EE 3CL4, §8

6 / 79
Tim Davidson Frequency Response
Transfer
functions

Frequency
Response • For a stable, linear, time-invariant (LTI) system, the
Plotting the
freq. resp.
steady state response to a sinusoidal input is
Mapping a sinusoid of the same frequency but possibly different
Contours
magnitude and different phase
Nyquist’s
criterion
Ex: servo, P control • Sinusoids are the eigenfunctions of convolution
Ex: unst., P control
Ex: unst., PD contr.
Ex: RHP Z, P contr. • If input is A cos(ω0 t + θ)
Nyquist’s
Stability
and steady-state output is B cos(ω0 t + φ),
Criterion as a
Design Tool
then the complex number B/Aej(φ−θ)
Relative Stability
Gain margin and
is called the frequency response of the system at
Phase margin
Relationship to
frequency ω0 .
transient response
EE 3CL4, §8
7 / 79
Tim Davidson Frequency Response, II
Transfer
functions

Frequency
Response

Plotting the
freq. resp.

Mapping
Contours • If a stable LTI system has a transfer function G(s),
Nyquist’s
criterion
then the frequency response at ω0 is G(s)|s=jω0
Ex: servo, P control
Ex: unst., P control
Ex: unst., PD contr.
Ex: RHP Z, P contr.
• What if the system is unstable?
Nyquist’s
Stability
Criterion as a
Design Tool
Relative Stability
Gain margin and
Phase margin
Relationship to
transient response
EE 3CL4, §8
9 / 79
Tim Davidson Plotting the frequency response
Transfer
functions

Frequency • For each ω, G(jω) is a complex number.

Response

Plotting the • How should we plot it?

freq. resp.

Mapping
Contours
• G(jω) = G(jω) ej∠G(jω)
Nyquist’s
Plot G(jω) versus ω, and ∠G(jω) versus ω
criterion
Ex: servo, P control  
Ex: unst., P control
Ex: unst., PD contr.
• Plot 20 log10 G(jω) versus log10 (ω), and
Ex: RHP Z, P contr.
∠G(jω) versus log10 (ω)
Nyquist’s
Stability


Criterion as a
Design Tool
• G(jω) = Re G(jω) + j Im G(jω)



Relative Stability
Gain margin and
Plot the curve Re G(jω) , Im G(jω) on an “x–y ” plot
Phase margin
Relationship to
transient response
Equiv. to curve G(jω) ej∠G(jω) as ω changes (polar plot)
EE 3CL4, §8
10 / 79
Tim Davidson Polar plot, example 1
Transfer
functions Let’s consider the example of an RC circuit
Frequency
Response

Plotting the
freq. resp.

Mapping
Contours

Nyquist’s
criterion
Ex: servo, P control
Ex: unst., P control
V2 (s) 1
Ex: unst., PD contr.
Ex: RHP Z, P contr.
• G(s) = V1 (s) = 1+sRC
Nyquist’s
• G(jω) = 1
1+jω/ω1 , where ω1 = 1/(RC).
Stability
Criterion as a
Design Tool
Relative Stability
1 ω/ω0
Gain margin and • G(jω) = 1+(ω/ω1 )2
− j 1+(ω/ω 2
Phase margin
1)
Relationship to
transient response
1
• G(jω) = √ e−j atan(ω/ω1 )
1+(ω/ω1 )2
EE 3CL4, §8
11 / 79
Tim Davidson Polar plot, example 1
1 ω/ω1
Transfer • G(jω) = 1+(ω/ω1 )2
− j 1+(ω/ω 2
functions 1)

1
Frequency
Response
• G(jω) = √ e−j atan(ω/ω1 )
1+(ω/ω1 )2
Plotting the
freq. resp.

Mapping
Contours

Nyquist’s
criterion
Ex: servo, P control
Ex: unst., P control
Ex: unst., PD contr.
Ex: RHP Z, P contr.

Nyquist’s
Stability
Criterion as a
Design Tool
Relative Stability
Gain margin and
Phase margin
Relationship to
transient response
EE 3CL4, §8
12 / 79
Tim Davidson Polar plot, example 2
K
Consider G(s) = s(sτ +1) .
Transfer
functions
• Poles at origin and s = −1/τ .
Frequency
Response • To use geometric insight to plot polar plot,
Plotting the K /τ
freq. resp. rewrite as G(s) = s(s+1/τ )
Mapping
Contours K /τ
• Then G(jω) = |jω| |jω+1/τ |
Nyquist’s
criterion and ∠G(jω) = −∠(jω) − ∠(jω + 1/τ )
Ex: servo, P control
Ex: unst., P control
Ex: unst., PD contr.
Ex: RHP Z, P contr.

Nyquist’s
Stability
Criterion as a
Design Tool
Relative Stability
Gain margin and
Phase margin
Relationship to
transient response
EE 3CL4, §8
13 / 79 K /τ
Tim Davidson Polar plot, ex. 2, G(s) = s(s+1/τ )
Transfer
functions

Frequency
Response

Plotting the
freq. resp.

Mapping
Contours

Nyquist’s
criterion
Ex: servo, P control
Ex: unst., P control
Ex: unst., PD contr.
Ex: RHP Z, P contr. • When ω → 0+ , |G(jω)| → ∞, ∠G(jω) → −90◦ from below
Nyquist’s
Stability
Tricky
Criterion as a 2
Design Tool • To get a better feel, write G(jω) = ω−K ω τ ωK
2 +ω 4 τ 2 − j ω 2 +ω 4 τ 2
+
Relative Stability
Gain margin and
Hence, as ω → 0 , G(jω) → −K τ − j∞
Phase margin
Relationship to
transient response
• As ω increases, distances from poles to jω increase.
Hence |G(jω)| decreases
• As ω increases, angle from pole at −1/τ increases.
Hence ∠G(jω) becomes more negative
EE 3CL4, §8
14 / 79 K /τ
Tim Davidson Polar plot, ex. 2, G(s) = s(s+1/τ )
Transfer
functions

Frequency
Response

Plotting the
freq. resp.

Mapping
Contours

Nyquist’s
criterion
Ex: servo, P control
Ex: unst., P control
Ex: unst., PD contr.
Ex: RHP Z, P contr.

Nyquist’s √ ◦ ◦
• When ω = 1/τ , G(jω) = (K /τ )/ (1/τ )( 2/τ ) e−j(90 +45 )


Stability
Criterion as a √ ◦
Design Tool i.e., G(jω)|ω=1/τ = (K τ / 2)e−j135
Relative Stability
Gain margin and
Phase margin
• As ω approaches +∞, both distances from poles get large.
Relationship to
transient response Hence |G(jω)| → 0
• As ω approaches +∞, angle from −1/τ approaches −90◦
from below. Hence ∠G(jω) approaches −180◦ from below
EE 3CL4, §8
15 / 79 K /τ
Tim Davidson Polar plot, ex. 2, G(s) = s(s+1/τ )
Transfer
functions

Frequency
Response

Plotting the
freq. resp.

Mapping
Contours

Nyquist’s
criterion
Ex: servo, P control
Ex: unst., P control
Ex: unst., PD contr.
Summary
Ex: RHP Z, P contr.

Nyquist’s
• As ω → 0+ , G(jω) → −K τ − j∞
Stability
Criterion as a • As ω increases,
Design Tool
Relative Stability |G(jω)| decreases, ∠G(jω) becomes more negative
Gain margin and √ ◦
Phase margin
Relationship to
• When ω = 1/τ , G(jω) = (K / 2)e−j135
transient response

• As ω approaches +∞,
G(jω) approaches zero from angle −180◦
EE 3CL4, §8
16 / 79 K /τ
Tim Davidson Polar plot, ex. 2, G(s) = s(s+1/τ )
Transfer
functions

Frequency
Response

Plotting the
freq. resp.

Mapping
Contours

Nyquist’s
criterion
Ex: servo, P control
Ex: unst., P control
Ex: unst., PD contr.
Ex: RHP Z, P contr.

Nyquist’s
Stability
Criterion as a
Design Tool
Relative Stability
Gain margin and
Phase margin
Relationship to
transient response
EE 3CL4, §8
17 / 79
Tim Davidson Bode Diagrams
Transfer
functions

Frequency • Bode magnitude plot

Response

Plotting the
freq. resp. 20 log10 |G(jω)| against log10 ω
Mapping
Contours

Nyquist’s
criterion • Bode phase plot
Ex: servo, P control
Ex: unst., P control
Ex: unst., PD contr.
Ex: RHP Z, P contr. ∠G(jω) against log10 ω
Nyquist’s
Stability
Criterion as a
Design Tool
Relative Stability • In 2CJ4 we developed rules to help sketch these plots
Gain margin and
Phase margin
Relationship to
• In this course we will use these sketches to design
transient response
controllers
EE 3CL4, §8
18 / 79
Tim Davidson Sketching Bode Diagrams
Transfer
functions • Consider generic transfer function of LTI system
Frequency
K i (s + zi ) k (s2 + 2ζk ωn,k s + ωn,k
2 )
Response
Q Q
Plotting the G(s) = N Q Q 2 2
freq. resp. s j (s + pj ) r (s + 2ζd,k ωnd,r s + ωnd,r )
Mapping
Contours
where zi and pj are real.
Nyquist’s
criterion
Ex: servo, P control
• Unfortunately, not in the form that we are used to for
Ex: unst., P control
Ex: unst., PD contr.
Bode diagrams
Ex: RHP Z, P contr.
2
Q Q
• Divide numerator by i zi k ωn,k
Nyquist’s
Stability
Criterion as a
• Similarly for denominator
Design Tool Q Q 2 /
Q Q 2


Relative Stability • Then if K̃ = K i zi k ωn,k j pj r ωnd,r ,
Gain margin and
Phase margin
Relationship to
K̃ i (1 + s/zi ) k 1 + 2ζk (s/ωn,k ) + (s/ωn,k )2
Q Q

transient response

G(s) = N Q Q 2


s j (1 + s/pj ) r 1 + 2ζd,k (s/ωnd,r ) + (s/ωnd,r )
EE 3CL4, §8
19 / 79
Tim Davidson Sketching Bode Diagrams, II
Transfer
functions
• Now, frequency response can be written as:
Frequency
Response
Q
Plotting the K̃ i (1 + jω/zi )
freq. resp.
G(jω) =
(jω)N j (1 + jω/pj )
Q
Mapping
Contours
2
Q

Nyquist’s k 1 + 2ζk (jω/ωn,k ) + (jω/ωn,k )
criterion ×Q 2


Ex: servo, P control
Ex: unst., P control
r 1 + 2ζd,k (jω/ωnd,r ) + (jω/ωnd,r )
Ex: unst., PD contr.
Ex: RHP Z, P contr.

Nyquist’s • Four key components:

Stability
Criterion as a • Gain, K̃
Design Tool
Relative Stability
• Poles (or zeros) at origin
Gain margin and
Phase margin
• Poles and zeros on real axis
Relationship to
transient response
• Poles and zeros in complex conjugate pairs
• Each contributes to the Bode Diagram
EE 3CL4, §8
20 / 79
Tim Davidson Bode Magnitude diagram
Transfer
functions
Q
Frequency K̃ i (1 + jω/zi )
Response G(jω) =
(jω)N j (1 + jω/pj )
Q
Plotting the
freq. resp. Q 2


k 1 + 2ζk (jω/ωn,k ) + (jω/ωn,k )
Mapping ×Q 2


r 1 + 2ζd,k (jω/ωnd,r ) + (jω/ωnd,r )
Contours

Nyquist’s
criterion
Ex: servo, P control
Ex: unst., P control • Bode Magnitude diagram:
Ex: unst., PD contr.
Ex: RHP Z, P contr.

Nyquist’s 20 log10 |G(jω)| against log10 ω

Stability
Criterion as a
Design Tool
Relative Stability
Gain margin and
Phase margin
• 20 log10 |G(jω)| is
Relationship to
transient response

Sum of 20 log10 of components of numerator

− sum of 20 log10 of components of denominator
EE 3CL4, §8
21 / 79
Tim Davidson Components for magnitude
Transfer
functions
Q
Frequency K̃ i (1 + jω/zi )
Response G(jω) =
(jω)N j (1 + jω/pj )
Q
Plotting the
freq. resp.
2
Q

Mapping k 1 + 2ζk (jω/ωn,k ) + (jω/ωn,k )
Contours ×Q 2


Nyquist’s
r 1 + 2ζd,k (jω/ωnd,r ) + (jω/ωnd,r )
criterion
Ex: servo, P control
Ex: unst., P control
Ex: unst., PD contr.
• Poles at origin: slope starts at −20N dB/dec
Ex: RHP Z, P contr.

Nyquist’s
• Gain |K̃ | incorporated in position of that sloping line
Stability
Criterion as a • First order component in numerator:
Design Tool
Relative Stability increase slope by 20 dB/dec at ω = zi
Gain margin and
Phase margin
Relationship to
• First order component in denominator:
transient response
decrease slope by 20 dB/dec at ω = pj
• Second order components:
increase or decrease slope by 40 dB/dec at ω = ωn
EE 3CL4, §8
22 / 79
Tim Davidson Bode Phase Diagram
Transfer
functions Q
Frequency K̃ i (1 + jω/zi )
Response G(jω) =
(jω)N j (1 + jω/pj )
Q
Plotting the
freq. resp. 2
Q

k 1 + 2ζk (jω/ωn,k ) + (jω/ωn,k )
Mapping ×Q 2


r 1 + 2ζd,k (jω/ωnd,r ) + (jω/ωnd,r )
Contours

Nyquist’s
criterion
Ex: servo, P control
Ex: unst., P control
Ex: unst., PD contr.
• Bode Phase Diagram
Ex: RHP Z, P contr.

Nyquist’s ∠G(jω) against log10 ω

Stability
Criterion as a
Design Tool
Relative Stability
Gain margin and
Phase margin
• ∠G(jω) is
Relationship to
transient response

Sum of phases of components of numerator

− sum of phases of components of denominator
EE 3CL4, §8
23 / 79
Tim Davidson Components
Transfer
functions
Q
Frequency K̃ i (1 + jω/zi )
Response G(jω) =
(jω)N j (1 + jω/pj )
Q
Plotting the
freq. resp.
2
Q

Mapping k 1 + 2ζk (jω/ωn,k ) + (jω/ωn,k )
Contours ×Q 2


Nyquist’s
r 1 + 2ζd,k (jω/ωnd,r ) + (jω/ωnd,r )
criterion
Ex: servo, P control
Ex: unst., P control
Ex: unst., PD contr.
• Phase of K̃
Ex: RHP Z, P contr.

Nyquist’s
• Poles at origin: −N90◦
Stability
Criterion as a • First order component in numerator:
Design Tool
Relative Stability linear phase change of +90◦ over ω ∈ [zi /10, 10zi ]
Gain margin and
Phase margin
Relationship to
• First order component in denominator:
transient response
linear phase change of −90◦ over ω ∈ [pj /10, 10pj ]
• Second order components:
phase change of ±180◦ around ω = ωn
EE 3CL4, §8
24 / 79
Tim Davidson Graphically
Transfer
functions

Frequency
Response

Plotting the
freq. resp.

Mapping
Contours

Nyquist’s
criterion
Ex: servo, P control
Ex: unst., P control
Ex: unst., PD contr.
Ex: RHP Z, P contr.

Nyquist’s
Stability
Criterion as a
Design Tool
Relative Stability
Gain margin and
Phase margin
Relationship to
transient response
EE 3CL4, §8
25 / 79
Tim Davidson Graphically
Transfer
functions

Frequency
Response

Plotting the
freq. resp.

Mapping
Contours

Nyquist’s
criterion
Ex: servo, P control
Ex: unst., P control
Ex: unst., PD contr.
Ex: RHP Z, P contr.

Nyquist’s
Stability
Criterion as a
Design Tool
Relative Stability
Gain margin and
Phase margin
Relationship to
transient response
EE 3CL4, §8
26 / 79
Tim Davidson Accuracy of Bode Sketches
Transfer
Isolated first order pole (analogous for zero)
functions

Frequency
Response

Plotting the
freq. resp.

Mapping
Contours

Nyquist’s
criterion
Ex: servo, P control
Ex: unst., P control
Ex: unst., PD contr.
Ex: RHP Z, P contr.

Nyquist’s
Stability
Criterion as a
Design Tool
Relative Stability
Gain margin and
Phase margin
Relationship to
transient response
EE 3CL4, §8
27 / 79
Tim Davidson Accuracy of Bode Sketches
Transfer
functions
Isolated complex conjugate pair of poles
Frequency
Response

Plotting the
freq. resp.

Mapping
Contours

Nyquist’s
criterion
Ex: servo, P control
Ex: unst., P control
Ex: unst., PD contr.
Ex: RHP Z, P contr.

Nyquist’s
Stability
Criterion as a
Design Tool
Relative Stability
Gain margin and
Phase margin
Relationship to
transient response
EE 3CL4, §8
28 / 79
Tim Davidson Accuracy of Bode Sketches
Transfer
functions

Frequency Isolated complex conjugate pair of poles

Response

Plotting the
freq. resp.

Mapping
Contours

Nyquist’s
criterion
Ex: servo, P control
Ex: unst., P control
Ex: unst., PD contr.
Ex: RHP Z, P contr.

Nyquist’s
Stability
Criterion as a
Design Tool
Relative Stability
Gain margin and
Phase margin
Relationship to
transient response
EE 3CL4, §8
29 / 79
Tim Davidson Example
Transfer
functions
5(1 + jω/10)
G(jω) =

Frequency jω(1 + jω/2) 1 + 0.6(jω/50) + (jω/50)2
Response

Plotting the
freq. resp.

Mapping
Contours

Nyquist’s
criterion
Ex: servo, P control
Ex: unst., P control
Ex: unst., PD contr.
Ex: RHP Z, P contr.

Nyquist’s
Stability
Criterion as a
Design Tool
Relative Stability
Gain margin and
Phase margin
Relationship to
transient response
EE 3CL4, §8
30 / 79
Tim Davidson Example
Transfer
functions
5(1 + jω/10)
Frequency G(jω) =

Response jω(1 + jω/2) 1 + 0.6(jω/50) + (jω/50)2
Plotting the
freq. resp.

Mapping
Contours

Nyquist’s
criterion
Ex: servo, P control
Ex: unst., P control
Ex: unst., PD contr.
Ex: RHP Z, P contr.

Nyquist’s
Stability
Criterion as a
Design Tool
Relative Stability
Gain margin and
Phase margin
Relationship to
transient response