(Assignment- CS-210) Roll # : ( 301-231085 ) Malik Hamad Nawaz

COMPUTER ORGNIZATION &

ASSEMBLY LANGUAGE
(CS-210)

ASSIGNMENT # 01

Session (2023-2027)

Program
{Bachelor of Studies in Computer Science}

Roll No: 301-231085

Semester & Section: BS CS – 3(B)
Submitted By: Malik Hamad Nawaz
Instructor: Mir Muhammad

Wasiq Hazara University, Mansehra

Page | 0
(Assignment- CS-210) Roll # : ( 301-231085 ) Malik Hamad Nawaz

x86 ARCHITECTURE
Assembly Language and Computer Architecture: Key Concepts

The Basics of x86 Architecture

The x86 architecture, introduced by Intel in the 1970s, is
an instruction
set architecture (ISA) that has been a foundation in computing,
supporting a vast array of software applications over
multiple generations.
Core
Characteristics :
Complex Instruction: The x86 employs a CISC (Complex Instruction
Set
• Set
Computing) design with numerous instructions optimized for a variety of
tasks.

• Legacy Compatibility: Newer processors in the x86 family are

crafted to support older instruction sets, ensuring compatibility with
earlier applications.
Data Registers: Includes general-purpose registers, such as EAX, EBX,
ECX, and
• EDX,
which aid in storing addresses and data temporarily.

•
Memory Access Modes: The x86 supports direct, indirect, and
immediate
addressing, providing flexibility in accessing and manipulating data in
memory.
Strengths:
Broad Software: Extensive use across operating systems, with
• Support consistent
support from software and hardware vendors.

Page | 1
(Assignment- CS-210) Roll # : ( 301-231085 ) Malik Hamad Nawaz
• Optimized Performance: The architecture’s design allows for
effective handling of

Page | 2
 (Assignment- CS-210) Roll # : ( 301-231085 ) Malik Hamad Nawaz
complex operations, making it suitable for high-performance
applications.
Limitatio :
ns
Power- : Consumes more power than streamlined
• Intensi architectures, like RISC.
ve
• Complexity

in
Development
complexity and sometimes i m: x86’s intricate structure increases
development optimization.

Educational Design of y86 Architecture

y86 is a simplified model of x86, created to help students

understand
essential processor design principles. Though not compatible
with x86 directly, it reflects the foundational ideas in a more
manageable form.
Noteworthy :
Traits
•
Simplified : y86 has fewer instructions, making it easier
for
Instruction Set
beginners to grasp assemb
concepts.
• Educational Utility: Specifically tailored for teaching purposes, y86
allows
students
to engage with core ideas in computer organization and assembly.

Advantag :
es
Page | 3
(Assignment- CS-210) Roll # : ( 301-231085 ) Malik Hamad Nawaz
Learnin : y86’s streamlined design makes it suitable for
• g- learning the basics
Friendl
y
of computer architecture and assembly programming.

• Easy to Simulate: The architecture’s simplicity makes it practical for

students to
implement in simulations and gain hands-on experience.
Drawbac :
ks
Limited : Primarily educational, y86 is rarely applied in real-
• Practicality world
scenarios.

• Restricted Operations: Its reduced instruction set and lower

processing
efficiency make it unsuitable for demanding tasks.

Aspect x86 Architecture y86 Architecture

Complex, detailed design Straightforward, easy to

Design
understand
Complexity

Compatibility
Broad, compatible with legacy software Limited to educational
Scope
applications

Page | 4
(Assignment- CS-210) Roll # : ( 301-231085 ) Malik Hamad Nawaz

Block Diagram :
A simplified block diagram of the x86 architecture typically
includes the following key components:
• Control Unit (CU): Manages and coordinates the
overall operation of the CPU.
• Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU): Performs arithmetic and
logical operations on data.

Page | 5
(Assignment- CS-210) Roll # : ( 301-231085 ) Malik Hamad Nawaz
• Registers: Provide temporary storage for data and
instructions during processing.
• Memory Interface: Handles the communication between
the CPU and main memory.
• Cache: Stores frequently accessed data and instructions for
faster access.
• I/O Ports: Facilitate input and output operations between the
CPU and peripheral devices.

y86 ARCHITECTURE
Block Diagram :
A simplified block diagram of the y86 architecture typically
includes the following key components:
• Fetch Unit: Responsible for fetching instructions from
memory.
• Decode Unit: Decodes the fetched instructions to
identify the operation to be performed.
• Execute Unit: Executes the decoded instructions, typically
featuring a simplified ALU for arithmetic operations.
• Memory Unit: Handles the reading and writing of data to
and from memory.
• Registers: Provide temporary storage for instructions and
Page | 6
 (Assignment- CS-210) Roll # : ( 301-231085 ) Malik Hamad Nawaz

data during pr

IA 16-bit & IA 32-bit Architecture

IA 16-bit Architecture
A Look at IA 16-bit and IA 32-bit Architectures
Introduction to IA 16-bit

The IA 16-bit architecture emerged with the Intel 8086

processor series, pioneering 16-bit processing and providing
a stepping stone for future

processor designs.
16-bit : Processes data in 16-bit chunks, enhancing data
•
handling
Data Handling
compared to 8-bit models.

• Segmented Memory Access: Uses memory segmentation,

expanding
addressable
memory to 1 MB.

• Instruction Flexibility: Supports arithmetic, logical, data transfer,

and control
Page | 7
(Assignment- CS-210) Roll # : ( 301-231085 ) Malik Hamad Nawaz
operations.
Challeng : Limited by a 1 MB memory cap and lacks
es multitasking

Page | 8
 (Assignment- CS-210) Roll # : ( 301-231085 ) Malik Hamad Nawaz
support, making it less suitable for complex applications
today.

Advancements in IA 32-
bit
IA 32-bit introduced a flat
With the Intel 80386,
the architecture

memory model and extended data handling capabilities.

Flat Memory: Provides direct access to up to 4 GB of memory,
simplifying
• Model

memory management.
• Enhanced Processing Power: The 32-bit data bus and extended
register set support complex tasks more effectively, enabling
faster computations.

• Protected and Virtual Memory: Introduced protected mode

for memory security, multitasking, and efficient application
management, while virtual memory allows disk space to
supplement RAM.
Benefits :
Increased Memory: Addressable memory up to 4 GB allows the IA
32-bit
• Access

architecture to handle larger applications.

• Multitasking Efficiency: With virtual memory and protected mode,
it supports multiple applications simultaneously, making it essential
for modern operating

systems.

• Backward Compatibility: Can run 16-bit programs, ensuring

flexibility for users with older software.

Page | 9
(Assignment- CS-210) Roll # : ( 301-231085 ) Malik Hamad Nawaz
Limitations :
Memory Cap in Modern: The 4 GB limit is restrictive for applications
today,
• Use as

Page |
10
(Assignment- CS-210) Roll # : ( 301-231085 ) Malik Hamad Nawaz
many demand more memory.

• Power Use: Consumes more power compared to newer architectures,

impacting
battery life in portable devices.

Operating Modes of IA-32 Architecture

1. Protected : This default mode is where IA-32 operates
most
Modesecurely, offering features like segment-based memory
protection and support for multitasking.

: Primarily used for backward

2 Real Address
compatibility, this mode supports older software (e.g., DOS) but
. Mode
lacks memory protection,
increasing system vulnerability.

3 Virtual 8086 : An extension of protected mode, Virtual

8086
. enables the safe execution of real-mode applications. It
Mode
allows older DOS Page |
11
(Assignment- CS-210) Roll # : ( 301-231085 ) Malik Hamad Nawaz
programs to run without impacting other running processes.

Page |
12