.9 (a), the
uniform slope permits a minimum number of rod readings. In Figure 1.9 (b), the varied slope
requires several more (than the minimum) rod readings to define the ground surface
adequately. Figure 1.9(c) illustrates how cross sections are taken before and after
construction. For cross-section leveling, strip topography, and some other purposes, it is
necessary to lay off a 900 angle at numerous points along a line. This 90 0 angle can often be
established by estimation with sufficient accuracy for the particular job. The surveyor
straddle the point on the line, arms extended sideward along the marked line. By looking
alternately right then left, he adjusts the position of his feet until his body is in line with. He
then brings his hands together in front of him, thus pointing along an approximate 90 0 line

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from the marked line. An experienced surveyor can lay off a 90 0 angle by this method so that
a point 30 m away will be within 0.5 m of the true perpendicular. You should measure all
elevations at abrupt changes or breaks in the ground with a rod and level In rough country,
the hand level can be used to advantage for obtaining cross sections if the center-line
elevations have been determined by use of the engineer’s level.

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FIGURE 1.9 Cross sections used to define ground surface, (a) Uniform slope, (b) Varied
slope, (c) Ground surface before and after construction.
Cross-section leveling is usually done with a hand level after the profile run has been made.
The method is as follows: From the profile run, you know the center- line elevation at each
station. Suppose you want to take cross-section elevations at 5m intervals for 20 m on either
side of the center line. The first thing you do is to determine the vertical distance from the
ground to your line of sight through the hand level when you stand erect with the level at
your eye. The best way to do this is to sight on a level rod held plumb in front of you.
Suppose you find that the vertical distance is 2.5 m. Then your HI at any center-line station is
the center- line elevation (obtained in the profile level run) plus 2.5 m.
Field notes for a cross section should include an elevation or difference in elevation from the
center line and horizontal distance from the center line

Checks: ∑ B. S. - ∑ F. S. = R. L. of last point - R. L. of first point

= 0.585 - 1.690 = 98.895 - 100.000 = - 1.105
The recording of the readings of the longitudinal sections and cross-sections with its number
may be entered separately. The full description of each cross-section whether it is on the left
or on the right of the center line, must be written in the field book. Some-times surveyors
prefer to enter the readings of both i.e. longitudinal and cross-sections simultaneously as
shown in table 1.3

1.3.1 PLOTTING OF CROSS-SECTION

The following procedure is followed: A horizontal line is drawn and different points of the
cross-sections are plotted on a convenient scale, keeping the central peg of the profile in the
centre. Perpendiculars are drawn at each point. (Fig. 1.10).
A convenient datum level is assumed and the differences of elevations of each point and the
datum are plotted along the perpendiculars. The points so obtained are joined by straight lines
to get the desired sectional elevation.

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 Fig. 1.10. Cross-section at chainage 20 m
In a cross- sectioning profile, the horizontal and vertical scales are generally kept the same
i.e. 1 cm = 1 m. It may be noted that the elevation of cross datum lines for different sections
may be kept different to have the ordinates fairly short.

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