Combinational Logic Circuits:

A combinational logic circuit is a type of digital circuit whose output depends solely on the current input
values. In simpler terms, it's a circuit that produces an output that is directly related to the input signals at
that specific moment, without any memory or feedback loops.

Arithmetic and Logical Functions

Arithmetic Functions

Arithmetic functions perform mathematical operations on numerical data. They are fundamental to
various computational tasks, from simple calculations to complex algorithms. Common arithmetic
functions include:

○Addition (+): Adds two or more numbers.

○Subtraction (-): Subtracts one number from another.

○Multiplication (*): Multiplies two or more numbers.

○Division (/): Divides one number by another.

○Modulus (%): Returns the remainder of a division operation.

Logical Functions:

Logical functions, on the other hand, operate on Boolean values (true or false, 1 or 0). They are used to
make decisions and control the flow of execution in programs. Common logical functions include:

○AND: Returns true only if all inputs are true.

○OR: Returns true if at least one input is true.

○NOT: Inverts the input value.

○XOR (Exclusive OR): Returns true if exactly one input is true.

Adders

Adders are fundamental digital circuits that perform binary addition. They are essential components of
arithmetic logic units (ALUs) within computers and other digital devices.

Types of Adders

There are two primary types of adders:

1. Half Adder:

○Adds two single-bit binary numbers, A and B.

○Produces two outputs:

- Sum (S): The result of the addition.

- Carry (C): A bit carried over to the next higher significant bit.

○Truth table: | A | B | S | C | |---|---|---|---| | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | | 0 | 1 | 1 | 0 | | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 | | 1 | 1 | 0 | 1 |

2. Full Adder:

○Adds three single-bit binary numbers: A, B, and a carry-in (Cin).

○Produces two outputs:

- Sum (S): The result of the addition.

- Carry-out (Cout): A bit carried over to the next higher significant bit.

○Truth table: | A | B | Cin | S | Cout | |---|---|---|---|---| | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 0 | | 0 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 | | 0 |

1|1|0|1||1|0|0|1|0||1|0|1|0|1||1|1|0|0|1||1|1|1|1|1|

2. Subtractors
Subtractors are digital circuits designed to perform binary subtraction. They are essential components in
Arithmetic Logic Units (ALUs) of computers and other digital systems.

There are two main types of subtractors:

1. Half Subtractor:

○Inputs: Two bits, A (minuend) and B (subtrahend).

○Outputs: Difference (D) and Borrow-out (Bout).

○Operation: Subtracts B from A, considering only the current bits.

2. Full Subtractor:

○Inputs: Three bits, A (minuend), B (subtrahend), and Borrow-in (Bin).

○Outputs: Difference (D) and Borrow-out (Bout).

○Operation: Subtracts B and Bin from A, considering the previous borrow.

Truth Table for a Full Subtractor:

A B Bin D Bout

0 0 0 0 0

0 0 1 1 1

0 1 0 1 1

0 1 1 0 1

1 0 0 1 0

1 0 1 0 0

1 1 0 0 0

1 1 1 1 1

3. Comparators

A comparator is a digital circuit that compares two binary numbers and produces an output indicating
their relative magnitude. It's a fundamental building block in many digital systems, from simple
microcontrollers to complex computers.

Types of Comparators:

○Equality Comparator:

- Determines if two input numbers are equal.

- Output is typically a single bit, indicating equality (1) or inequality (0).

○Magnitude Comparator:

- Determines if one input number is greater than, - - less than, or equal to the other.
Output is usually three bits:

A>B

A=B

A<B

4. PLD’s Programmable Logic Device (PLD’s):

Programmable Logic Devices (PLDs) are versatile integrated circuits that can be configured to perform a
wide range of digital logic functions. Unlike traditional fixed-function logic gates, PLDs offer flexibility
and customization.
II. Data Transmission

Data transmission in logic circuits involves the movement of digital information (bits) between different
components within a system. This can occur at various levels, from simple gate-level transfers to complex
inter-chip communication.

1. Multiplexers: Digital Switches

A multiplexer, often abbreviated as MUX, is a digital circuit that selects one of several input signals and
forwards the selected input to a single output line. Think of it as a digital switch that can be controlled to
connect one of multiple inputs to a single output.

Basic Structure of a Multiplexer:

○Input Lines: These are the data lines, each carrying a digital signal.

○Select Lines: These control lines determine which input line is selected.

○Output Line: This single line carries the selected input signal.

2. Demultiplexers: Distributing Data

A demultiplexer, often abbreviated as DEMUX, is a digital circuit that takes a single input signal and
distributes it to one of several output lines based on a select signal. It's essentially the opposite of a
multiplexer.

Basic Structure of a Demultiplexer:

○Input Line: This single line carries the input data.

○Select Lines: These control lines determine which output line the input data will be directed to.

○Output Lines: Multiple lines, each of which can receive the input data, depending on the select lines.

3. Encoders: Converting Analog to Digital

An encoder is a digital circuit that converts analog input signals into digital output codes. In simpler
terms, it takes multiple input lines and produces a binary code on the output lines, representing the active
input line.

Basic Structure of an Encoder:

○Input Lines: Multiple input lines, typically representing different states or conditions.

○Output Lines: Fewer output lines, usually

representing the binary code of the active input line.
4. Decoders: Translating Codes

A decoder is a digital circuit that converts a binary code into a set of output signals, where only one
output is active at a time. It's essentially the opposite of an encoder.

Basic Structure of a Decoder:

○Input Lines: These lines carry the binary input code.

○Output Lines: These lines produce the decoded output signals.

lll.

Code Converters

Code Converters: Translating Digital Languages

A code converter is a digital circuit designed to translate data representation from one format to another.
It's essentially a translator for digital codes, converting them from one system to another.
Common Types of Code Converters:

Binary-to-Gray Code Converter:

1. Converts binary code to Gray code, a code where only one bit changes at a time between
successive code words. This is useful for reducing errors in digital systems, especially in
applications like analog-to-digital converters.

2. BCD-to-Binary Converter:

Converts Binary Coded Decimal (BCD) code to binary code. BCD is a way to represent decimal numbers
using binary digits.
3. Binary-to-BCD Converter:

Converts binary code to BCD code.

4. Excess-3 to BCD Converter:

Converts Excess-3 code to BCD code. Excess-3 code is a self-complementing code, meaning the
complement of a number can be obtained by inverting all its bits.
5. 7 Segment:

A 7-segment display is a common component used to display decimal digits. It consists of seven
individual light-emitting diodes (LEDs) arranged in a specific pattern. To control which segments light up
to display a particular digit, we need a decoder that can convert a binary code (usually BCD) into a 7-
segment code.