Analog System - It is a system that uses

continuous values.

Digital System - Any system that can be

used for the transmission or processing of
information in which the information is
represented by physical quantities or
signals that are so constrained as to take
only discrete values.

Best known example of a digital system.

Central Processing Unit - the CPU is the
Other examples are
brains of the computer where most
● Telephone switching exchange calculations take place.
● Digital multimeter
● Digital counters Memory - this stores the program and the
● Electronic calculators data before the computer run begins
● Digital displays
I/O (Input/Output) - this consists of all the
circuits needed to get programs and data
in/out of the computer
ANALOG VERSUS DIGITAL
Control unit - This is the computer's center
- Characteristic of a digital system is
of gravity, analogous to the conscious part
its manipulation of discrete elements
of the mind. The control section directs the
of information.
operation of all other sections.
- Such discrete elements may be
electric impulses, the decimal digits, Arithmetic Logic Unit - This is the
letters of the alphabet, arithmetic number-crunching section of the machine, it
operations, punctuation marks, or can also make logical decisions.
any other set of meaningful symbols.
- The juxtaposition of discrete Register - A group of electronic, magnetic
elements of information represents a or mechanical devices that store digital
quantity of information. data.

NUMBER SYSTEM
Digital Computer - an interconnection of Binary Numeral System - represents
digital modules. values using two symbols

Functional Units of a Computer Octal Numeral System - base of 8 number

systems uses the digits 0-7

Decimal Numeral System - has 10 as its

base, the numerical base most widely used
Hexadecimal Numeral System - base of LOGIC BUFFER GATE: only one input,
16, used in microprocessor and computer output same, and this delays the signal
memory address.
XOR GATE: high output only when input
Base - number of digits in a number system word has odd parity
bit
XNOR: OR GATE followed by inverter
Bit - binary digit, consisting of two states
DE MORGAN's THEOREM
Nibble - string of 4 bits 1st Theorem: a NOR GATE is equivalent to
a bubbled AND gate
Byte - string of 8 bits 2nd Theorem: a NAND GATE is equivalent
to a bubbled OR gate
Binary Code - formed by converting each
digit of a decimal number individually into KARNAUGH MAP
binary. ASCII (American Standard Code for Sum Term: logical sum of several variables
Information Interchange) is the
alphanumeric code. Product Term: logical product of several
variables
STANDARD LOGIC GATES
Logic Circuit : input and output signals are Sum of Products(SOP): an AND-OR Ckts
two states
Karnaugh Map: graphic display of the
Gate : one or more input signals, one output fundamental products in the truth table
signal
Max Term (piM): use only sum terms that
Truth Table : shows all input and output contain all the input variables in either
possibilities of a logic circuit normal or complemented form

OR GATE: 2 or more inputs, one output Minterm/Standard

Product(SummationM): represents the
AND GATE: output is high when all inputs least combination of the input variables for
are high. each output state

NOT GATE or INVERTER: 1 input and 1 Adjacent Cells: two cells whose
output, output is always the complement of perspective addresses differ by only 1 digit
the input
Implicant: each product term in the sum of
NOR GATE: equivalent of OR GATE product expression
followed by inverter
Enclosure: denotes an implicant in the
NAND GATE: AND GATE followed by karnaugh map
inverter
Prime Implicant: an implicant that cannot Parallel Adder - allow multiple additions of
be enclosed by larger implicant binary digits. A digital circuit that adds two
binary numbers in parallel form and
BOOLEAN ALGEBRA produces the arithmetic sum of those
Boolean Constants - these are ‘0’ (false) numbers in parallel form
and ‘1’ (true)
Comparator - Used to compare two strings
Boolean Variable - can only take the to determine if both are exactly the same.
values ‘0’ or ‘1’ Consists of 4 X-NOR gates and 1 AND
gate.
Boolean Functions - each of the logic
functions (such as AND, OR, and NOT) are Magnitude Comparator - capable of
represented by symbols as described comparing two binary strings or words if
they are equal, greater or less than with
Boolean Theorems - set of identities and each other. (available in TTL(IC 7485)) or
laws CMOS families.

CONSENSUS THEOREM Decoder - multiple-input, multiple-output

- Very useful in simplifying boolean logic circuit arranged in manner so as to
expressions. XY + X’Z + YZ can be transform coded inputs to coded outputs.
written as XY + X’Z Breakdowns any combination of inputs to a
set of terms that are all set to '0' apart from
Combinational Circuits - when one term. Used in security alarm systems
combinational logic, (a logical entity), is and many applications.
converted to physical entity. Consists of
input variables, cascaded logic gates and N-to-m line Decoders - converts binary
output variables. inputs of 'n' into a coded output with a
maximum of 2^n different output lines.
Half Adder - produces a carry out but
cannot accept a carry in. 2-to-4 Decoder - accepts two input (A and
B) combinations to produce four (output 1,
Full adder - performs addition of three 2, 3, 4) logic outputs. Consists of 4 2-input
binary digits. AND gates and 2 NOT gates.

Main difference between the two is the carry 3-to-8 line Decoder - used to decode all
in process capability of the latter. possible combinations of three input bits.
Has three inputs and eight outputs and that
Half Subtractor - performs subtraction of is why it is called a 3-bit binary decoder.
two binary digits. Consists of 8 AND gates, 12 NOT gates, 3
input lines, 8 output lines.
Full Subtractor - subtraction of three bits.
Consisting of a minuend, subtrahend, BCD-to-Seven Segment Decoder -
borrow in, output difference, and borrow out. convert a BCD input combination into a form
which will drive a 7-segment display.
Consists of 10 AND gates, 25 NOT gates, 4 convert decimal (10 digits) input into its
input lines, 10 output lines. corresponding BCD output. 10 inputs and 4
outputs.
Common Anode Decoder - used to
drive a common anode 7-segment. ICs Applications of Encoder
4510 74LS47 1. Computer Keyboard - uses encoders to
minimize the number of wire needed in the
Common Cathode Decoder - drives a circuit
common cathode 7-segment. IC's 74LS48 2. Computer Hardware Detection System -
and 4511 uses an encoder for the CPU to detect
which I/O device has requested for
Both of these decoders are not communication.
interchangeable. 3. Positional Encoders - used in magnetic
positional control that guides the ships and
7-Segment Display - provides a robots (mobile) in determining locations.
convenient way of displaying information or
digital data in the form of numbers, letters or Multiplexer - used for combining several
alpha-numeric characters using 7 digits signals into an aggregate bit stream,
connected LEDs, placed together on a simply a data selector.
single display package. - Also called "Mux" or "Muxes" and works
like a rotary switch that connects multiple
Memory Address Decoder - used to input lines (2, 4, 8, 16, etc.) into a single
control the access and use of a memory unit common output line.
in a modern microprocessor system.
2-to-1 line Multiplexer - a circuit that
Encoder - device that accepts all the data consists of two input lines with one output
inputs at a time and converts this data into a line.
single encoded output.
4-to-1 line multiplexer - a circuit that
4-to-2 Line Decoder - single bit encoder consists of four input lines with one output
that has 4 bits input and 2 bits output. line.
Consists of 1 AND gate, 1 OR gate, and 2
NOT gates. 8-to-1 line multiplexer - consists of eight
input lines with one output line. Consists of
Priority Encoder - prioritizes a number of 4 input NAND gates, one 8-input NAND
significant input bits in the data stream, and gate and 4 NOT gates.
once it detects a high input, it will ignore the
other bits. Every m inputs are designated Demultiplexer - performs the opposite
with its own priority. The Most Significant Bit function of a multiplexer. Accepts a single
(MSB): highest priority, Least Significant Bit input data to produce 2^n output lines.
(LSB): Lowest priority. converts a serial data signal at the input
into a parallel data output. Can also
10-to-4 Line Decoder - also known as function as a decoder by using address
Decimal-to-BCD encoder, a circuit used to
inputs as binary inputs and providing an
output that matches the address input.

1-to-2 line demultiplexer - a circuit with

one input line and two output lines.
Transfers data from a single input to the
selected output.

1-to-4 line demultiplexer - circuit with one

input line and four output lines. Also has two
data select inputs that determine the
outputs. Consists of 4 AND gates and 4
NOT gates

1-to-8 line demultiplexer - one input line

and eight output lines. Three data select
inputs that determine the outputs. Consists
2. D Latch - also known as Data latch.
of 8 AND gates and 3 NOT gates.
Very useful variation of the SR latch.
The D latch circuit removes one of
the inputs by driving both set and
Latch - has two stable states and is
reset with a complementary
capable of storing one bit of information.
driver.
Latches are considered asynchronous
circuits.

Types of Latch
1. SR Latch - considered the most
basic latch circuit available where S
stands for Set and R for Reset.
Cross-coupling with two NOR
gates and its store bit is available
on its output (Q)

3. JK Latch - simple enhancement of

the SR latch that removes the
indefinite state (S=1, R=1) of the
latch by toggling the outputs (Q
and Q’) when both input is equal
to 1.
 Flip-flop - a synchronous bistable circuit.
Synchronous because the output
changes only when the clock input is
active or triggered. It is the common
element used as a storage element for
computers and other devices.

Shown above is a clock signal represented

by a square wave that rises and falls.
Determines the switching from 0 to 1 at
constant intervals.
4. T Latch - formed by shortening the
two inputs of JK latch. T latch also
known as “Toggle” latch provides
a toggle output of the input if the
enable line is high.

Shown above is the basic feedback logic

circuit. Has a NOT gate whose output is
connected (shorted) to its own input.

Comparison between Latch and Flip Flop

1. Latches are asynchronous; output
varies after the change in input. Flip
Flops are synchronous; variation of
the output state does not only
depend on the input but also to a
supplied clock pulse.
2. Latches are level sensitive (only 0
and 1 level), as shown in the circuit
below. When the enabled input is 1,
the input state of the SR is not
recognized. When enable is high;
inputs of S and R are processed into
a sequential circuit.
Flip Flops
Flip-flops are edge sensitive (depends
on the rising and falling of the clock
edge). They're used to store information 3. JK Flip Flop - a JK Latch with clock
in computers. Uses a SR flip-flop. This input and is considered the most
flip-flop has two parts, and they work versatile flip flop because it gives
together to store information. When the a definite output if both inputs are
clock signal changes, it triggers the 1.
flip-flop to change its state. This is called
an edge-triggered flip-flop.

3. Both latch and flip-flop have the

same circuit design. Only differences
in that latch; enable line is replaced
by a clock input.

Types of Flip Flops

1. SR Flip Flop - SR latch with a clock
input.

4. T Flip Flop - changes its output on

each clock edge. A simplified
version of the JK flip-flop and is
commonly used in constructing
different types of counters.

2. D Flip Flop - D latch with a clock

input. Tracks the input and makes
a transition that matches the
input. D stands for Data.

MASTER AND SAVE FLIP FLOPS

Master and Slave Flip Flop - second class
flip flop is the master-slave flip flops.
Constructed using two separate flip-flops.
Edge triggered; the data is entered in the
circuit during the leading edge of the
clock pulse. 4. Master Slave T Flip Flop - consists
of two T Flip Flops connected in
series sharing the same clock
pulse input.

1. Master-Slave SR Flip Flop - edge

sensitive device consisting of two
identical clocked SR Flip flops
cascaded with each other.
Multivibrators
An electronic circuit that is capable of
providing two state systems. Used to
control signal pulses and commonly used in
flip flops, clock generators and oscillators.
Basically an oscillator that generates a
rectangular or square wave.
2. Master Slave D Flip Flop - consists
of two D Flip Flops with a NOT gate Types of Multivibrator
connected to the slave flip flop’s 1. Astable Multivibrator - no stable
clock enable. It is also known as state. A circuit that produces an
“Delay Line” because it delays the output that is unstable in either state.
operation, whatever is the input it Oscillation of the output continuously
is also the output. varies from one state to another. It is
also called “Free-Running
Multivibrator” because of its free
use and continuously once the
circuit is turned ON.

3. Master-Slave JK Flip Flop - consists

of two JK Flip Flops connected in
series sharing the same clock
pulse input.
 3. Bistable Multivibrator - has two
stable states. Trigger provides the
circuit with the correct polarity and
amplitude causing the output to
change state and stay until triggered
again. This type of circuit is used as
the basic circuit design in
developing a register and memory
devices. Also called a Flip Flop

2. Monostable Multivibrator - a circuit

with one stable state and one
unstable state. This type of circuit is
ideal for creating timing devices for
fixed duration in response to some
external event such as a pulse
generator, time delay and frequency
divider.

Registers
- Flip flop is 1 bit memory cell

Shown below is a one-shot / monostable

multivibrator device. Has an input trigger
- A register is one or more flip flops
that controls the changing of the state, once
used to store data.
it is set to stable it will stay for a fixed period
of time. This is known as the “pulse width”.
Shift Register - a sequential logic circuit that
consists of a group of flip flops connected in
a chain so that the output from one flip flop
is the input of the next one on every clock
pulse.
Below is the circuit diagram of a 4-bit
Serial-in Parallel-out register.

Types of Synchronous Counters

1. Binary Up Counter - a synchronous
that performs counting from 0 to
2^N-1, where N is the number of bits
in a given counter circuit.

2. Binary Down Counter -

synchronous that performs a down
counting from 2^N-1 to 0, N; number
of bits.
 6. Ring Counter - uses a shift register
3. BinaryUp/Down Counter -
circularly connected in series with
synchronous counter that follows the
only one flip flop being set at any
binary number sequence either
particular time while the others are
going up or down.
cleared.

4. Skipping Counter - also known as

MOD-N/Divide by N counter. 7. Johnson Counter - Also known as
Capable of skipping states that are “Twisted Ring Counter” because the
normally part of the counting inverse output of the most significant
sequence. flip flop is connected back to the
input of the least significant.

BILATERAL SWITCH

An analog switch consisting of a

5. BCD Counter (Binary Coded gate-controlled MOSFET transistors acting
Decimal Counter) - a counter as a switch for analog or digital signal.
capable of counting in binary form Works like an ordinary relay switch with
from 0000 to 1001 and back. no moving parts in it.

CMOS Bilateral Switch behaves like a

simple SPST switch controlled
electronically, called bilateral because
either terminal can be used as an input; to control the movement of each
current flows in both directions. switch. Switch option is either A-C or
B-C.

Single Pole Bilateral Switch - works by

connecting together a N-channel and
P-channel MOSFET in parallel. This design
permits signals to pass through in both
directions (bidirectional) one at a time.

Read Only Memory

Semiconductor Memory
- A device that is used to store and
retrieve digital data that is fabricated by
using integrated circuit technology.
- Also called “memory chip” or
Types of Bilateral Switches “integrated memory” which is commonly
1. Single Pole Single Throw Switch - used as computer memory.
consists of a switch and a non - Used to program and data during
inverting amplifier that controls the computer operation and replaces the core
movement of the pole. Switch option memory as the main active memory used by
is either OFF or A-B. computers.

Shown above is the different internal

computer memory which is also called
semiconductor memory.
2. Single Pole Double Throw Switch -
consists of two switches and an Classification of Semiconductor Memory
inverting and non-inverting amplifier
Random Access Memory(RAM) - volatile Erasable Programmable ROM (EPROM) -
(electrically dependent) where data is special type of PROM in which data stored
stored temporarily. can be erased using UV light.
- Requires constant supply of power
to retain data and once power goes
off; data will be erased.

Read Only Memory (ROM) is an integrated

circuit programmed and loaded with
specific data when manufactured. ROM
chips are commonly used in computers
and are non-volatile; not electrically
dependent when used.

Types of ROM
Electrically Erasable Programmable ROM
Mask ROM - content is programmed and
(EEPROM) - stored data can be erased
loaded by the IC manufacturer. Called
by exposing it to an electrical charge.
“Mask” because of the process ROM is
Applying a high voltage(about 21 volts),
manufactured. Mask refers to the region
single byte of memory are erased in 10ms.
of the IC that is masked off before the
process of lithography (etching).

Programmable ROM (PROM) - permanent

memory in which data can be written
only one. Commonly used in digital Flash ROM - type of EEPROM that can be
appliances and devices such as digital erased and programmed in blocks and
washing machines, televisions, digital not by one byte at a time. Enables modern
players, playstation, and other digital manufacturers to develop storage device
devices. chips that can handle bigger capacity with
less circuit requirements, like a flash drive.

BIOS uses flash-ROM memory. BIOS

contains the driver of the basic I/O devices
of the PC/
 memory module. Either 30 or 72
pins.
2. Dual In-line Memory Module (DIMM)
- two sides of the memory module
consists of 168 pins (commonly
used although there are others such
as 72, 100, 144, and 184 pin) and
has a 64 bit connection to other
computer hardware.
3. Rambus In-Line Memory Module
(RIMM) - developed by Rambus inc
that consists of 184 or 232 pins.
Commonly used during the Pentium
Random Access Memory
3 and early Pentium 4 design
Types of RAM
computers.
1. Static RAM (SRAM) - uses flip flops
4. Rambus Dynamic RAM (RDRAM) -
as a basic storage element.
operates at a very high speed of 100
MHZ and transfer data rate of 800
> Cache Memory - a memory bank that
MHZ. Consists of 184 pins and
bridges the main memory and the
used during the same time as RIMM.
microprocessor. Data is transferred from
5. Dual Data Ram - capable to
the main memory to the cache in blocks.
operate at 333 MHz, consists of
Using an algorithm there is a greater
284 pins, uses 2.5 volts
chance that the next required data is
Non Volatile RAM (NVRAM) - retains its
already in the cache, resulting in faster
content even when the power is turned
performance. “An Intelligent memory”
OFF. works in contrast with the DRAM and
DDR which both require continuous power
supply in order to store their data. NVRAM
is also known as “Universal Memory”
because it has the good characteristics
of both RAM and ROM.

Video RAM (VRAM) - used in video

adapter or 3D graphic accelerator to
store images. VRAM works just like a
2. Dynamic RAM (DRAM) - requires a buffer between the processor and the
refreshing circuitry to store data. display.
Uses a capacitor to store bits of
data. Much Slower compared to - Also called a Multiport Dynamic
static RAM. Random Access Memory
(MPDRAM) because it has two
Types of DRAM independent access ports to the
1. Single in-line Memory Module ram, one for the CPU and the other
(SIMM) - uses only one side of the for the graphic processor.