EE-103/EEE-103 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

 UNIT-1: D.C Circuit Analysis and Network Theorems

• Circuit concepts: Concept of network, Active and passive
elements, linear network and nonlinear network, unilateral
and bilateral elements, lumped and distributed network,
sources, open circuit and short circuit, source transformation,
Kirchhoff’s Law
• Loop analysis and nodal analysis, star delta transformation
• Network theorems: Needs of theorem, Superposition
theorem, Thevenin’s theorem, Norton’s theorem, maximum
power transfer theorem. (8)
 UNIT-2: Steady State Analysis of Single Phase AC Circuits
• AC fundamentals: Average and effective value of Sinusoidal
waveform, form factor and peak factor, concept of phasors,
phasors representation of sinusoidally varying voltage and
current, analysis of series RLC circuits. Apparent, active and
reactive powers, power factor, causes and problems of low
power factor, power factor improvement, resonance,
bandwidth and quality factor in series circuit(8)
 UNIT-3: Three Phase AC Circuits
• Three phase system: Its necessity and advantages,
meaning of phase sequence, star and delta
connections, balanced supply, line and phase
voltage/current relationship.
• Measuring Instruments: Types of instruments:
construction and working principle of PMMC, MI type
instruments, induction type energy meter(8)
 UNIT-4: Introduction of Power System
• General layout of electrical power system, standard
generation, transmission and distribution voltage
levels, concept of grid.
• Magnetic circuit: Concepts, analogy between electric
and magnetic circuit.
• Single Phase Transformer: Principle of operation,
construction, emf equation, equivalent circuit, losses,
efficiency, Introduction to auto transformer.(8)
 UNIT-5: Electromechanical energy conversion devices
• DC Machines: Types, emf equation of generator and torque
equation of motor, applications.
• Three Phase Induction Motor: Types, principle of operation,
applications.
• Single Phase Induction Motor: Principle of operation and
introduction to methods of starting, applications.
• Three Phase Synchronous Machines: Principle of operation of
alternator, synchronous motor, applications(8)
 References:
1. V.Deltoro, “Principle of Electrical Engg.” PHI, 2009.
2. M.A Mallick, Dr. I. Ashraf, “Fundamental of Electrical Engg,”
CBS Publishers, 2010.
3. A. Hussain, “Basic Electrical Engg” Dhanpat Rai & sons,
2007.
4. I J Nagrath, “Basic Electrical Engg”, TMH, 2010.
UNIT-1: D.C Circuit Analysis and Network Theorems
• Circuit concepts: Concept of network, Active and
passive elements, linear network and nonlinear
network, unilateral and bilateral elements, lumped
and distributed network, sources, open circuit and
short circuit, source transformation, Kirchhoff’s Law
• Loop analysis and nodal analysis, star delta
transformation
• Network theorems: Needs of theorem,
Superposition theorem, Thevenin’s theorem,
Norton’s theorem, maximum power transfer
theorem.
 Circuit concepts: Concept of
network, Active and passive
elements, linear network and
nonlinear network, unilateral and
bilateral elements, lumped and
distributed network, sources, open
circuit and short circuit
• Any arrangement of electrical energy sources, resistances and
other circuit elements is called an electrical network.
• Network Terminology
(i) Linear network/circuit/element. A linear
network/circuit/element is one whose parameters (e.g.
resistances) are constant i.e. they do not change with current or
voltage.
(ii) Non-linear network/circuit/element. A non-linear
network/circuit/element is one whose parameters (e.g.
resistances) change with voltage or current.
(iii) Bilateral circuit/element. A bilateral circuit/element is one
whose properties are the same in either direction.
• For example, transmission line is a bilateral circuit because it can
be made to perform its function equally well in either direction.
Bilateral element - resistor
(iv) Unilateral circuit/element. A unilateral circuit/element is one
whose properties change with the direction of its operation. For
example, a diode rectifier circuit is a unilateral circuit. It is because
a diode rectifier cannot perform rectification in both directions.
Unilateral element - diode
(v)Active element. An active element is one which supplies electrical
energy to the circuit.
Thus in Fig. 3.1, E1 and E2 are the active elements because they supply
energy to the circuit.
(vi) Passive element. A passive element is one which receives electrical
energy and then either converts it into heat (resistance) or stores in an
electric field (capacitance) or magnetic field (inductance).
In Fig. 3.1, there are three passive elements, namely R1, R2 and R3.
These passive elements (i.e. resistances in this case) receive energy from
the active elements (i.e. E1 and E2) and convert it into heat.
(vii) Active and passive networks. An active network is that which contains
active elements as well as passive elements.
On the other hand, a passive network is that which contains passive
elements only.
(viii) Node. A node of a network is an equipotential surface at which two or
more circuit elements are joined.
Thus in Fig 3.1, circuit elements R1 and E1 are joined at A and hence A is the
node.
Similarly, B, C and D are nodes.
(ix) Junction. A junction is that point in a network where three or more
circuit elements are joined.
In Fig. 3.1, there are only two junction points viz. B and D.
That B is a junction is clear from the fact that three circuit elements R1, R2
and R3 are joined at it.
Similarly, point D is a junction because it joins three circuit elements R2, E1
and E2
(x) Branch. A branch is that part of a network which lies between two
nodes.
Thus referring to Fig. 3.1, there are a total of 5 branches viz. AB, AD, BD, BC
and CD.
The branch AB consists of R1, branch AD consists of E1, the branch BC
consists of R3, branch CD consists of E2 and branch BD consists of R2.
(xi) Parameters. The various elements of an electric circuit
like resistance (R), inductance (L) and capacitance (C) are
called parameters of the circuit.
These parameters may be lumped or distributed
(xii) Loop. A loop is any closed path of a network. Thus in Fig.
3.1, ABDA, BCDB and ABCDA are the loops.
(xiii) Mesh. A mesh is the most elementary form of a loop and
cannot be further divided into other loops.
In Fig. 3.1, both loops ABDA and BCDB qualify as meshes
because they cannot be further divided into other loops.
However, the loop ABCDA cannot be called a mesh because it
encloses two loops ABDA and BCDB.
(xiv) Network and circuit. Strictly speaking, the term network
is used for a circuit containing passive elements only while
the term circuit implies the presence of both active and
passive elements.
However, there is no hard and fast rule for making these
distinctions and the terms “network” and “circuit” are often
used interchangeably.
 Every voltage source has
Note: Not possible to construct an ideal voltage source some internal resistance that causes the terminal
voltage to fall due to the flow of current.
/Practical Voltage Source
/Practical Current Source
Kirchhoff’s Laws
 1. Kirchhoff’s Point Law or Current Law (KCL)
• In any electrical network, the algebraic sum of the
currents meeting at a point (or junction) is zero.
• Or the total current leaving a junction is equal to the total
current entering that junction.
• Consider the case of a few conductors meeting at a point A
as in Fig. 2.2 (a).
• Some conductors have currents leading to point A, whereas
some have currents leading away from point A.
• Assuming the incoming currents to be positive and the
outgoing currents negative, we have
• I1 + (−I2) + (−I3) + (+ I4) + (−I5) = 0
• or I1 + I4 −I2 −I3 −I5 = 0 or I1 + I4 = I2 + I3 + I5
• or algebraic sum incoming currents = algebraic sum of
outgoing currents
• Similarly, in Fig. 2.2 (b) for node A
• + I + (−I1) + (−I2) + (−I3) + (−I4) = 0 or I= I1 + I2 + I3 + I4
• We can express the above conclusion thus : Σ I = 0 ....at
a junction
 2. Kirchhoff’s Mesh Law or Voltage Law (KVL)
• The algebraic sum of the products of currents and
resistances in each of the conductors in any closed
path (or mesh) in a network plus the algebraic sum
of the e.m.fs. in that path is zero.
• In other words, Σ IR + Σ e.m.f. = 0 ...round a mesh
-
• If we start from a particular junction and go round
the mesh till we come back to the starting point,
then we must be at the same potential with which
we started.
• Hence, it means that all the sources of e.m.f. met on
the way must necessarily be equal to the voltage
drops in the resistances, every voltage being given
its proper sign, plus or minus.
• In applying Kirchhoff’s laws, particular attention should
be paid to the algebraic signs of voltage drops and
e.m.fs., otherwise results will come out to be wrong.
• Following sign conventions is suggested :
(a) Sign of Battery E.M.F.
• A rise in voltage should be given a + ve sign and a fall in
voltage a −ve sign.
• As we go from the −ve terminal of a battery to its +ve
terminal (Fig. 2.3), there is a rise in potential, hence this
voltage should be given a + ve sign.
• If, on the other hand, we go from +ve terminal to −ve
terminal, then there is a fall in potential, hence this
voltage should be preceded by a −ve sign.
• It is important to note that the sign of the battery e.m.f.
is independent of the direction of the current through
that branch.
+ -
 (b) Sign of IR Drop
• Now, take the case of a resistor (Fig. 2.4).
• If we go through a resistor in the same direction as the
current, then there is a fall in potential because current
flows from a higher to a lower potential.
• Hence, this voltage fall should be taken −ve.
• However, if we go in a direction opposite to that of the
current, then there is a rise in voltage.
• Hence, this voltage rise should be given a positive sign.
• It is clear that the sign of voltage drop across a
resistor depends on the direction of current through
that resistor but is independent of the polarity of any
other source of e.m.f. in the circuit under
consideration.
• Consider the closed path ABCDA in Fig. 2.5.
• As we travel around the mesh in the clockwise
direction, different voltage drops will have the
following signs :
I1R1 is − ve (fall in potential)
I2R2 is − ve (fall in potential)
I3R3 is + ve (rise in potential)
I4R4 is − ve (fall in potential)
E2 is − ve (fall in potential)
E1 is + ve (rise in potential)
• Using Kirchhoff’s voltage law, we get
−I1R1 −I2R2 +I3R3 −I4R4 −E2 + E1 = 0
or E1 −E2 = I1R1 + I2R2 −I3R3 + I4R4
 + I + I
-

-
+

+
I + + I
 Example 2.4. What is the voltage Vs across the open switch in the
circuit of Fig. 2.7 ?
Solution.
• We will apply KVL to find Vs.
• Starting from point A in the clockwise direction and using the sign
convention, we have +Vs + 10 − 20 − 50 + 30 = 0 ∴ Vs = 30 V
 Example 2.5. Find the unknown voltage V1 in circuit of Fig. 2.8.
Solution.
• Taking outer closed loop ABCDEFA and applying KVL to it, we get
− 16 × 3 − 4 × 2 + 40 −V1= 0 ;
∴ V1 = − 16 V
• The negative sign shows there is a fall in potential.
 Example 2.7. For circuit shown in Fig. 2.10, find VCE and
VAG.
Solution.
• Consider the two battery circuits of Fig. 2.10 separately.
• Current in the 20 V battery circuit ABCD = 20/(6 + 5 + 9) = 1A.
• Current in the 40 V battery circuit EFGH = 40/(5 + 8 + 7) = 2A.
• For finding VCE i.e. voltage of point C with respect to point E,
we will start from point E and go to C via points H and B.
• We will find the algebraic sum of the voltage drops met on
the way from point E to C.
• ∴ VCE = (− 5 × 2) + (10) − (5 × 1) = − 5V
• The negative sign shows that point C is negative with respect
to point E.
• VAG = (7 × 2) + (10) + (6 × 1) = 30 V.
• The positive sign shows that point A is at a positive potential
of 30 V with respect to point G.
 Example 2.9. Determine the branch currents in the network of
Fig. 2.12 when the value of each branch resistance is one ohm.
Solution.
• Let the current directions be as shown in Fig. 2.12.
• Apply Kirchhoff’s Second law to the closed circuit ABDA, we get
5 −x −z + y = 0 or x −y + z = 5 ...(i)
• Similarly, circuit BCDB gives
− (x −z) + 5 + (y + z) + z= 0
or x −y − 3z = 5 ...(ii)
• Lastly, from circuit ADCEA, we get
−y − (y + z) + 10 − (x + y) = 0
or x + 3y + z = 10 ...(iii)
• From Eq. (i) and (ii), we get, z = 0
• Substituting z = 0 either in Eq. (i) or (ii) and in Eq. (iii), we get
x −y = 5 ...(iv)
x + 3y = 10 ...(v)
•Subtracting Eq. (v) from
(iv), we get
− 4y = − 5 or y = 5/4 = 1.25
A
•Eq. (iv) gives x = 25/4 A =
6.25 A
•Current in branch AB = x
= current in branch BC
= x-z = x = 6.25 A (z=0)
•Current in branch BD = z
= 0; current in branch AD =
y = current in branch DC =
y+z = y = 1.25 A; (z=0)
•current in branch CEA =
x+y = 6.25 + 1.25 = 7.5 A.
 Example 2.11. Two batteries A and B are connected in
parallel and load of 10 Ω is connected across their terminals.
A has an e.m.f. of 12 V and an internal resistance of 2 Ω ; B
has an e.m.f. of 8 V and an internal resistance of 1 Ω. Use
Kirchhoff’s laws to determine the values and directions of the
currents flowing in each of the batteries and in the external
resistance. Also determine the potential difference across the
external resistance.
Solution.
• Applying KVL to the closed circuit ABCDA of Fig. 2.13, we get
− 12 + 2x − 1y + 8 = 0 or 2x −y = 4 ...(i)
• Similarly, from the closed circuit ADCEA, we get
− 8 + 1y + 10 (x + y) = 0 or 10x + 11y = 8 ...(ii)
• From Eq. (i) and (ii), we get
x = 1.625 A and y = −0.75 A
•The negative sign of y shows that the current is flowing into the
8-V battery and not out of it
i.e. it is a charging current and not a discharging current.
•Current flowing in the external resistance = x + y = 1.625 − 0.75
= 0.875 A
•P.D. across the external resistance = 10 × 0.875 = 8.75 V
Source Transformation
• A given voltage source with a series resistance can be
converted into (or replaced by) and equivalent current source
with a parallel resistance.
• Conversely, a current source with a parallel resistance can be
converted into a voltage source with a series resistance.
• Suppose, we want to convert the voltage source of Fig. 2.75
(a) into an equivalent current source.
• First, we will find the value of current supplied by the source
when a ‘short’ is put across in termials A and B as shown in
Fig. 2.75 (b).
• This current is I = V/R.
• A current source supplying this current I and having the same
resistance R connected in parallel with it represents the
equivalent source.
• It is shown in Fig. 2.75 (c).
 I

• Similarly, a current source of I and a parallel

resistance R can be converted into a voltage source
of voltage V = IR and a resistance R in series with it.
 Example 2.41. Convert the voltage source of Fig. 2.76
(a) into an equivalent current source.
Solution.
• As shown in Fig 2.76 (b), current obtained by putting a
short across terminals A and B is 10/5 = 2 A.
• Hence, the equivalent current source is as shown in Fig.
2.76 (c).
 Example 2.42. Find the equivalent voltage source for
the current source in Fig. 2.77 (a).
Solution.
• The open-circuit voltage across terminals A and B in
Fig. 2.77 (a) is VOC = drop across R = 5 × 2 = 10 V
• Hence, voltage source has a voltage of 10 V and the
same resistance of 2 Ω now connected in series [Fig.
2.77 (b)].
 Example 2.43. Use Source Conversion technique to
find the load current IL in the circuit of Fig. 2.78 (a).
Solution.
• As shown in Fig. 2.78 (b), 6-V voltage source with a
series resistance of 3 Ω has been converted into an
equivalent 2 A current source with 3 Ω resistance in
parallel.
• Two parallel resistances of 3 Ω and 6 Ω can be combined into a single
resistance of 2 Ω as shown in Fig. 2.79. (a)
• Two current sources cannot be combined together because of the 2 Ω
resistance present between points A and C.
• So, we convert the 2 A current source into the equivalent 4 V voltage source
as shown in Fig. 2.79 (b).
• Now, this 4 V voltage source with a series resistance of (2 + 2) = 4 Ω can
again be converted into the equivalent current source as shown in Fig. 2.80
(a).
• Now, the two current sources can be combined into a single 4-A source as
shown in Fig. 2.80 (b).
• 4-A current is divided into two equal parts at point A because each of two
parallel paths has a resistance of 4 Ω.
• Hence IL = 2 A. Current divider
rule
• By Current Divider Rule
IL= 4 { 4 / [ 4 + ( 1 + 3 ) ] } = 2 A
Loop method of analysis
 Maxwell’s Loop Current Method
• This method which is particularly well-suited to coupled
circuit solutions employs a system of loop or mesh
currents instead of branch currents (as in Kirchhoff’s
laws).
• Best suited when energy sources are voltage sources
rather than current sources.
• This method consists of writing loop voltage equations
by Kirchhoff’s voltage law in terms of unknown loop
currents.
• The number of independent equations to be solved
reduces from b by Kirchhoff’s laws to b − (j − 1) for the
loop current method where b is the number of branches
and j is the number of junctions in a given network.
• Fig. 2.51 shows two batteries E1 and E2 connected
in a network consisting of five resistors.
• Let the loop currents for the three meshes be I1, I2
and I3.
• It is obvious that current through R4 (when
considered as a part of the first loop) is (I1 −I2) and
that through R5 is (I2 −I3) (when considered as a
part of the second loop)
• However, when R4 is considered part of the second
loop, current through it is (I2 − I1).
• Similarly, when R5 is considered part of the third
loop, current through it is (I3 −I2).
• Applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law to the three loops,
we get,
E1 −I1R1 −R4 (I1 −I2) = 0
or I1 (R1 + R4) −I2 R4 −E1 = 0 ...loop 1
• Similarly, −I2R2 −R5 (I2 −I3) −R4 (I2 −I1) = 0
or –I1 R4 + I2 (R2 + R4 + R5) - I3R5 = 0 ...loop 2
• Also −I3R3 −E2 −R5 (I3 −I2) = 0
or -I2R5 + I3 (R3 + R5) + E2 = 0 ...loop 3
• The above three equations can be solved not only
to find loop currents but branch currents as well.
 Mesh Analysis Using Matrix Form
• Consider the network of Fig. 2.52, which contains
resistances and independent voltage sources and
has three meshes.
• Let the three mesh currents be designated as I1, I2
and I3 and all the three may be assumed to flow in
the clockwise direction for obtaining symmetry in
mesh equations.
• Applying KVL to mesh (i), we have
E1 −I1R1 −R3 (I1 −I3) −R2 (I1 −I2) = 0
or (R1 + R2 + R3) I1 −R2I2 −R3I3 = E1 ...(i)
• Similarly, from mesh (ii), we have
E2 −R2 (I2 −I1) −R5 (I2 −I3) −I2R4 = 0
or −R2I1 + (R2 + R4 + R5) I2 −R5I3 = E2 ...(ii)
• Applying KVL to mesh (iii), we have
E3 −I3R7 −R5 (I3 −I2) −R3 (I3 −I1) −I3 R6 = 0
or −R3I1 −R5I2 + (R3 + R5 + R6 + R7) I3 = E3 ...(iii)
• The matrix equivalent of above three equations is
• It would be seen that the first item is the first row i.e. (R1 + R2
+ R3) represents the self resistance of mesh (i) which equals
the sum of all resistance in mesh (i).
• Similarly, the second item in the first row represents the
mutual resistance between meshes (i) and (ii) i.e. the sum of
the resistances common to mesh (i) and (ii).
• Similarly, the third item in the first row represents the
mutual-resistance of the mesh (i) and mesh (iii).
• The item E1 represents the algebraic sum of the voltages of
all the voltage sources acting around mesh (i).
• Similar is the case with E2 and E3.
• The sign of the e.m.f’s is as while going along the current, if
we pass from negative to the positive terminal of a battery,
then its e.m.f. is taken positive.
• If it is the other way around, then battery e.m.f. is taken
negative.
• In general, let
R11 = self-resistance of mesh (i)
R22 = self-resistance of mesh (ii) i.e. sum of all
resistances in mesh (ii)
R33 = Self-resistance of mesh (iii) i.e. sum of all
resistances in mesh (iii)
R12 = R21 = − [Sum of all the resistances common to
meshes (i) and (ii)]
R23 = R32 = − [Sum of all the resistances common to
meshes (ii) and (iii)]
R31 = R13 = − [Sum of all the resistances common to
meshes (i) and (iii)]
• Using these symbols, the generalized form of the above
matrix equivalent can be written as

• If there are m independent meshes in any liner network,

then the mesh equations can be written in the matrix form
as under :

• The above equations can be written in a more compact

form as [Rm] [Im] = [Em].
• It is known as Ohm’s law in matrix form.
• If we assume each mesh current to flow in the
clockwise direction, then (i) All self-resistances will
always be postive and (ii) all mutual resistances
will always be negative.
• The above main advantage of the generalized form
of all mesh equations is that they can be easily
remembered because of their symmetry.
• Moreover, for any given network, these can be
written by inspection and then solved by the use of
determinants.
• It eliminates the tedium of deriving simultaneous
equations.
 Example. 2.30. Write the impedance matrix of the
network shown in Fig. 2.53 and find the value of
current I3.
Solution.
• Different items of the mesh-resistance matrix [Rm]
are as under :
• R11 = 1 + 3 + 2 = 6 Ω ;
• R22 = 2 + 1 + 4 = 7 Ω ;
• R33 = 3 + 2 + 1 = 6 Ω ;
• R12 = R21 = − 2 Ω ;
• R23 = R32 = − 1 Ω ;
• R13 = R31 = − 3 Ω ;
• E1 = + 5 V ; E2 = 0 ; E3 = 0.
The mesh equations in the matrix form are
 5(2+21)=115

115 0.782
 Example 2.31. Determine the current supplied by
each battery in the circuit shown in Fig. 2.54.
Solution.
• Since there are three meshes, let the three loop
currents be shown in Fig. 2.54.
• Items of the mesh-resistance matrix [Rm] are as under :
• R11 = 5 + 3 = 8 Ω;
• R22 = 4 + 2 + 3 = 9 Ω;
• R33 = 8 + 2 = 10 Ω
• R12 = R21 = − 3 Ω ;
• R13 = R31 = 0 ;
• R23 = R32 = − 2 Ω
• E1=algebraic sum of voltages around mesh(i)=20−5=15 V
• E2 = 5 + 5 + 5 = 15 V ;
• E3 = − 30 − 5 = − 35 V
• Hence, the mesh equations in the matrix form are
Nodal method of analysis
 Nodal Analysis with Voltage Sources
• The node-equation method is based directly on Kirchhoff’s
current law.
• Nodal method also has the advantage that a minimum
number of equations need be written to determine the
unknown quantities.
• It is particularly suited for networks having many parallel
circuits with common ground connected such as electronic
circuits.
• For the application of this method, every junction in the
network where three or more branches meet is regarded a
node.
• One of these is regarded as the reference node or datum
node or zero-potential node.
• Hence the number of simultaneous equations to be solved
becomes (n − 1) where n is the number of independent nodes.
• These node equations become simplified if all voltage sources
are converted into current sources
 (i) First Case
• Consider the circuit of Fig. 2.60 which has three nodes.
• One of these i.e. node 3 has been taken in as the reference
node.
• VA represents the potential of node 1 with reference to the
datum node 3.
• Similarly, VB is the potential difference between node 2 and
node 3.
• Let the current directions which have been chosen arbitrary
be as shown.
• For node 1, the following current equation can be written
with the help of KCL.
• I1 = I4 + I2 ...(i)
• Now I1R1 = E1 −VA ∴ I1 = (E1 −VA)/R1
• Obviously, I4 = VA/R4
• Also, I2R2 = VA −VB (because VA > VB)
• ∴ I2 = (VA −VB)/R2
• Substituting these values in Eq. (i) above, we get,
 (ii) Second Case
• Now, consider the case when a third battery of e.m.f. E3 is
connected between nodes 1 and 2 as shown in Fig. 2.62.
R2
• It must be noted that as we travel from node 1 to
node 2, we go from the −ve terminal of E3 to its +ve
terminal.
• Hence, according to the sign convention E3 must be
taken as positive.
• However, if we travel from node 2 to node 1, we go
from the +ve to the −ve terminal of E3.
• Hence, when viewed from node 2, E3 is taken
negative.
• For node 1 2

4
• For node 2
• Example 2.35. Find the branch currents in the
circuit of Fig. 2.65 by using (i) nodal analysis and (ii)
loop analysis.

R1
or

or
- =
- =

+ - + -
= =

- =
-
=

= = = = =
2 +
 Nodal Analysis with Current Sources
• Consider the network of Fig. 2.68 (a) which has two
current sources and three nodes out of which 1 and 2
are independent ones whereas No. 3 is the reference
node.
• The given circuit has been redrawn for ease of
understanding and is shown in Fig. 2.68 (b).
• The current directions have been taken on the
assumption that
1. both V1 and V2 are positive with respect to the
reference node. That is why their respective curents
flow from nodes 1 and 2 to node 3.
2. V1 is positive with respect to V2 because current
has been shown flowing from node 1 to node 2.
• A positive result will confirm out assumption whereas a
negative one will indicate that actual direction is
opposite to that assumed.
 I5 I2
I1

V1 V2
Fig. 2.68
I5
I1
We will now apply KCL to each node and use Ohm’s law to
express branch currents in terms of node voltages and
resistances.
Node 1 I1 −I5 −I3 = 0 or I1 = I5 + I3

I5

Node 2

I2
• Eq. (i) is represented by
1. product of potential V1 and (1/R1 + 1 /R3) i.e. sum
of the reciprocals of the branch resistances connected
to this node.
2. minus the ratio of adjoining potential V2 and the
interconnecting resistance R3.
3. all the above equated to the current supplied by the
current source connected to this node.
• This current is taken positive if flowing into the node
and negative if flowing out of it.
• Same remarks apply to Eq. (ii) where I2 has been taken
negative because it flows away from node 2.
• In terms of branch conductances, the above two
equations can be put as
V1 (G1 + G3) − V2G3 = I1
−V1G3 + V2 (G2 + G3) = −I2
NODAL ANALYSIS USING MATRIX METHOD

Note:
•This method
applicable only
when all sources are
current sources.
•If there are any
practical voltage
source, then first
convert them to
practical current
source
•If circuit contains
resistances, then
first convert them
into their equivalent
conductances
• GAA = Sum of all conductances connected to node A
= G1 + G2 = self-conductance at node A.
• Similarly, GBB and GCC are self-conductances at nodes B and C
respectively.
• Product of node voltage at a node and self-conductance at that
node is always a positive quantity.
• Thus VA GAA, VB GBB and VC GCC are all positive.
• GAB = Sum of all conductances directly connected between nodes
A and B = G2 = common conductance between nodes A and B.
• Similarly, the term GBC is common conductance between nodes B
and C and GCA is common conductance between nodes C and A.
• The product of connecting node voltage with common
conductance is always a negative quantity.
• Thus VB GAB is a negative quantity.
• Note GAB = GBA, GAC = GCA and so on
• Note Current leaving the node is shown as negative and a current
entering a node is positive.
• If a node has no current source connected to it, set the term equal
to zero.
• Node A VA(G1 + G2) – VB (G2) + 0 = –IA
• Node B – VA(G2) + VB(G2 + G3 + G4) – VC(G4) =0
• Node C 0 – VB(G4) + VC(G4 + G5) = IB
• or
Example 3.10. (V K Mehta) Use nodal analysis to find the
currents in various resistors of circuit shown in Fig. 3.23 (i).
Solution. The given circuit is redrawn in Fig. 3.23 (ii) with
nodes marked 1, 2, 3 and 4.
Let us take node 4 as the reference node.
We shall apply KCL at nodes 1, 2 and 3 to obtain the
solution.
USING MATRIX METHOD
• Example 3.13. Using nodal analysis, find the different
branch currents in the circuit shown in Fig. 3.26 (i).
• Solution. Mark the currents in the various branches as
shown in Fig. 3.26 (ii).
• Take ground as the reference node.
• We shall find the voltages at the other three nodes.
The negative value of any current means that actual direction
of current is opposite to that originally assumed.
USING MATRIX METHOD
Network theorems: Needs of theorem
• The electric circuit theorems are beneficial to find
voltage and currents in multi-loop circuits.
• Many electric circuits are complex to analyse.
• To reduce their complexity for analysis, network
theorems are used.
• These theorems provide insight into the circuit's
operation that can not be obtained from mesh or
nodal analysis.
• By using these theorems, the complicated circuits
can be modelled with a simple equivalent
network.
• Thus, the task of analysis gets reduced and
simplified
 Network theorems:
Superposition theorem
 Superposition Theorem
• In a linear, bilateral d.c. network containing more
than one energy source, the resultant potential
difference across or current through any element is
equal to the algebraic sum of potential differences
or currents for that element produced by each
source acting alone with all other independent ideal
voltage sources replaced by short circuits and all
other independent ideal current sources replaced by
open circuits (non-ideal sources are replaced by
their internal resistances).
 Procedure. The procedure for using this theorem to
solve d.c. networks is as under :
(i) Select one source in the circuit and replace all other
ideal voltage sources by short circuits and ideal current
sources by open circuits.
(ii) Determine the voltage across or current through the
desired element/branch due to single source selected in
step (i).
(iii) Repeat the above two steps for each of the
remaining sources.
(iv) Algebraically add all the voltages across or currents
through the element/branch under consideration.
• The sum is the actual voltage across or current through
that element/branch when all the sources are acting
simultaneously.
Example 3.34. Using superposition theorem, find voltage
across 4Ω resistance in Fig. 3.71 (i).
Solution. In Fig. 3.71 (ii), the 5A current source is replaced by
an open so that 10V source is acting alone.
Referring to Fig. 3.71 (ii), the total circuit resistance RT offered
to 10V source is
At point A in Fig. 3.71 (ii), the current 2.059 A divides into two
parallel paths consisting of 4Ω resistance and (8 + 2) = 10Ω
resistance.
So By current-divider rule, current I1 in 4Ω due to 10 V alone
is
In Fig. 3.71 (iii), the 10V battery is replaced by a short so that
5A current source is acting alone.
At point B in Fig. 3.71 (iii), current 5A divides into two parallel
paths consisting of 2Ω resistance and 8Ω + (2Ω||4Ω) = 8 + (2 ×
4)/(2 + 4) = 9.333Ω.
At point A in Fig. 3.71 (iii), current 0.8824A divides into two
parallel paths consisting of 2Ω resistance and 4Ω resistance.
Example 3.33. Using superposition theorem, find the value of
output voltage V0 in the circuit shown in Fig. 3.67.

-
+

Solution. The problem will be divided into three parts using

one source at a time.
6A source acting alone.
We first consider the case when 6 A source is acting alone as
shown in Fig. 3.68.
Note that voltage source is replaced by a short and the
current source of 4 A is replaced by an open.
According to current-divider rule, current i1 through 2 Ω
resistor is
4A source acting alone.
We now consider the case when 4A source is acting alone as
shown in Fig. 3.69.
Note that voltage source is replaced by a short and current
source of 6A is replaced by an open.
At point A, the current 4A finds two parallel paths; one of
resistance 3 Ω and the other of resistance = 2 + 1 = 3 Ω.
Therefore, current i2 through 2 Ω resistor= i2= 4×3/(3+3) = 2A
So, V02 = 2A × 2 Ω = 4V
6 V source acting alone.
Finally, we consider the case when 6 V source is acting alone
as shown in Fig. 3.70.
Note that each current source is replaced by an open.
The circuit current I=6/(1+2+3)= 1A
Voltage drop across 2 Ω resistor = 2 Ω × 1A = 2V.
It is clear from Fig. 3.70 that applying KVL to loop we have
-1×1 -3×1 –VAB= 0 or VAB = -4V or
Vo3 =VAB=-6+2=-4V(calculated from point B to A)
According to superposition +
theorem, we have,
V0 = V01 + V02 + V03
= 2 + 4 – 4 = 2V
I -
Self Attempt Ques. Nos.
3.21 to 3.30 and 3.32 from
V K Mehta
Network theorems:
Thevenin’s theorem
Thevenin’s Theorem
Fig. 3.82 (i) shows a network enclosed in a box with two
terminals A and B brought out.
• The network in the box may consist of any number of
resistors and e.m.f. sources connected in any manner.
• But according to Thevenin, the entire circuit behind
terminals A and B can be replaced by a single source of
e.m.f. VTh (called Thevenin voltage) in series with a single
resistance RTh (called Thevenin resistance) as shown in Fig.
3.82 (ii).
• The values of VTh and RTh are determined as mentioned in
Thevenin’s theorem.
• Once Thevenin’s equivalent circuit is obtained [See Fig. 3.82
(ii)], then current I through any load resistance RL
connected across AB is given by:
Thevenin’s theorem as applied to d.c. circuits is stated
below :
Any linear, bilateral network having terminals A and B
can be replaced by a single source of e.m.f. VTh in series
with a single resistance RTh.
(i) The e.m.f. VTh is the voltage obtained across
terminals A and B with load, if any removed i.e. it is
open-circuited voltage between terminals A and B.
(ii) The resistance RTh is the resistance of the network
measured between terminals A and B with load
removed and sources of e.m.f. replaced by their internal
resistances.
Ideal voltage sources are replaced with short circuits
and ideal current sources are replaced with open
circuits.
Procedure for Finding Thevenin Equivalent Circuit
(i) Open the two terminals (i.e., remove any load)
between which you want to find Thevenin
equivalent circuit.
(ii) Find the open-circuit voltage between the two
open terminals. It is called Thevenin voltage VTh.
(iii) Determine the resistance between the two open
terminals with all ideal voltage sources shorted and
all ideal current sources opened (a non-ideal source
is replaced by its internal resistance).
It is called Thevenin resistance RTh.
(iv) Connect VTh and RTh in series to produce
Thevenin equivalent circuit between the two
terminals under consideration.
(v) Place the load resistor removed in step (i)
across the terminals of the Thevenin
equivalent circuit.
The load current can now be calculated using
only Ohm’s law and it has the same value as
the load current in the original circuit.
Explanation. Consider the circuit shown in Fig. 3.83 (i).
As far as the circuit behind terminals AB is concerned, it can
be replaced by a single source of e.m.f. VTh in series with a
single resistance RTh as shown in Fig. 3.84 (ii).
(i) Finding VTh. The e.m.f. VTh is the voltage across terminals
AB with load (i.e. RL) removed as shown in Fig. 3.83 (ii).
With RL disconnected, there is no current in R2 and VTh is
the voltage appearing across R3.
(ii) Finding RTh. To find RTh, remove the load RL and replace
the battery by a short-circuit because its internal resistance
is assumed zero.
Then resistance between terminals A and B is equal to RTh
as shown in Fig. 3.84 (i).
Obviously, at the terminals AB in Fig. 3.84 (i), R1 and R3 are
in parallel and this parallel combination is in series with R2.
When load RL is connected between terminals A and B [See
Fig. 3.84 (ii)], then current in RL is given by:
Example 3.57. Using Thevenin theorem, find current in 1 Ω
resistor in the circuit shown in Fig. 3.134 (i).
Solution.
To find VTh, remove the load as shown in Fig. 3.134 (ii).
Voltage between the open-circuited terminals A & B = VTh.
From Fig. 3.134 (ii), 4 A (= 3 + 1) flows from D to C.
Applying KVL to the loop ECABFE, we have,
4 + 2 × 4 – VAB = 0 So, VAB = VTh = 12 V
RTh=Resistance looking into terminals AB in Fig. 3.134(iii)=2 Ω

When load (i.e. 1 Ω resistor) is reconnected, circuit becomes

as shown in Fig. 3.134 (iv).
Example 3.55. Using Thevenin’s theorem, calculate current in
1000 Ω resistor connected between terminals A and B in Fig.
3.132 (i).
Solution. (i) Finding VTh. Thevenin voltage VTh is the
voltage across open circuited terminals AB in Fig. 3.132 (i).
Refer to Fig. 3.132 (i).
By voltage-divider rule, we have,
(ii) Finding RTh.
Thevenin resistance RTh is the resistance at open circuited
terminals AB with 5V battery replaced by a short as shown in
Fig. 3.132 (ii).
So, RTh = (100W || 85W) + (1000W || 880W)

So, Current in 1000W connected

between terminals A and B

Fig. 3.132
Example 3.46. Using Thevenin’s theorem, determine the
current in 1 Ω resistor across AB of the network shown in Fig.
3.110 (i). All resistances are in ohms.

Solution. The circuit shown in Fig. 3.110 (i) can be redrawn as

shown in Fig. 3.110 (ii).
If we convert the current source into equivalent voltage
source, the circuit becomes as shown in Fig. 3.110 (iii).
In order to find VTh, remove 1 Ω resistor from terminals AB.
Then voltage at terminals AB = VTh (See Fig.3.111 (i)).

Applying KVL to the first loop in Fig. 3.111 (i), we have,

3 – (3 + 2) x – 1 = 0 x = 0·4 A
VTh = VAB = 3 – 3x = 3 – 3 × 0·4 = 1·8 V
•In order to find RTh, replace the voltage sources by short
circuits and current sources by open circuits in Fig. 3.110 (ii).
•The circuit then becomes as shown in Fig. 3.111 (ii).
•Then resistance at terminals AB is equal to RTh.
•Clearly,

(ii)
•Thevenin’s equivalent circuit is 1·8 V voltage source in series
with 1·2 Ω resistor.
•When 1 Ω resistor is connected across the terminals AB of
the Thevenin’s equivalent circuit, the circuit becomes as
shown in Fig. 3.111 (iii).
Self
Attempt
Solved
Examples
3.35-3.45;
3.47-3.54;
3.56
V K Mehta
 Advantages of Thevenin’s Theorem
• Thevenin equivalent circuit is always an equivalent voltage
source (VTh) in series with an equivalent resistance (RTh)
regardless of the original circuit that it replaces
• Although Thevenin equivalent is not same as its original
circuit, it acts the same in terms of output voltage and current
Advantages of Thevenin’s theorem
• Reduces complex circuit to simple circuit viz. a single source
of e.m.f. VTh in series with a single resistance RTh
• Simplifies portion of circuit of lesser interest and enables to
view action of output part directly
• Useful to find current in particular branch of network as
resistance of that branch is varied while all other resistances
and sources remain constant
• Can be applied in successive steps. Any two points in a circuit
can be chosen and all components to one side of these points
can be reduced to Thevenin’s equivalent circuit.
Network theorems:
Norton’s theorem
• Fig. 3.155 (i) shows a network enclosed in a box with
two terminals A and B brought out.
• The network in the box may contain any number of
resistors and e.m.f. sources connected in any manner.
• But according to Norton, the entire circuit behind AB
can be replaced by a current source IN in parallel with a
resistance RN as shown in Fig. 3.155 (ii).
• Resistance RN is the same as Thevenin resistance RTh.
• The value of IN is determined as mentioned in Norton’s
theorem.
• Once Norton’s equivalent circuit is determined [See Fig.
3.155 (ii)], then current in any load RL connected across
AB can be readily obtained.
 Norton’s theorem as applied to d.c. circuits is:
• Any linear, bilateral network having two terminals A and B can
be replaced by a current source of current output IN in
parallel with a resistance RN.
(i) Output IN of current source is equal to current that would
flow through AB when A and B are short-circuited
(ii) Resistance RN is resistance of network measured between
A and B with load removed and the sources of e.m.f. replaced
by their internal resistances. Ideal voltage sources are
replaced with short circuits and ideal current sources are
replaced with open circuits
• Norton’s Theorem is converse of Thevenin’s theorem in that
Norton equivalent circuit uses a current generator instead of
voltage generator and resistance RN (which is same as RTh) in
parallel with generator instead of being in series with it
• Use of either of these theorems enables us to replace entire
circuit seen at a pair of terminals by an equivalent circuit
made up of a single source and a single resistor
Illustration
Fig. 3.156 illustrates the application of Norton’s
theorem.
As far as the circuit behind terminals AB is concerned
[See Fig. 3.156 (i)], it can be replaced by a current
source IN in parallel with a resistance RN as shown in
Fig. 3.156 (iv).
The output IN of the current generator is equal to the
current that would flow through AB when terminals A
and B are short-circuited as shown in Fig. 3.156 (ii).
The load on the source when terminals AB are short-
circuited is given by ;
To find RN, remove load RL and replace battery by a short
because its internal resistance is assumed zero [Fig.3.156 (iii)].

Thus values of IN and RN are known.

Norton equivalent circuit will be as shown in Fig. 3.156 (iv).
Procedure for Finding Norton Equivalent Circuit
(i) Open the two terminals (i.e. remove any load) between
which we want to find Norton equivalent circuit.
(ii) Put a short-circuit across the terminals under
consideration. Find the short-circuit current flowing in the
short circuit. It is called Norton current IN.
(iii) Determine the resistance between the two open
terminals with all ideal voltage sources shorted and all ideal
current sources opened (a non-ideal source is replaced by its
internal resistance). It is called Norton’s resistance RN. It is
easy to see that RN = RTh.
(iv) Connect IN and RN in parallel to produce Norton
equivalent circuit between the two terminals under
consideration.
(v) Place the load resistor removed in step (i) across the
terminals of the Norton equivalent circuit. The load current
can now be calculated by using current-divider rule. This load
current will be the same as the load current in the original
circuit.
 Example 3.61. Show that when Thevenin’s equivalent circuit
of a network is converted into Norton’s equivalent circuit, IN =
VTh/RTh and RN = RTh. Here VTh and RTh are Thevenin voltage
and Thevenin resistance respectively.
Solution.
• Fig. 3.157 (i) shows a network enclosed in a box with two
terminals A and B brought out.
• Thevenin’s equivalent circuit of this network will be as shown
in Fig. 3.157 (ii).
• To find Norton’s equivalent circuit, we are to find IN and RN.
• Referring to Fig. 3.157 (ii), IN = Current flowing through short-
circuited AB in Fig. 3.157 (ii) = VTh/RTh
• RN = Resistance at terminals AB in Fig. 3.157 (ii) = RTh
• Fig. 3.157 (iii) shows Norton’s equivalent circuit.
• Hence we arrive at the following two important conclusions :
• (i) To convert Thevenin’s equivalent circuit into Norton’s
equivalent circuit, IN = VTh/RTh ; RN = RTh
(ii) To convert Norton’s equivalent circuit into Thevenin’s
equivalent circuit,
VTh = INRN ; RTh = RN
 Example 3.63. Using Norton’s theorem, calculate the
current in the 5 Ω resistor in the circuit shown in Fig.
3.161.
Solution.
• Short the branch that contains 5 Ω resistor in Fig. 3.161.
• The circuit then becomes as shown in Fig. 3.162 (i).
• Referring to Fig. 3.162 (i), the 6 Ω and 4 Ω resistors are
in series and this series combination is in parallel with
the short.
• Therefore, these resistors have no effect on Norton
current and may be considered as removed from the
circuit.
• As a result, 10 A divides between parallel resistors of 8
Ω and 2 Ω.
• So, Norton current, IN = Current in 2 Ω resistor
……. Current divider rule
To find Norton resistance RN(=RTh),
open circuit the branch containing 5 Ω resistor & replace
current source by an open in Fig. 3.161.
• The circuit then becomes as shown in Fig. 3.162 (ii).
• Norton resistance, RN = Resistance at terminals AB in Fig. 3.162
(ii).

• Therefore, Norton equivalent circuit consists of a current

source of 8 A (= IN) in parallel with a resistance of 5 Ω (=
RN) as shown in Fig. 3.163 (i).
• When the branch containing 5 Ω resistor is connected
across the output terminals of Norton’s equivalent circuit,
the circuit becomes as shown in Fig. 3.163 (ii).

• By current-divider rule, the current I in 5 Ω resistor is

 Example 3.75. Using Norton’s theorem, find current
through 1Ω resistor in Fig. 3.189 (i). All resistances are in
ohms

Solution.
• To find the answers, we convert the three voltage sources
into their equivalent current sources.
(a) 12 V source in series with (4 + 2) = 6Ω resistance is
converted into equivalent current source of 12V/6Ω = 2A in
parallel with 6Ω resistance
 (b) 6V source in series with 6Ω resistance is converted into
equivalent current source of 6V/6Ω = 1A in parallel with 6Ω
resistance.
(c) 24V source in series with 12Ω resistance is converted
into equivalent current source of 24V/12Ω = 2A in parallel
with 12Ω resistance.
• After the above source conversions, the circuit of Fig. 3.189
(i) becomes the circuit shown in Fig. 3.189 (ii)
• Referring to Fig. 3.189 (ii), we can combine two current
sources to left of EF but cannot combine 2A source across
CD with them because 3Ω resistance is between E and C.
• So, combining two current sources to left of EF, we have a
single current source of 2 + 1 = 3A and a single resistance of
6Ω || 6Ω = 3Ω in parallel with it. Also 12Ω resistor in
parallel with short circuit disappears.
• So, Fig.3.189(ii) reduces to circuit shown in Fig. 3.189 (iii).
Ω

Ω
• We now convert the circuit to the left of EF in Fig. 3.189 (iii)
into Thevenin’s equivalent circuit, Fig.3.189(iv).

Writing KVL for Loop ECABDFE, we have 9-3I-3I = 0

Or I=1.5 A
Therefore IN=1.5+2=3.5 A
For RTh, from Fig. 3.189

(v)

Rth=
(12*6)/(12+6)=
4 ohm

(vi)
• The circuit then reduces to the Norton Equivalent one
shown in Fig. 3.189 (vi). By current-divider rule [See Fig.
3.189 (vii)]

(vii)
 Example 3.74. Find current in the 4 ohm resistor by any
three methods for the circuit shown in Fig. 3.188(i).

Solution.
Method 1.
• We shall find current in 4Ω resistor by mesh current
method.
• Mark three mesh currents i1, i2 and i3 in the three loops as
shown in Fig. 3.188 (ii).
• The describing circuit equations are :
 Method 2.
• We now find current in 4 Ω resistor by Thevenin’s theorem.
• Remove 4 Ω resistor (i.e. load) and the circuit becomes as
shown in Fig. 3.188 (iii).
• In order to find RTh, short circuit the voltage source and
open-circuit the current sources in Fig. 3.188 (iii).
• Then circuit becomes as shown in Fig. 3.188 (iv).
• The resistance at the open-circuited terminals XY in Fig.
3.188 (iv) is RTh.
 Method 3.
• Finally, we find current in 4 Ω resistor by Norton’s theorem.
• To find IN, short circuit 4 Ω resistor in Fig. 3.188 (i).
• The circuit then becomes as shown in Fig. 3.188 (v).

Fig. 3.188
Applying source transformation to practical current
source, we have

Applying KVL to outer loop, we have Fig. 3.188 (vi)

10 – 2I – 6 = 0
Or I = 2 A
• It is clear from Fig. 3.188 (vi) that :
IN = I + 2 = 2 + 2 = 4A
RN = RTh = 2 Ω ...as calculated before
• When 4Ω resistor is connected to Norton equivalent circuit,
it becomes as shown in Fig. 3.188 (vii).
• So, Current in 4Ω resistor is given by (current-divider rule)
L

ALSO STUDY BY
YOURSELF
SOLVED EX. 3.62,
3.64 - 3.73 (vii)
 Network theorems:
Maximum Power Transfer
Theorem theorem
• This theorem deals with transfer of maximum power from a
source to load and may be stated as under :
• In d.c. circuits, maximum power is transferred from a
source to load when the load resistance is made equal to
the Thevenin equivalent resistance as viewed from the load
terminals with load removed and all voltage sources
replaced by short circuit and all current sources replaced by
open circuit
• Fig. 3.200 (i) shows a circuit supplying power to a
load RL.
• The circuit enclosed in the box can be replaced by
Thevenin’s equivalent circuit consisting of Thevenin
voltage V = VTh in series with Thevenin resistance
Ri(=RTh) as shown in Fig. 3.200 (ii).
• Clearly, resistance Ri(=RTh) is the resistance
measured between terminals AB with RL removed
and all voltage sources replaced by short circuit and
all current sources replaced by open circuit.
• According to maximum power transfer theorem,
maximum power will be transferred from the circuit
to the load when RL is made equal to Ri, the
Thevenin resistance at terminals AB.
 Proof of Maximum Power Transfer Theorem
• Consider a voltage source V(or VTh) and internal/circuit
resistance Ri(or RTh) delivering power to a load RL.
• We shall prove that when RL = Ri, the power delivered to RL is
maximum. Referring to Fig. 3.201 (i), we have,

• For a given circuit, voltage V and circuit resistance Ri are

constant.
• Therefore, power delivered to load depends upon RL.
• To find value of RL for which value of P is maximum,
differentiate eq. (i) w.r.t. RL and set the result equal to zero.
Thus, for maximum power transfer, load resistance RL must be
equal to the internal/circuit/Thevenin Equivalent Resistance Ri
(orRTh)
Important Points
(i) The circuit efficiency at maximum power transfer is only
50% as one-half of the total power generated is dissipated
in the circuit resistance Ri (=RTh).

(ii) Under the conditions of maximum power transfer, the

load voltage is one-half of the open circuited voltage
V(=VTh) at the load terminals
Applications of Maximum Power Transfer Theorem
(i) In communication circuits, maximum power transfer is
usually desirable.
• For instance, in a public address system, the circuit is
adjusted for maximum power transfer by making load (i.e.
speaker) resistance equal to source (i.e. amplifier) (circuit)
resistance.
• When source (circuit) and load have the same resistance,
they are said to be matched.
Example 3.78. Find the value of resistance R to have
maximum power transfer in the circuit shown in Fig. 3.202
(i). Also obtain the amount of maximum power. All
resistances are in ohms.
• Solution. To find the desired answers, we should find VTh and
RTh at the load (i.e. R) terminals.
• For this purpose, we first convert 120V voltage source in
series with 10Ω resistance into equivalent current source of
120/10 = 12A in parallel with 10Ω resistance.
• The circuit then becomes as shown in Fig. 3.202. (ii).

• To find VTh, remove R (i.e. load) from the circuit in Fig. 3.202
(ii), and the circuit becomes as shown in Fig. 3.202 (iii).
• Then voltage across the open-circuited terminals AB is VTh.
• Referring to Fig. 3.202 (iii) and applying KCL, we have

• In order to find RTh, remove R and replace the current

sources by open circuit in Fig. 3.202 (ii).
• Then circuit becomes as shown in Fig. 3.202 (iv).
• Then resistance at the open-circuited terminals AB is RTh.
 Example 3.79. Calculate the value of R which will absorb
maximum power from the circuit of Fig. 3.203 (i). Also find
the value of maximum power.

Solution. To find the desired answers, we should find VTh

and RTh at the load (i.e. R) terminals.
• For this purpose, we first convert 2A current source in
parallel with 15Ω resistance into equivalent voltage source
of 2A × 15Ω = 30 V in series with 15Ω resistance.
• The circuit then becomes as shown in Fig. 3.203 (ii).
• To find VTh, remove R (i.e. load) from circuit in Fig. 3.203
(ii) and the circuit becomes as shown in Fig. 3.203 (iii).
• Then voltage across the open-circuited terminals AB is VTh.
• Referring to Fig. 3.203 (iii),

• To find RTh, remove R

and replace the voltage
sources by short in
Fig. 3.203 (ii).
• Then circuit becomes as
shown in Fig. 3.203 (iv).
 Example 3.85. For the circuit shown in Fig. 3.210 (i), what
will be the value of RL to get maximum power? Also find
this power.
Solution. We shall use Thevenin’s theorem to obtain the
results.
• To find VTh, remove the load RL as shown in Fig. 3.210 (ii).
• Then voltage at the open-circuited terminals AB is equal to
VTh i.e. VAB = VTh.
• The total load on 10 V source is
RT = (90 || 60 || 180) + 20 = 30 + 20 = 50 Ω
(iii)
• Current supplied by source, I = 10/50 = 0·2 A
• So, VAB = VTh = 10 – 20 × 0·2 = 6V
• To find RTh, replace the 10 V source by a short in Fig. 3.210
(ii).
• Then, RTh = 20 || 90 || 60 || 180 = 12 Ω See Fig. 3.210 (iii)
• Therefore, the variable load RL will receive maximum power
when RL = RTh = 12 Ω.

STUDY YOURSELF SOLVED

EX. 3.80 – 3.84
Star delta transformation
 Delta/Star Transformation
• Consider three resistors RAB, RBC and RCA connected in
delta to three terminals A, B and C as shown in Fig.
3.237 (i).
• Let the equivalent star-connected network have
resistances RA, RB and RC.
• Since the two arrangements are electrically equivalent,
the resistance between any two terminals of one
network is equal to the resistance between the
corresponding terminals of the other network.
• Let us consider the terminals A and B of the two
networks.
• Resistance between A and B for star = Resistance
between A and B for delta
or RA + RB = RAB || (RBC + RCA)
• Subtracting eq. (ii) from eq. (i) and adding the result to eq.
(iii), we have

Subtracting eq. (iii) from eq. (ii) and adding the

result to eq. (i), we have

Subtracting eq. (i) from eq. (iii) and adding the

result to eq. (ii), we have
 Star/Delta Transformation
• Let us consider how to replace the star-connected network
of Fig. 3.237 (ii) by the equivalent delta-connected network
of Fig. 3.237 (i).
Resistance between two terminals
of delta = Sum of star resistances
connected to those terminals plus
product of same two star
resistances divided by the third star
resistance
 Example 3.95. Using delta/star transformation, find the
galvanometer current in the Wheatstone bridge shown in
Fig. 3.241 (i)

Solution. The network ABDA in Fig. 3.241 (i) forms a delta.

• These delta-connected resistances can be replaced by
equivalent star-connected resistances R1, R2 and R3 as
shown in Fig. 3.241 (i).
• Thus network shown
in Fig. 3.241 (i)
reduces to the
network shown
in Fig. 3.241 (ii).
Example 3.96. With the help of star/delta transformation,
obtain the value of current supplied by the battery in the
circuit shown in Fig. 3.242 (i).
 Solution. The star-connected resistances 3 Ω, 3 Ω and 1 Ω
in Fig. 3.242 (i), are shown separately in Fig. 3.242 (ii).
• These star-connected resistances are converted into
equivalent delta-connected resistances R1, R2 and R3 as
shown in Fig. 3.242 (iii).

• After above star-delta conversion, the circuit reduces to the

one shown in Fig. 3.242 (iv).
• This circuit can be further
simplified by combining parallel
resistances and circuit becomes
as shown in Fig. 3.242 (v).
• The three delta-connected
resistances 1 Ω, 5 Ω and 8 Ω
in Fig. 3.242 (v) are shown
separately in Fig. 3.242 (vi).
• These delta-connected resistances
can be converted into equivalent
star-connected resistances R′1, R′2
and R′3 as shown in Fig. 3.242 (vii).
After above delta-star
conversion, the circuit
reduces to the one shown in
Fig. 3.242 (viii).
STUDY YOURSELF
SOLVED EX. 3.97 – 3.107
• 3.61,3.63,3.64,3.75,3.74,3.73
• 3.78,3.79, 3.85
• Pg216b
• 3.95, 3.96, 3.107
• Pg 521
• P58 2,34 2.33 2.30