CE REVIEWER PRINCIPLE OF MOMENT

EQUILIBRIUM • also known as Varignon's theorem

• A body is said to be in equilibrium if no net force acts on it. • a fundamental concept in physics and engineering that describes the equilibrium of a rigid body
• This means all the forces acting on the body add up to zero. under the influence of external forces.
• There are two cases in which a body can be in equilibrium: When the body is at rest and when • states that the moment of a force about a point is equal to the sum of the moments of the
the body is moving at a constant speed without changing direction. components of the force about the same point.
These two conditions must be simultaneously (existing or occurring at the same time: exactly • calculated by multiplying the magnitude of the force by the perpendicular distance from the point
coincident.) Satisfied in equilibrium. If one of them is not satisfied, the body is not in equilibrium. of application to the point about which the moment is being calculated.
• If the structure is at rest, or to be more precise, not being accelerated, which is usually the VARIGNON’S THEOREM
case with structures attached to the ground, discounting vibrational and earthquake • also known as the Varignon’s principle or the theorem of moments
movements, the loads and reactions form a system of forces in equilibrium satisfying the • is a fundamental concept in the field of statics and engineering.
laws of statics. • named after the French mathematician and physicist Pierre Varignon
REACTION • this theorem provides a powerful tool for analyzing and simplifying complex force systems. It
• Reactions at support are just as many forces acting on the structure helping to maintain it in allows us to understand how forces act and interact in a two-dimensional plane, making it an
equilibrium as are the loads. essential principle in the study of equilibrium and structural analysis.
• They differ from the latter only by loads are those forces applied to the structure by active VARIGNON’S THEOREM EQUATION
agents, such as gravity, wind or mechanical means; whereas reactions are those forces • relates the sum of moments to the moment of the resultant force
applied to the structure due to the resistance of a supporting medium, such as the ground. • ΣM = Mr
• Example, of a piece of cast iron resting on the floor. The lump of cast iron is in equilibrium under • ΣM represents the sum of the moments of the individual forces about a point.
the action of two equal and opposite forces. One is the load, which is the weight of the piece of • Mr represents the moment of the resultant force about the same point.
cast iron; that is the mutual gravitational attraction existing between it and the earth; and the other • the equation states that the sum of the moments of the forces (ΣM) is equal to the moment of
force is the reaction provided by the floor. The load is under direct control in the sense that a the resultant force (Mr) about a specific point. The moments are calculated by multiplying the
larger or a smaller piece of iron can be substituted, whereas the reaction of the floor adjusts itself magnitude of each force by its perpendicular distance from the reference point or axis.
to variations in the load, so that equilibrium is maintained. APPLICATIONS OF VARIGNON’S THEOREM
STRESS • Structural Analysis: Varignon’s theorem is extensively used in analyzing the equilibrium and
• the resistive force developed in a body per unit area stability of structures. It allows engineers to simplify complex force systems acting on structural
• The quantity that describes the magnitude of forces that cause deformation. It is defined as force elements such as beams, trusses, and frames. By replacing the distributed forces with an
per unit. equivalent resultant force, engineers can determine the overall moment and its effect on the
• the measure of the force required to cause deformation. structure, aiding in the design and optimization process.
SHEAR • Mechanical Engineering: Varignon’s theorem is applied to analyze the forces and moments
• To engineers it's a certain type of stress inside a structural member due to some applied load. acting on mechanical systems, such as linkages, levers, and pulleys. By using the theorem,
• a lateral load from earthquake or wind. engineers can determine the resultant forces and moments at specific points, helping in the
• can refer to a construction method of resisting wind and earthquake loads. calculation of required torques, balancing systems, and optimizing mechanical designs.
SHEAR STRESS • Robotics and Biomechanics: By applying the theorem, researchers can calculate the net
• a resistive force developed per unit area in a body due to the applied Shear force. moments acting on joints and linkages, facilitating the design and control of robotic manipulators.
SHEAR FORCE In biomechanics, the theorem helps in understanding the distribution of forces and moments in
• causes shape changes without changing the volume of the body. human skeletal systems, providing insights into the mechanics of human movement and
STRENGTH facilitating the development of assistive devices and ergonomic designs.
• the ability of a material to resist external load against failure. • Civil Engineering: used in analyzing the forces and moments in structures such as bridges,
• is property and fixed for a particular material. buildings, and dams. By simplifying the force systems acting on various structural components,
• is the primary design factor. engineers can assess the stability, load distribution, and overall structural integrity, ensuring that
SHEAR STRENGTH the design can withstand the anticipated forces and moments
• the ability of the material to resist shear load until failure. • Aerospace Engineering: for analyzing and designing aircraft and spacecraft structures. By
• a property and is constant for material. simplifying the complex force systems acting on wings, fuselages, and other components,
• varies according to the load applied. engineers can determine the overall moments and their impact on structural stability,
• is the maximum shear stress developed at the time of failure performance, and safety.
MOMENT BEAM
• is the turning effect of a force. • basically, defined as one structural member used to bear the different loads.
• also sometimes called a torque • helps to bear the load and we must have to note it here that there will not be any structure without
• defined as the "tendency of a force to rotate a body" beams
PIVOT TYPES OF BEAMS
• Forces that create a moment act around a point called the pivot. 1. SIMPLY SUPPORTED BEAMS
• the point around which the object can rotate or turn. • one that rests on two supports and is free to move horizontally or we may say that
simply supported beams are defined as having two supports at either end – one
pinned and one roller.
• considered as being the simplest type of beam.
 • Application: The most common use of a roller support is in a bridge. In civil TYPES OF LOAD ACTING ON BEAM
engineering, a bridge will typically contain a roller support at one end to account for 1. POINT LOAD or CONCENTRATED LOAD
vertical displacement and expansion from changes in temperature. This is required to • acts at a point on the beam
prevent the expansion causing damage to a pinned support • Following figure displayed here indicates the beam AB of length L which will be loaded
• A roller (sometimes called rocker in real life) only transmits loads in one direction, with point load W at the midpoint of the beam. Load W will be considered here as the
typically Y axis. They too are used in real life to support girders for large bridges point load.
• Pinned supports are commonly used in residential or light commercial applications
for joining multiple members together, such as in trusses, three-hinged arched bridges,
and simply supported beams.

POINT LOAD or CONCENTRATED LOAD UNIFORMLY DISTRIBUTED LOAD

2.UNIFORMLY DISTRIBUTED LOAD
SIMPLY SUPPORTED BEAM • the load which will be distributed over the length of the beam in such a way that rate of
2. CANTILEVERED BEAMS loading will be uniform throughout the distribution length of the beam.
• supported from one end, using a fixed support. • expressed as U.D.L and with value as w N/m.
• a rigid structural element supported at one end and free at the other • During determination of the total load, total uniformly distributed load will be converted
• can be either made of concrete or steel whose one end is cast or anchored to a vertical in to point load by multiplying the rate of loading i.e. w (N/m) with the span of load
support. It is a horizontal beam structure whose free end is exposed to vertical loads. distribution i.e. L and will be acting over the midpoint of the length of the uniformly load
• In a building, a cantilever is constructed as an extension of a continuous beam, and distribution.
in bridges, it is a segment of a cantilever girder. • Total uniformly distributed load, P = w*L
• Cantilever construction allows overhanging structures without additional supports 3. UNIFORMLY VARYING LOAD
and bracing. This structural element is widely used in the construction of bridges, • the load which will be distributed over the length of the beam in such a way that rate of loading will
towers, and buildings, and can add a unique beauty to the structure. not be uniform but also vary from point to point throughout the distribution length of the beam.
3. FIXED BEAM • also termed as triangular load
• have fixed supports at either end – offering moment resistance at either end. • Let us see the following figure, a beam AB of length L is loaded with uniformly varying load. We can
• This type of beam may be used when the designer wants to control the deflection at see from figure that load is zero at one end and increases uniformly to the other end. During
the mid-span because the two fixed supports prevent rotation. determination of the total load, we will determine the area of the triangle and the result i.e. area of
the triangle will be total load and this total load will be assumed to act at the C.G of the triangle.

CONTINUOUS BEAM
4. CONTINUOUS BEAM
• multi-spanned beams that have multiple supports across the length of the beam. • Total load, P = w*L/2
• An example of a continuous beam would be a single beam that is supported by a
number of columns along its length. BENDING MOMENT
5. OVERHANGING BEAM • defined as the algebraic sum of the moments about the section of all the forces (including the
• those with two supports, but unlike simply supported beams, one of the supports is not reaction) acting on the beam, either to the left or to the right of the section.
at the end of the member. SHEAR FORCE
• A typical example of this is a balcony that is being extended from a frame structure. • defined as the algebraic sum of all the forces including the reactions acting normal to the axis of the
The frame offers the two supports, yet no support exists at the end of the member – beam either to the left or to the right of the section
allowing it to ‘overhang’ as the name suggests.
SHEAR AND MOMENT DIAGRAMS OF SIMPLY SUPPORTED BEAMS DUE TO DIFFERENT LOADS
1. SIMPLY SUPPORTED BEAM WITH UNIFORMLY DISTRIBUTED LOAD

5. SIMPLY SUPPORTED BEAM HAVING UVL ALONG ITS SPAN

2. SIMPLY SUPPORTED BEAM WITH UNIFORMLY DISTRIBUTED LOAD AT BOTH ENDS

6. SIMPLY SUPPORTED BEAM HAVING UVL FROM THE MIDSPAN TO BOTH ENDS
3. SIMPLY SUPPORTED BEAM WITH UNIFORMLY DISTRIBUTED LOAD AT MIDSPAN

4. SIMPLY SUPPORTED WITH UNIFORMLY DISTRIBUTED LOAD AT THE LEFT SUPPORT

SHEAR AND MOMENT DIAGRAMS OF CANTILEVER BEAMS DUE TO DIFFERENT LOADS • Shear force at a section will be considered as POSITIVE if resultant of the forces to the right of
1. CANTILEVER BEAM WITH UNIFORMLY DISTRIBUTED LOAD the section is in downward direction.
Formulas for finding Shear Formulas for finding Moment • Shear force at a section will be considered as NEGATIVE if resultant of the forces to the left of
Shear force at section XX Bending moment at section XX the section is in downward direction.
FX = w*x MX = - (Total uniformly distributed • Shear force at a section will be considered as NEGATIVE if resultant of the forces to the right of
Shear force at free end At point B, load) x (distance between section the section is in upward direction.
x=0 FB = 0 XX and point of action of total BENDING MOMENT
Similarly, Shear force at fixed end uniformly distributed load) • Bending moment at a section will be considered as POSITIVE if bending moment to the left of
at point A, MX = - (w*x) * (x/2) MX = -
x=L FA = w*L w*x2/2
the section is in clockwise direction and bending moment to the right of the section is in
FA = W Bending moment at free end at B, anti-clockwise direction. Such type of bending moment will also termed as sagging bending
Where, W = w*L value of distance x = 0 MB= 0 moment.
Bending moment at fixed end at A, • bending moment at a section will be considered as POSITIVE if the bending moment at that
value of distance x = L section will tend to bend the beam in a curvature having concavity at the top.
MB= - w.L2/2 MB= - W.L/2 • Bending moment at a section will be considered as NEGATIVE if bending moment to the left
Where, W = w*L
of the section is in anti-clockwise direction and bending moment to the right of the section
is in clockwise direction. Such type of bending moment will also termed as hogging bending
CANTILEVER BEAM WITH POINT LOAD moment.
Formulas for finding Shear Formulas for finding Moment • bending moment at a section will be considered as NEGATIVE if the bending moment at that
Shear force at section XX Bending moment at section XX section will tend to bend the beam in a curvature having convexity at the top.
FX = W MX = - W. x STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS
Bending moment at section XX • sets out to predict the behaviour of a structure vs. load.
Shear force at section XX is equal Bending moment at free end at B,
to the resultant force acting to the value of distance • commonly used on structures that are judged on their ability to bear loads.
right portion of the section. x=0 • it aims to assess the integrity of a conceptual structure by computing stresses and potential
MB= 0 deformations.
Resultant force acting to the right • Without undertaking this work there will be no proof of structural soundness, meaning buildings
portion of the section will be W and Bending moment at fixed end at A, would be constructed without key load bearing points scrutinised for effectiveness.
it will be positive. value of distance x = L
F=W MB= - W.L is negative.
• It confirms the resistance, strength, and adequacy of a structure
• deals with the calculations and observations of load and stress
• In a structural analysis problem, the following properties may be given:
Cross-sectional dimensions
Number of reinforcement members
2. CANTILEVER BEAM WITH CARRYING A GRADUALLY VARYING LOAD OR UVL (Uniform Reinforcement diameter
Varying Load) Location of the reinforcement
Material mechanical properties
Formulas for finding Shear Formulas for finding Moment
STRUCTURAL DESIGN
The rate of loading or intensity of Bending moment at section XX will • decides the dimensions of the structural members by using those structural analysis findings.
the load at section XX and it can be written as
be written as (w/L)*x or w*x/L MX = - (Total load for length of x) *
• Structural engineers aim to find out the safest and most cost-effective structure specifications,
(distance between section XX and accounting for the use of materials, geometry, technology, and structural member size – all whilst
Shear force at section XX will be point of action of total load for maintaining that the structure remains strong, stable, and rigid enough to carry loads of structure
equal to the resultant force acting length of x) during its life period.
to the right portion of the section. MX = - (Total load for length of x) * • requires a balanced mixture of imagination and critical thinking, combining a sound knowledge of
Therefore, shear force at section (distance between section XX basic mechanics, physics, material chemistry, and knowledge of modern design standards and
XX and C.G of the triangle )
codes of practice
FX = Area of triangle BCX MX = - (w*x2/2L) * (x/3)
FX = (w*x/L)*x/2 MX = - w*x3/6L CRITERIA IN DESIGNING STRUCTURES
FX = w*x2/2L • Strength
Shear force at free end i.e. at point Bending moment at section XX is • Beauty
B, x=0 FB = 0 negative. • Economy
Similarly, Shear force at fixed end • But the ESSENTIAL requirement of any structure is that it must be capable of resisting a variety
at point A, x=L
FA = w*L/2
of loadings without changing its shape, other than by the tiny deformations due to straining of the
material of which it is made.
• Before an engineer can design a structure, he must be able to determine all the forces acting on
it at any one time.
SIGN CONVENTION FOR SHEAR FORCE AND BENDING MOMENT DIAGRAM (i) Loads
SHEAR FORCE (ii) Reactions at points of support
• Shear force at a section will be considered as POSITIVE if resultant of the forces to the left of the
section is in upward direction.
TYPES OF LOADS (that the structural designer should consider before designing the structure) • Engineers perform preliminary designs of architectural components after environmental
1. GRAVITY LOADS factors have been established, including roof, wall, and floor plans according to
• dead load and live loads (moving and movable loads) architectural drawings for structural steel building design. Footings, slabs, load bearing
2. LATERAL LOADS walls, beams, and columns are designed after finding and coordinating mechanical,
• wind load, seismic load, hydrostatic pressure and soil pressure electrical, and plumbing clashes.
As the loads and reactions together form a system of forces in equilibrium, the resultant of the loads will be 2. LOAD ANALYSIS
equal and opposite to, and act along the same line of action as the resultant of the support reactions. • All potential live and dead loads experienced by a building over its lifetime should be
analyzed by a structure engineer. Thus, you need to think about the varying loads based on
LOADS may be subdivided into the location of your structure. You can find the values of these loads by consulting the
a. DEAD LOADS relevant structural design codes and references. There are a variety of loads acting on the
• due to the self-weight of the structure building at the same time in the real world.
b. LIVE LOADS • It is important to assess the whole load for the design and drawing of steel structures. Part
• Or imposed loads of performing a loads analysis is determining which load combinations are the worst for your
• which embrace all loads not included in (a), for example, weight of machinery, stores, structure. Autodesk Revit and Tekla, are two examples of BIM structural engineering
vehicles, cranes, and people, as well as loading due to wind or water pressure. Unlike software that can be set to generate all possible loads automatically.
dead loads, imposed loads may, or may not, be present. 3. STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS
Example of Live Load/ Imposed Load • Structural engineers are the ones responsible for doing structural analysis on the structural
1. BRIDGE members. Shear, bending moment, normal, and torsion stress diagrams, as well as
• the loading may be due to moving vehicles. At steel girder bridges, there are lists of forces responses and deformations or deflections caused by the various load combinations, are all
which shall be considered when calculating the stresses developed and gives standard included in the structural analysis. Software for Building Information Modeling (BIM)
loadings for both highway and railway bridges structural analysis, such as Autodesk Revit and Tekla, is used for both basic and advanced
2. FLATS, CONDOMINIUM FLOORING structural analysis.
• when you are to design the flooring, the loading may be due to people and furniture that 4. SYSTEM DESIGN
the occupant will intend to put. The recommended loads should be considered in the • When the preliminary design of the structure has been finished, the structure engineer will
design of buildings and other structures. Specifies the minimum imposed loads for floors shift their focus to the design of the system using a top-down approach. It is absolutely
according to the use to which the building is put whether floor is part of an office block and necessary to have a good grasp of the load path of the structure, with particular attention
relatively lightly loaded, or a heavily loaded warehouse floor. paid to the effects of gravity loads, lateral loads, and uplift on the various parts contained
3. DAM or WATER TANK within the structure. When the engineer has a general concept of the load path of the
• Water pressure structure, they will start initial designs of the various structural systems.
5. ELEMENT DETAILING
To calculate the dead load of a building • The specific design of structural elements is detailed with accurate dimensions. The
• By calculating the volume of each member and multiplying it by the unit weight of structure engineer will perform detailed member analysis for certain spans, such as
the materials from which it is composed, an accurate dead load can be determined for estimating the loads that will be placed on the roof. It is possible to significantly cut down on
each component. the cost of constructing structures by planning the details of steel connections carefully in
Importance of Proper Building Design advance.
• Effective building design transcends mere aesthetics; it lays the groundwork for 6. ITERATIVE DESIGN AND DRAFTING
sustainable, safe, and harmonious environments. A well-designed building not only • The iterative approach is utilized by structural engineers in order to fine-tune the structural
enhances the quality of life for its occupants but also contributes to the broader design. Revit helps project teams uncover insights and drive outcomes with data by
fabric of communities, fostering social interaction and economic vitality. Conversely, providing integrated analysis tools and interoperability support for a broad range of CAD
overlooking key aspects of design can lead to inefficiencies, safety hazards, and missed and BIM applications. Because of the modification of the structural analysis model, it now
opportunities for innovation. incorporates load routes that are more accurate.
Complexity and Considerations Involved 7. CONSTRUCTION ADMINISTRATION
• However, embarking on a building design project entail navigating a labyrinth of • Structural contractors should ensure that the building structure design and construction are
complexities and considerations. From conceptualization to construction, architects, carried out as per the construction shop drawings. So, proper construction administration is
engineers, and stakeholders must grapple with diverse factors, including site constraints, required for a structurally sound building. In the later stages of the building process, the
budgetary limitations, regulatory frameworks, and user needs. Balancing these competing engineer is frequently asked to perform tasks such as review requests for information
interests while striving for design excellence demands meticulous planning, (RFI) and deferred submittal, acquire code approvals, or develop construction schedules.
interdisciplinary collaboration, and creative problem-solving. • In addition to ensuring that the building is built in accordance with the structural design,
STEP BY STEP GUIDE FOR STRUCTURAL DESIGN OF BUILDING engineers will also monitor the progress of construction on the client’s behalf. They will also
1. CONCEPTUAL DESIGN frequently conduct site inspections to ensure that the building process is moving forward
• A structural design engineer will analyze the drawings created by the architects first to and that there are no errors in the installation of products.
create a structural design of building plan. The engineer will analyze the various spaces
in the residential, commercial, or industrial building to create structure engineering design.
Conditions at the site are evaluated, including the soil report, the exposure category,
the wind load, and the seismic load for the design of steel structures, and design of
concrete structures.
STEEL Why Use Steel?
• is iron metal that’s been alloyed with less than 2% carbon. However, many other elements can • Steel is an incredibly versatile and durable material. Because so many variations are available,
be added as well to create multiple grades of steel alloys with varying properties. Common there’s a grade of steel to match nearly any application. Steel’s strength makes it ideal for
alloying elements include chromium, manganese, and nickel. large structures and demanding applications. With the correct grade or coating, it can even
• The history of steel begins with the history of iron. Iron’s discovery and rise to prominence resist corrosion. Steel also has excellent dimensional stability. It does not swell, shrink, or
in what we now call the Iron Age began in about the 12th century BCE (though it varies easily warp or creep.
depending on geographical location). Is Steel a Metal?
• made of iron and carbon, but many other alloying elements also get added to create thousands • Yes, steel is metal. The major component of steel is iron (which itself is a metallic element),
of different grades of steel. and aside from carbon, the vast majority of alloying elements in steel grades are metals. Steel
• made via one of two main smelting processes — either a blast furnace or an electric arc is a shiny, hard, malleable metal and has good thermal and electrical conductivity.
furnace. Can Steel Rust?
CHARACTERISTICS OF STEEL • Yes, steel can rust. Rust occurs when the iron in steel reacts with oxygen in the air (in the
1. STRENGTH presence of water) to form iron oxide. Stainless steels, however, have alloying elements such
• Steel is a high-strength material, particularly in tension, and can be used for structural loads. as chromium and nickel that prevent or severely inhibit iron oxide formation.
2. DURABILITY Is Steel Stronger Than Iron?
• Steel is highly durable with a potential lifespan of over 100 years. It does not swell or creep, • Yes, steel is stronger than iron due to the carbon contained within its molecular
instead remaining very rigid. structure. Generally, steel’s toughness increases with the carbon content.
3. VERSATILITY Is Anything Harder Than Steel?
• Steel is an incredibly versatile material. Its many grades can be applied to thousands of uses. • Yes, several materials are harder than steel. Diamond is the hardest natural material known
4. MACHINABILITY (though it is more brittle). Silicon carbide is a manufactured material that is harder than steel.
• Most steel is easily machinable, depending on the grade. Some specific grades of steel (free- Other metals such as tungsten are also harder than steel.
cutting steels) are highly machinable. What Is the Difference Between Steel and Metal?
5. WELDABILITY • Steel is a type of metal but not all metals are steel. Steel’s properties differ from those of other
• Most grades of steel are easily weldable, although some need specialized welding procedures. metals. Depending on the grade of steel, it can be much stronger and may corrode or resist
6. CORROSION RESISTANCE corrosion differently.
• Steel can be alloyed with other elements such as chromium, nickel, and molybdenum to better What Is the Difference Between Steel and Aluminum?
resist corrosion. • Steel is a metal alloy of the elements iron and carbon whereas aluminum is a single metal
7. CODUCTIVITY element. This results in very different properties between the two materials: steel is strong but
• Steel generally has lower thermal and electrical conductivity compared to other metals. It can heavy, and aluminum has lower strength but is much lighter.
be employed as a strong and heat-resistant shielding material.
8. RECYCLING ANALYSIS OF INDETERMINATE STRUCTURAL by MOMENT DISTRIBUTION METHOD
• Steel can be completely recycled, and due to its value, a large portion (>60%) of steel globally What is the difference between statically determinate and indeterminate?
is recycled. • Statically determinate structures have reaction forces that can be analyzed using the
APPLICATIONS OF STEEL equilibrium equations. By contrast, statically indeterminate structures have unknown
Steel is an incredibly versatile metal and has a wide variety of types and grades. Listed below are some of reaction forces that cannot be analyzed using the equilibrium equations
its applications: What are statically indeterminate structures?
1. TRANSPORTATION • Statically indeterminate structures include beams and trusses that have one or more unknown
• Steel is used in transportation in several ways. Infrastructure such as bridges and rails are reaction forces. Analyzing these structures depends upon the identification of the materials
built with steel. It also forms the frames of train cars, motor vehicles, and large ships. It is the involved in their construction, as well as the use of analytical methods such as the force
incredible strength of steel that makes it a good fit for these applications. method (or flexibility method), the stiffness method (or matrix method), and the moment
distribution method. When a body in a selected inertial frame of reference neither rotates nor
2. CONSTRUCTION moves in translational motion, we say the body is in static equilibrium in this frame of reference.
• Steel is used widely in construction, primarily in the form of structural, load-bearing members. MOMENT DISTRIBUTION METHOD
This is because of its high strength and rigidity. • Moment distribution is based on the method of successive approximation developed
3. MANUFACTURING by Hardy Cross (1885–1959) a structural engineering professor at the University of Illinois at
• Manufacturing industries employ plenty of steel, particularly for machine components and Urbana
tools. Its strength makes it a popular choice for heavy-duty applications. HARDY CROSS
4. PACKAGING • published a paper called "Analysis of Continuous Frames by Distributing Fixed-End
• Steel is used in cans for food and beverages. It can be ideal because it is durable and Moments" in which he described the moment distribution method, commonly called the Hardy
recyclable. Cross Method. It changed the way engineers in the field performed structural analysis. The
5. MEDICAL EQUIPMENT moment distribution method was used to determine the forces in statically indeterminate
• Stainless steels are used extensively in medical equipment because they resist corrosion. structures and allowed for engineers to safely design structures from the 1930s through the
They don’t naturally promote microbial growth and can easily be cleaned and even heat- 1960s, until the development of computer-oriented methods.
sterilized. Surgical tools and medical instruments are commonly made from stainless steel. • His work includes developing simplified methods of analysis by means of converging
6. SPORTS EQUIPMENT approximations. The most significant of these, the fixed-end moment distribution for analysis
• Steel is used for sports equipment such as bicycles and golf clubs. It appears in items that of continuous structures, greatly simplified the way stresses could be calculated. This method
experience heavy loads, so its strength and durability are valuable. was published in 1930. This method is applicable to all types of rigid frame analysis.
MOMENT DISTRIBUTION UNBALANCE MOMENT
• is an iterative method of solving an indeterminate Structure. • The difference between the summation of the fixed end moment and zero at joints
• is suitable for analysis of all types of indeterminate beams and rigid frames. It is also called a DISTRIBUTED MOMENT
‘relaxation method’ and it consists of successive approximations using a series of cycles, • The product of the unbalance moment at a joint and the distribution factor of the members
each converging towards final result. meeting at that joint
• It is comparatively easier than slope deflection method. It involves solving number of DISTRIBUTION FACTOR
simultaneous equations with several unknowns, but in this method does not involve any  Proportionate value of the stiffness of the members meeting at a joint
simultaneous equations.  When several members meet at a joint and a moment is applied at the joint to produce rotation without
• It is very easily remembered and extremely useful for checking computer output of highly translation of the members, the moment is distributed among all the members meeting at that joint
indeterminate structures. proportionate to their stiffness.
• It is widely used in the analysis of all types of indeterminate beams and rigid frames. Distribution factor = Relative stiffness / Sum of relative stiffness at the joint
• The moment-distribution method was very popular among engineers. It is very simple and is If there is 3 members,
being used even today for preliminary analysis of small structures. Distribution factors = k1 / (k1+k2+k3), k2/ (k1+k2+k3), k3/ (k1+k2+k3)
The primary concept used in this methods are, CARRY OVER MOMENT
Fixed End Moments  The effect of the distributed moment of the other end of a member due to continuous reaction
Relative or Beam Stiffness or Stiffness factor  The moment induced at the fixed end of the beam by the action of the moment applied at the other
Distribution factor end.
Carry over moment or Carry over factor  Carry over moment: It is defined as the moment induced at the fixed end of the beam by the action
Basic Concepts of a moment applied at the other end, which is hinged.
In moment-distribution method, counter-clockwise beam end moments are taken as positive. The  Carry over moment is the same nature of the applied moment.
counter-clockwise beam end moments produce clockwise moments on the joint. Carry over factor (C.O)
Note the sign convention: • A moment applied at the hinged end B “carries over” to the fixed end „ A‟, a moment equal to half
Anti-clockwise is positive the amount of applied moment and of the same rotational sense. C.O =0.5
Clockwise is negative RELATIVE OR BEAM STIFFNESS OR STIFFNESS FACTOR
 Is the moment required to produce unit rotation at the simply supported end of a beam, the other end
PROCEDURE FOR ANALYSIS OF INDETERMINATE BEAMS BY THE MOMENT DISTRIBUTION being rigid fixed
METHOD  When a structural member of uniform section is subjected to a moment at one end, then the moment
required so as to rotate that end to produce unit slope is called the stiffness of the member.
1. Calculate the fixed-end moments for members, assuming that the joints are clamped against rotation.
 Stiffness is the member of force required to produce unit deflection.
2. Calculate the distribution factor for each of the members connected at the joint  It is also the moment required to produce unit rotation at a specified joint in a beam or a structure. It
3. Calculate the unbalanced moment at each joint and distribute the same to the ends of members can be extended to denote the torque needed to produce unit twist.
connected at that joint.  It is the moment required to rotate the end while acting on it through a unit rotation, without translation
4. Carry over one-half of the distributed moment to the other ends of members. of the far end being
Beam is hinged or simply supported at both ends k = 3 EI / L
5. Add or subtract these latter moments (moments obtained in steps three and four) to or from the Beam is hinged or simply supported at one end and fixed at other end k = 4 EI / L
original fixed-end moments. Stiffness of members in continuous beams and rigid frames
6. Apply the determined end moments at the joints of the given structure. Stiffness of all intermediate members k = 4 EI / L
7. Draw the free-body diagram of each span of the given beam, showing the loads and moments at the Stiffness of edge members,
joints obtained by the moment distribution method. If edge support is fixed k = 4 EI / L
If edge support is hinged or roller k = 3 EI / L
8. Determine the support reactions for each span.
Where:
9. Compute and construct the shearing force and bending moment diagrams for each span. E = Young‟s modulus of the beam material
10. Draw one bending moment and one shearing force diagram for the given beam by combining the I = Moment of inertia of the beam
diagrams in step 9. L = Beam‟s span length
ASSUMPTIONS IN MOMENT DISTRIBUTION METHOD
 All the members of the structures are assumed to be fixed and fixed end moments due to external
loads are obtained.
 All the hinged joints are released by applying an equal and opposite moment.
 The joints are allowed to deflect (rotate) one after the other by releasing them successively.
 The unbalanced moment at the joint is shared by the members connected at the joint when it is
released.
 The unbalanced moment at a joint is distributed in to the two spans with their distribution factor.
FIXED END MOMENT
 Moment develop at each end of a member when that member is ASSUMED FIXED or CLAMPED
 All members of a given frame are initially assumed fixed at both ends.
 The loads acting on these fixed beams produce fixed end moments at the ends.FEM are the moments
exerted by the supports on the beam ends.These (non-existent) moments keep the rotations at the
ends of each member zero.
FIXED END MOMENTS

SUMMARY

Moment distribution method of analysis of indeterminate structures:

• The moment distribution method of analysis is an approximate method of analysis. Its degree
of accuracy is dependent on the number of iterations. In this method, it is assumed that all
joints in a structure are temporarily locked or clamped and, thus, are prevented from possible
rotation. Loads are applied to the members, and the moments developed at the member ends
due to fixity are determined. Joints in the structure are then unlocked successively, and the
unbalanced moment at each joint is distributed to members meeting at that joint. Carry over
moments at members’ far ends are determined, and the process of balancing is continued until
the desired level of accuracy. Members’ end moments are determined by adding up the fixed-
end moment, the distributed moment, and the carry over moment. Once members’ end moments
are determined, the structure becomes determinate.
EXAMPLE TRY MO PARA MAUTAS:

• Using the moment distribution method, determine the end moments and the reactions at the Using the moment distribution method, determine the end moments and the reactions at the supports of
supports of the beam shown in Figure 12.6a. Draw the shearing force and the bending moment the beam shown in Figure 12.6a. Draw the shearing force and the bending moment diagrams. EI =
diagrams. EI = constant. constant.

SOLUTION

(1) Fixed end moment. (2) Stiffness factor. (3) Distribution factor.

(4) Distribution Table. (5) Shear force and bending moment Diagrams
EXAMPLE TRY MO PARA MAUTAS

Using the moment distribution method, determine the end moments and the reactions at the supports of Using the moment distribution method, determine the end moments and the reactions at the supports of
the beam shown in Figure 12.7a. Draw the shearing force and the bending moment diagrams. the beam shown in Figure 12.7a. Draw the shearing force and the bending moment diagrams.

SOLUTION:

SOLUTION

(1) Fixed End Moment (2) Stiffness factor

(3) Distribution Factor (Table) (4) Shear force and bending moment diagram