Module 1

Introduction:

Communication in the Twenty-First Century

This module will introduce several concepts about communication beginning from ancient Greeks until
the twenty-first century. It will illuminate several perspectives about communication, the most
important being that is a necessary and unimportant skill that should be honed to become better
citizens and to help building one’s society.

It will explore the use of English in the world, as well as its usage in the Philippines. It will also discuss
the perils of language, and how we can find the seeds of racism, sexism, and classism in the
language that we use-and what one can do to ensure that one’s language is as academic and
inclusive as possible.

Module Objectives:

By the end of this chapter, you should be able to:

1. have a thorough understanding of communication models and processes

2. understand the importance of ethics in communication and academic writing
3. discover how the English language spread throughout the world, and appreciate the
difference between Standard English, World Englishes, and Philippine English.

Lesson 1: Communication Models

In this lesson, students will be exposed to the different ways of looking at communication. It should
give students a good understanding of why communication should be studied at the tertiary level, and
the potential of such a course in helping them transform themselves and their society. It includes
communication models that students can use in the future, and explain why communication tasks in
the past have either failed od succeeded. It is a good introduction to the different processes,
principles, and dimensions of communication that students should be aware of, when they start
communicating in the academe and the professional world.

Lesson Objectives:

By the end of the lesson, you should be able to:

1. internalize the importance of communication in the society

2. enumerate the principles and processes of communication as embodied in the
communication model provided
3. relate the communication models to their experiences and apply them to their own
communication processes.

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Aristotle Model of Communication

Aristotle(384-322 B.C) was a Greek philosopher and writer born in Stagira, Northern Greece. He was
also the teacher of Alexander the Great. He studied physics, logic, mathematics, etc.

While exploring the human nature scientifically, Aristotle developed a linear model of
communication for oral communication known as Aristotle’s Model of Communication. This is
considered as the first model of communication and was proposed before 300 B.C. It is also the is
most widely accepted among all communication models.

Aristotle Model is mainly focused on speaker and speech. It can be broadly divided into 5 primary
elements: Speaker, Speech, Occasion, Audience and Effect.
The Aristotle’s communication model is a speaker centered model as the speaker has the most
important role in it and is the only one active. It is the speaker’s role to deliver a speech to the
audience. The role of the audience is passive, influenced by the speech. This makes the
communication process one way, from speaker to receiver.
The speaker must organize the speech beforehand, according to the target audience and situation
(occasion). The speech must be prepared so that the audience be persuaded or influenced from the
speech.

He believed “Rhetoric” is the study of communication and persuasion and different message or
speech should be made for different audiences at different situations to get desired effects or to
establish a propaganda. This model was highly used to develop public speaking skills and create
a propaganda at that time so, it is less focused on intrapersonal or interpersonal communication.
Even if the model is speaker oriented and focuses on audience interaction in communication, there is
no concept of feedbacks.
For instance, a politician (speaker) gives a speech to get votes from the civilians (audience) at the
time of election (occasion). The civilians only vote if they are influenced by the things the politician
says in his speech so the content must be very impressive to influence the mass and the speaker
must design the message very carefully.

The speech must be clear as well as the speaker must have a very good non-verbal
communication with the audience like eye contact. This example is a classic case of Aristotle Model of
Communication depicting all the elements in the model.

Shannon-Weaver Model of Communication

In 1948, Shannon was an American mathematician, Electronic engineer and Weaver was an
American scientist both of them join together to write an article in “Bell System Technical Journal”

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called “A Mathematical Theory of Communication” and also called as “Shannon-Weaver model of
communication”.

This model is specially designed to develop the effective communication between sender and
receiver. Also they find factors which affecting the communication process called “Noise”. At first the
model was developed to improve the Technical communication. Later it’s widely applied in the field of
Communication.

The model deals with various concepts like Information source, transmitter, Noise, channel, message,
receiver, channel, information destination, encode and decode.

Sender: The originator of message or the information source selects desire message

Encoder: The transmitter which converts the message into signals

Note: The sender’s messages converted into signals like waves or Binary data which is
compactable to transmit the messages through cables or satellites. For example: In
telephone the voice is converted into wave signals and it transmits through cables
Decoder: The reception place of the signal which converts signals into message. A reverse
process of encode
Note: The receiver converts those binary data or waves into message which is comfortable
and understandable for receiver. Otherwise receiver can’t receive the exact message
and it will affect the effective communication between sender and receiver
Receiver: The destination of the message from sender
Note: Based on the decoded message the receiver gives their feedback to sender. If the
message distracted by noise it will affect the communication flow between sender and
receiver
Noise: The messages are transferred from encoder to decoder through channel. During this
process the messages may distracted or affected by physical noise like horn sounds,
thunder and crowd noise or encoded signals may distract in the channel during the
transmission process which affect the communication flow or the receiver may not
receive the correct message
Note: The model is clearly deals with external noises only which affect the messages or
signals from external sources. For example: If there is any problems occur in network
which directly affect the mobile phone communication or distract the messages

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Practical Example of Shannon-Weaver Model of Communication:

Thomson made call to his assistant “come here I want to see you”. During his call, noise appeared
(transmission error) and his assistant received “I want” only. Again Assistant asked Thomson
(feedback) “what do you want Thomson”.

Sender : Thomson
Encoder : Telephone (Thomson)
Channel : Cable
Noise : Distraction in voice
Reception : Telephone (Assistant)
Receiver : Assistant.

Due to transmission error or noise, Assistant can’t able to understand Thomson’s messages.
*The noise which affect the communication flow between them.

Osgood- Schramm Model of C ommunication

It is a Circular Model, so that communication is something circular in nature

Encoder – Who does encoding or Sends the message (message originates)

Decoder – Who receives the message
Interpreter – Person trying to understand (analyses, perceive) or interpret
Note: From the message starting to ending, there is an interpretation goes on. Based on
this interpretation only the message is received.
This model breaks the sender and receiver model it seems communication in a
practical way. It is not a traditional model.

It can happen within our self or two people; each person acts as both sender and receiver and hence
use interpretation. It is simultaneously take place e.g. encoding, interpret and decoding.

Semantic noise is a concept introduced here it occurs when sender and receiver apply different
meaning to the same message. It happens mostly because of words and phrases for e.g. Technical
Language, So certain words and phrases will cause you to deviate from the actual meaning of the
communication.
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Note: When semantic noise takes place decoding and interpretation becomes difficult and people get
deviated from the actual message.

Advantage of Osgood- Schramm model of communication

1. Dynamic model- Shows how a situation can change
2. It shows why redundancy is an essential part
3. There is no separate sender and receiver, sender and receiver is the same person
4. Assume communication to be circular in nature
5. Feedback – central feature.

Disadvantage of Osgood- Schramm model of communication

This model does not talk about semantic noise and it assume the moment of encoding and decoding.

White’s stages of Oral Communication

The last model is Eugene White’s stages of Oral Communication. According to White, it is possible to
begin at any stages outlined in his model. People are under the mistaken impression that when we
communicate, we usually start with thinking, but that that is not necessarily the case. Since it is a
circular model, it means that oral communication is a continuous process with no real beginning or
end. The most important contribution from Eugene White’s model is the concept of feedback, which
can only be processed by the speaker if he or she is monitoring the audience or the listener. Hence,
the speaker must also pay attention to the listener’s verbal and non-verbal cues (Flores, 2016)

Thinking Symbolizing Expressing

Monitoring Transmitting

Feedbacking Decoding Receiving

In conclusion, communication is not a simple process that starts with a speaker and ends with a
listener – there are many factors that should be considered. When it comes to message, how the
message is organised and what field of experience it comes from and should be taken into
consideration. When it comes to the sender, the best communication is the one that involves
feedback. Furthermore, there are several kinds of “noise” that may severely affect the reception of the
message and thus, should be considered and avoided. Cultural differences, technology, and
interpretation need to be considered as well. To be good communicators, one needs to pay attention
to how people are responding to the message, and adjust accordingly, rather than being preoccupied
with simply expressing oneself.

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Exercise 1 Communication Models Applied

Answer the following questions:

1. Explain the four communication models discussed. (5 pts./model)

2. Write the pros and cons you observed in each models of communication. (5pts./model)

Lesson 2: Communication Ethics

In the previous lesson, you read a short introduction to communication. In this lesson, you will find out
that there are different guidelines in communicating in an ethical manner.

Lesson Objectives:

By the end of this lesson, you should be able to:

1. communicate in an ethical manner; and

2. apply these ethical principles to the communication process.

It is important to understand that whatever we communicate should be guided by certain ethical

principles. The US National Communication Association (NCA 1999) discusses this in their Credo for
Ethical Communication, stating that, “Ethical communication is fundamental to responsible thinking,
decision-making, and the development of relationships and communities within and across context,
cultures, channels, and media. Moreover, ethical communication enhances human worth and dignity
by fostering thoughtfulness, fairness, responsibility, personal integrity, and respect for self and others.
We believe that unethical communication threatens the quality of all communication and consequently
the wee-being of individuals and society in which we live.

In their Credo, there are four ethical principles of communication that are especially relevant for
students today.

Firstly, they “advocate truthfulness, accuracy, honesty, and reason as essential to the integrity of
communication” (NCA, 1999). Nowadays, social media speeches and in public have been so filled
with black propaganda and whitewashing that there is a call to reiterate the need for truth and
honesty. It is important to be accurate when we communicate, and to have facts and figures to prove
our assertions. It is important to be reasonable, rather than to be too emotional or threatening when
we communicate.

Secondly, the NCA also endorses “freedom of expression, diversity of perspective, and tolerance of
dissent to achieve the informed and responsible decision-making fundamental to a civil society” (NCA,
1999). In certain political climates, people may feel threatened to the point that they no longer feel that
it is safe to express what they feel or think. This is not a good environment to live in. we fully agree
with the NCA that to have vibrant democracy, we must be able to hear different perspectives and
have a high tolerance for views that are different from ours. It is important to foster an environment
where people feel safe enough to express what they think and feel, and for those expressions to be
met with reasonable dialogue and debate, rather than outright censure or violence.

Thirdly, the NCA (1999) states that they “condemn communication that degrades individuals and
humanity through distortion, intimidation, coercion, and violence, and through the expression of

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intolerance and hatred” (1999). This condemnation is important because it safeguards society from
racism, sexism, and violence against oppressed peoples. History has shown us that a tolerance for
hate speech, as well as speeches that incite violence and the act of killing, have often instituted such
as violence in the society, whether this is the context of slavery, colonialism, misogyny.

Lastly, the NCA (1999) states that communicators should “accept responsibility for the short and long-
term consequences of our own communication and expect the same for others.” All too often, there
have been people who do not feel accountable for their actions. Therefore, if one risks to
communicate maliciously, spread false news, or incite hatred or violence, he or she should be ready
to face the consequences of such actions. States are beginning to realise this, especially in the
porous medium of social media.

Every time we communicate, we should consider the consequences of our actions. If people were
more responsible in their use of communication, there would be less conflict in this world. Even
though the four principles above are short and concise, they are important, because they help us
discern the difference between the ethical and unethical communicators.

Exercise 2

1. Why is it important to be ethical in communicating today?

2. Is honesty still a virtue valued today? Why or why not?
3. Give historical examples that show how intolerance of dissent has been a problem for certain
sectors of society.
4. Give historical examples that show why hate speech is a problem.
5. When you think of politicians today, would you say that they have been communicating in an
ethical manner?
6. Who comes to mind on a subject of violating the ethics of communication?
7. Why do people communicate in an unethical manner?
8. What consequences can you think of when someone communicate in an unethical manner?

Lesson 3: Communication and Globalization

This lesson focusses on implication on globalization on communication. You will read essays and
expositions that will provide you with an awareness of the role and status of English as a global
language, the notion of World Englishes, and the need for standard forms for academic and
professional writing, and the importance of culturally sensitive and bias-free language when
communicating with other people from different cultures and discourse communities.

Lesson Objectives:

By the end of this lesson, you should be able to:

1. discuss the implications of globalization on communication

2. explain the notion of World Englishes in the context of English being a global language
3. use standard English and bias-free language in writing

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Globalization

Globalization has affected us in numerous ways. Airfare has become cheaper, and one can travel
internationally more than one could in the past. Many Filipinos decided to work or live abroad, with
some of them migrating to other countries. The free trade of goods and services all over the world has
brought multinational companies and foreign investors to our shores. Because of all of these factors,
imperative to be aware of the differences between our culture and the rest of the world’s cultures.

Because of the advent of the Internet, the world seems the world seems to be shrinking continually.
One can communicate internationally in a matter of seconds, whether one is sending an email,
chatting in social media, or sending a text message. One can read about different cultures, and have
access to films, academic papers, and the like from different countries around the world. Given this
increasingly shrinking world, one should know the difference between the kind of English we write and
speak, and the kind of Englishes that exist outside the Philippines.

World Englishes

David Crystal (2003) begins the first chapter of the book English as a Global Language with the
assertion that English is, in fact, the global language. After giving various examples to support this
statement, he questions the assertion by asking, “What does it mean to say that a language is
global?” (Crystal, 2003). In asking this, he considers the implication of English having this status,
especially for its many users who speak different mother tongues.

Read “Speak English: the story of a Once-obscure Language and How it Became the Last Word in
Global Communication,” excerpted from the Chicago Tribune from The Story of English (McCrum et
al., 1986).

The rise of English is a remarkable success story. When Julius Caesar landed in Britain nearly 2,000

years ago, English did not exist. Five hundred years later, English, incomprehensible to modern ears,

was probably spoken by about as few people as currently speak Cherokee--and with about as little

influence. Nearly a thousand years later, at the end of the 16th Century, when William

Shakespeare was in his prime, English was the native speech of between 5 and 7 million Englishmen,

and it was, in the words of a contemporary, ''of small reatch, it stretcheth no further than this iland of

ours, naie not there over all.''

Four hundred years later the contrast is extraordinary. Between 1600 and the present, in armies,

navies, companies and expeditions, the speakers of English--including Scottish, Irish, Welsh,

American and many more--traveled into every corner of the globe, carrying their language and culture.

Today English is used by at least 700 million people, and barely half of those speak it as a mother

tongue. Some estimates have put that figure closer to 1 billion. English at the end of the 20th Century

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is more widely spoken and written than any other language ever has been. It has become the

language of the planet, the first truly global language.

The statistics of English are astonishing. Of all the world`s languages (which now number some

2,700), it is arguably the richest in vocabulary. The compendious Oxford English Dictionary lists about

500,000 words, and an additional half million technical and scientific terms remain uncatalogued.

According to traditional estimates, neighboring German has a vocabulary of about 185,000 words and

French fewer than 100,000, including such Franglais as ''le snacque-barre'' and ''le hit-parade.'' About

350 million people use the English vocabulary as a mother tongue: about 1/10th of the world`s

population, scattered across every continent and surpassed, in numbers though not in distribution,

only by the speakers of the many varieties of Chinese. Three-quarters of the world`s mail and its

Telexes and cables are in English. So are more than half the world`s technical and scientific

periodicals; it is the language of technology from Silicon Valley to Shanghai. English is the medium for

80 percent of the information stored in the world`s computers. Nearly half of all business deals in

Europe are conducted in English. It is the language of sports and glamor, the official language of the

Olympics and the Miss Universe competition. English is the official voice of the air, of the sea and of

Christianity; it is the ecumenical language of the World Council of Churches. Five of the largest

broadcasting companies in the world (CBS, NBC and ABC in the U.S.; the BBC in Britain and CBC in

Canada) transmit in English to audiences that regularly exceed 100 million.

English has a few rivals but no equals. Neither Spanish nor Arabic, both international languages, have

this global sway. Another rival, Russian, has the political and economic underpinnings of a world

language, but far from spreading its influence outside the Soviet empire, it, too, is becoming mildly

colonized by new words known as Russlish, for example ''seksapil'' (sex appeal) and ''noh-khau''

(know-how). Germany and Japan have, in matching the commercial and industrial vigor of the United

States, achieved the commercial precondition of language power, but their languages have also been

invaded by English, in the shape of Deutchlish and Japlish.

The remarkable story of how English spread to become the predominant language in societies such

as the U.S., Canada, Australia and New Zealand is not, with the benefit of hindsight, unique. It is a

process in language as old as Greek or Chinese. The truly significant development, which has

occurred only in the last hundred years or so, is the use of English, taking the most conservative

estimates, by 300 or 400 million people for whom it is not a native language. English has become a

second language in countries like India, Nigeria and Singapore, where it is used for administration,

broadcasting and education. In these countries English is a vital alternative language, often unifying

huge territories and diverse populations. When Rajiv Gandhi, now India`s prime minister, appealed for

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an end to the violence after the assassination of his mother, Indira Gandhi, he went on television and

spoke to his people in English. In anglophone Africa, seizures of power are announced in English.

Then there is English as a foreign language, used in countries (like Holland or Yugoslavia) where it is

backed by a tradition of English teaching or where it has been more recently adopted, Senegal, for

instance. Here it is used to aid contact with people in other countries, usually to promote trade and

scientific progress, but also to the benefit of international communication generally. A Dutch poet is

read by a few thousand. Translated into English, he can be read by hundreds of thousands.

The emergence of English as a global phenomenon--as either a first, second or foreign language--has

recently inspired the idea (undermining the above claims) that we should talk not of English but of

many Englishes, especially in Third World countries where use of English is no longer part of the

colonial legacy but the result of decisions made since their independence. Throughout the history of

English there has been a contest between the forces of standardization and the forces of localization,

at both the written and the spoken levels. The appearance of the first substantial English dictionaries

in the 18th Century was a move towards written standardization. It was Victorian England that realized

the idea of ''the Queen`s English,'' a spoken standard to which the ''lesser breeds'' could aspire. The

industrial revolution meant roads, canals and, above all, trains: People travelled more, both

geographically and socially. The pressures of class ambition speeded the emergence of a standard

form of English speech.

Exercise 3

1. Based on McCrum’s essay and some additional research on your part, why is the rise of

English such a remarkable “success story”? What led to English taking on the role of a global

language?

2. Can you add to the evidence given by McCrum that English is the most widespread language

in the world?

3. David Crystal (2003) says that “a language achieves a genuinely global status when it

develops a special role that s recognized in every country,” What is the special role of English

in the Philippines?

4. Why does McCrum say that “we should not talk of English but of many Englishes”?

It is now a more widely accepted fact that there are many world Englishes, sometimes referred as

“varieties of English” used in the world. All are equal in the sense that each is best suited to the
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communication needs of its speakers. However, not all are equal in prestige. Some varieties are more

prestigious than others because of social attitudes about the speakers of these varieties. For

example, in the social variety of English called African American English (AAE) “used by many (but

not all) African Americans in different regions of the USA,” certain features like ‘g-dropping’ in the

words like readin’ (reading) walkin’ (walking) singin’ (singing) are stigmatized” (Yule, 2010). This

process of stigmatization follows “a regular pattern whereby the social practices, especially speech, of

dominated groups,” such as African Americans, “are treated as abnormal by those dominant groups

who are in charge of defining normal” (Yule, 2010). Some scholars, like Ruanni Tupas and Rabdy

(2015), use the term “unequal Englishes” to focus discussions of “the unequal ways and situations in

which Englishes are arrange, configured, and contested.” It is important for writers from a postcolonial

context such as the Philippines, which has a conflicted historical relationship with English, to be aware

of the political forces-not just economic ones-guiding their use of the language.

The most two most well-known varieties of English are those of the colonial superpowers: British

English and American English. But there are many multilingual countries around the world in which

varieties of English have developed. This may be because English was initially “transported" to that

country by that English-speaking settlers-as in the US, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand. It could

also be English may have been brought to that country as a language of conquest by English-

speaking colonizers-as in South Africa, Hong Kong, Malaysia, Singapore, and the Philippines. In the

latter countries, English has a particular role as official language, medium of instruction, or even

language of law and government.

As mentioned earlier, all of these world Englishes are equal in functionality, but not are all equal in

prestige. The idea, however, in writing, is to adhere the standard English of one’s country because

each variety, including of those in the United States and United Kingdom, has its own peculiar or

individual features. These features include differences in spelling, punctuation, favoured words and

expressions, and sometimes, grammatical constructions. The table that follows gives an example of

some of these differences for American English and British English.

Aspect American English (US) British English (UK)

Punctuation She said, “I’ll be at work by 8 a.m.” She said, “I’ll be at work by 8 a.m.”

Date March 2, 2017 2 March 2017

Spelling center, color, organize, program centre, colour, organise,

programme

Words elevator, parts, diaper lift, trousers, nappy

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Expression/Local Ruffled feathers Knickers in a twist

Idiom (agitated) (agitated)

Grammar Do you have that book? Have you got that book?

Pronunciation Vase /vas/ - sounds Vase /va:z/ - sounds

(irrelevant in writing) Like VEYZ Like - VAHZ

Philippine English, as well, has its unique and idiosyncratic usages. For example, ”comfort room” is a

Philippine term for “washroom,” “toilet” or “lavatory.” When Filipinos say, “there’s traffic” they mean

there’s heavy traffic. Moreover, the word “salvage” in the Philippine context could mean either “to

save” or “to brutally murder, usually for political reasons.” Mathew Sutherland, who writes about

Philippine English from an Englishman’s Perspective talks about expression “for a while,” which he

says baffles foreigners because the expression does not exist outside the Philippines. The UK’s

equivalent, he says, id “just a second” or “just a moment” (quoted Aguilar, 2004). Similarly, Sutherland

notes that, “for a while” is frequently used in the Philippines on the telephone, whereas in the UK, the

more typical expressions would be “hang on” or “hold on” (quoted in Aguilar, 2004). Importantly, he

mentions that British Idiomatic equivalents would be just baffling to those unfamiliar with these

usages. Filipinos might, in response to being to “hang on,” may very well ask, “hang on to what?”

Exercise 4

1. Give examples of the following characteristics of Philippines English:

a. Two pronunciation features

b. One grammatical features

c. Two unique expressions from the Philippines English and their more commonly

understood equivalents

2. Look up the meaning s of the following examples in the table from Philippine English,

Canadian English, Australian English, South African English, and Singapore English. Then,

provide alternatives that will be understood by other English speakers from different regions

of the world.

3.

Usage Unique to a Variety of English More Widely Understood Alternative

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 Philippine English – “I bought some dirty

ice cream for you.”

Canadian English – “I’m going to write a

test today in English.”

Australian English – “That book has a good

oil.”

South African English – “She is coming just

now.”

Singapore English – “He always likes to

action in front of the ladies.”

Culturally Sensitive and Bias-Free Language

Just as important as awareness of the existence of World Englishes is that of practicing cultural

sensitivity. To write in a culturally sensitive way means to be aware that cultural differences and

similarities between people exist and that these should not be assigned positive or negative value via

words and description selected in writing. Academic and professional writing are characterized by

bias-free language. Students, scholars, professionals, and anyone wishing to maintain harmonious

communicative relations should be careful in using words and phrases that do not discriminate

particular groups, whether in terms of race, ethnicity, gender, social class, age, and disability. The

essential point is to communicate in a way that is respectful of diversity.

Here are some general principles to follow when referring to different groups or category.

1. Race and Ethnicity

Racism is a form of discrimination against a person or persons of a different race. In general,

it is best to avoid identifying people by race or ethnic group. Race is an emotionally charged

topic, so it is best to tread carefully with the language used and to refer to race, as Patricia

Arinto (2009) asserts in English for the Professions, “only if it is relevant to what you have to

say.” Words that reinforce stereotypes and that imply all people of a particular race or ethnic

group are the same should be avoided. For example, although the assessment is positive in

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 the sentence “Naturally, the Asian students won the Math contest, “the word “naturally”

reinforces the stereotype or generalization that Asians have superior aptitude in Math.

One must be attuned to current terminology by which racial and ethnic groups refer to

themselves. This may be done by reading national newspapers and watching television news,

which typically are good indicators of current and preferred usage. According to Kitty and

Locker and Donna Kienzler (2013), one should “refer to a group by the terms it prefers,” which

means some research is required to find out about acceptable and preferred terms. For

example, for a long time, “Native American” has been considered the politically correct term

for the indigenous peoples of the Americas, over the label “Red Indian.” But today, most

Native American people prefer to be referred to by their specific nation or tribe. In the

Philippine context, there has been shifts in the preferences for terms that Filipinos of Chinese

ancestry use to describe their identity: from Tsino, to Chinoy, to Filipino Chinese.

It is also important to be sensitive in religion when referring to various ethnic groups.

Assumption should not be made that stereotype a race, nationality, or ethnic group with a

specific religion. For example, not all Arabs are Muslims, not all Indians are Buddhists, and

not all Filipinos are Roman Catholics.

2. Gender and Sexual Orientation

Sexism refers to the prejudice and discrimination based on sex or gender. To be inclusive of

all people in general references, one should favor gender-neutral words and phrases over

gender-biased words. For example, rather than “man-made” one can say “manufactured”

“synthetic” or “artificial.” Instead of “layman’s terms” one can use “ordinary terms.” Neutral

words should also be chosen over words with “man” or “woman” in job titles or descriptions.

For example, it more appropriate to use “chairperson” in place of “chairman” “flight attendant”

in place of “stewardess,” and “labor” in place of “manpower.” One should avoid sexist term

like “woman lawyer” and “male nurse” and simply use “lawyer” and “nurse.”

Pronouns may also be gender-biased, for example, when the masculine “he” pronoun is used

as a generic one for both genders. Gender-biased pronouns can be avoided by (a) dropping

pronouns that signify gender and restating the sentence, (b) changing to plural description,

and (c) replacing masculine or feminine pronouns with “one” or “you.” Examples of alternative

gender-neutral constructions are provided here.

Gender-biased example: Each student should submit his term paper by Monday.

Restatement Each student should submit a term paper on Monday.

Plural Construction Students should submit their term papers by Monday.

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 Use of “You” You should hand in your term paper by Monday.

Other gender related terms may have to do with gender orientation or sexual orientation. It is

important to be sensitive to new attitudes about homosexual, transsexual, and transgender

people. For example, most gay people prefer the term “gay” to the more clinical “homosexual”

as a label. “Lesbian” is currently the term preferred by gay women. Transgender people prefer

to be referred to as being the gender they identify as, not their birth gender. again, as a matter

of principle, one should refer to societal groups in the way that members of these groups

prefer to be referred to. Note also that terminology in this area is developing, and that not

everyone agrees.

3. Social Class

Class discrimination or classism is a form or prejudice against a person or people because of

their social class. An example of language that is bias against class is the American term

“white trash” which is not only a racial slur but a classist one that refers to white people,

usually from the rural Southern United States, coming from a lower social class inside the

white population. The term is negative not just the words that comprise it but because of it

connotation of danger; white trash people are seen criminal, unpredictable, and without

respect for authority. In the United States and other cultures, they may also be a kind of

classism against those who are economically privileged. The rich are sometimes referred to

by derogatory terms “preppie” and “yuppie” both of which connote not just wealth but

arrogance.

4. Age

Ageism is a form of discrimination against other people because of their age, or assuming

that older people are less physically, intellectually, or emotionally able than other age groups.

The capabilities of younger people should not also be underestimated based on their age.

Again, fit is important to refer a person’s age only if that information is pertinent to what is

being discussed. When referring to a generic group, one should also ask their subjects what

wordings they prefer: do they wish to be called “older persons” or “senior citizens”? do they

prefer the label “youths,” “teenagers,” or “young people.”

Lastly, according to American Psychological Association, writers should be specific when

referring to males and females in terms of their age: females 18 years or older are women,

not girls. The same is true for “boys” and “man”.

5. Disabilities

Discrimination in this area often arises because of lack of understanding and awareness.

Therefore, first, it is important to distinguish some terms that are mistakenly understood to be

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 synonymous. Various guides and bias-free communication and often confused terminology

are available online.

When referring to people with disabilities, the focus should be on the person, not the condition

(Arinto, 2009). In Patricia Arinto’s English for the Professions (2009), she advises writers to

avoid hurtful expressions such as “retards” or even seemingly neutral description “the

mentally retarded” and to use instead “ people with mental retardation.” Similarly, instead of

“the blind” and “cancer patients” one should instead use “people with visual impairments” and

“people being treated with cancer,” respectively. These examples demonstrate the

importance of identity-first language or importance of putting the person or people first. Note

in the difference of the following sentences:

Disability first: The blind student used a special keyboard during the exam.

Person first: The student , who is visually impaired, used a special keyboard during the

exam.

Next, Arinto (2009) suggest considering the negative implications of usage such as “confined

in a wheelchair” and “AIDS Victim.” For the former, one should instead write or say “uses of

wheelchair” because wheelchair enable people to escape confinement, while the latter, one

should use “person with Aids” as someone can acquire a disease without being victimized by

it.

6. Synthesis

These general guiding principles are helpful, but not always. For example, there are heated

debates now among parents of children with autism whether about to use “person with

autism” or “autistic person.” Yet again, it must be emphasized that research is necessary to

become aware of trends and debates in this and other areas. One may also simply ask the

concerned people what their preferred terms are.

The final takeaway is that to be an effective writer, one must not stereotype, demean, or

exclude any member of his or her audience. Such stereotypes and biases are barriers to

communication.

Lesson 4

Public speaking in the Information Age

In the previous module, introduction to communication, communication ethics, and communication in

a globalizing world were studied. There were discussions in different kinds of English and how to

communicate in a more professional and neutral manner.

In this module, we will be more specific in dealing with communicating in the age of information. While

the previous module was more theoretical in nature, here, we will be tackling both theory and practice.

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Lesson Objectives:

By the end of this chapter, you should be able to:

1. speak in public in an organized and competent manner

2. analyse speeches and identify perceived strengths and weaknesses

Public speaking (also called oratory or oration) is the process or act of performing a speech to a

live audience. Public speaking is commonly understood as formal, face-to-face, speaking of a single

person to a group of listeners. However, due to the evolution of public speaking, it is modernly viewed

as any form of speaking (formally and informally) between an audience and the speaker. Traditionally,

public speaking was considered to be a part of the art of persuasion.

The act can accomplish particular purposes including to inform, to persuade, and to entertain.

Additionally, differing methods, structures, and rules can be utilized according to the speaking

situation.
Public speaking was developed in Rome and Greece. Prominent thinkers from these lands influenced
the development and evolutionary history of public speaking. Currently, technology continues to
transform the art of public speaking through newly available technology such as videoconferencing,
multimedia presentations, and other non-traditional forms.

Uses
Public speaking can serve the purpose of transmitting information, telling a story, motivating people to
act or encouraging people. This type of speech is deliberately structured with three general purposes:
to inform, to persuade and to entertain. Knowing when public speaking is most effective and how it is
done properly are key to understanding the importance of it.
Public speaking for business and commercial events is often done by professionals. These speakers
can be contracted independently, through representation by a speaker’s bureau, or by other means.
Public speaking plays a large role in the professional world. In fact, it is believed that 70 percent of all
jobs involve some form of public speaking.

History of Public Speaking

The Classical Period (500 BCE – 400 BCE)

The ancient Greeks highly valued public political participation, where public speaking was a crucial
tool. We will begin an overview of four Ancient Greek philosophers, also known as the “fantastic four”
Aspasia of Miletus, Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle.

Aspasia of Miletus (469 BCE), the “mother of rhetoric,” is believed to have taught rhetoric to Socrates.
During this period Pericles, the Athenian ruler and Aspasia’s partner, treated Aspasia as an equal and
allowed her the opportunity to engage in dialogue with the important and educated men of society.

Socrates (469-399 BCE) greatly influenced the direction of the Classical Period. Most of what we
know about Socrates comes from the writings of his student Plato.

Plato (429-347 BCE) wrote about rhetoric in the form of dialogues with Socrates as the main
character. Plato defined the scope of rhetoric according to his negative opinions of the art. He
criticized the Sophists for using rhetoric as a means of deceit instead of discovering truth.

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Aristotle (384-322 BCE) is the most famous Greek Scholar. Aristotle studied in Plato’s Academy
where he later taught public speaking until Plato’s death in 347 BCE. During this time, he opened his
own school of politics, science, philosophy, and rhetoric.

Aristotle defined rhetoric as the “faculty of discovering the possible means of persuasion in reference
to any subject whatever.” Aristotle divided the “means of persuasion” into three parts, or three artistic
proofs, necessary to persuade others: logical reason (logos), human character (ethos), and emotional
appeal (pathos).

Sophist (400s BCE): The Classical Period flourished for nearly a millennium in and around Greece as
democracy gained prominence. Citizens learned public speaking from early teachers known as
Sophists. Sophists were self-appointed professors of how to succeed in the civic life of the Greek
states.

Sample Speech of Public Speaking

Bataan Has Fallen

Salvador P. Lopez
Bataan has fallen. The Philippine-American troops on this war-ravaged and blood-stained peninsula
have laid down their arms. With heads bloody but unbowed, they have yielded to the superior force
and numbers of the enemy.

The world will long remember the epic struggle that Filipino and American soldiers put up in the jungle
fastness and along the rugged coast of Bataan. They have stood up uncomplaining under the
constant and grueling fire of the enemy for more than three months. Besieged on land and blockaded
by sea, cut off from all sources of help in the Philippines and in America, the intrepid fighters have
done all that human endurance could bear.

For what sustained them through all these months of incessant battle was a force that was more than
merely physical. It was the force of an unconquerable faith—something in the heart and soul that
physical hardship and adversity could not destroy! It was the thought of native land and all that it holds
most dear, the thought of freedom and dignity and pride in these most priceless of all our human
prerogatives.

The adversary, in the pride of his power and triumph, will credit our troops with nothing less than the
courage and fortitude that his own troops have shown in battle. Our men have fought a brave and
bitterly contested struggle. All the world will testify to the most superhuman endurance with which they
stood up until the last in the face of overwhelming odds.

But the decision had to come. Men fighting under the banner of unshakable faith are made of
something more that flesh, but they are not made of impervious steel. The flesh must yield at last,
endurance melts away, and the end of the battle must come.

Bataan has fallen, but the spirit that made it stand—a beacon to all the liberty-loving peoples of the
world—cannot fall!

All of us know the story of Easter Sunday. It was the triumph of light over darkness, life over death. It
was the vindication of a seemingly unreasonable faith. It was the glorious resurrection of a leader,
only three days before defeated and executed like a common felon.

Today, on the commemoration of that Resurrection, we can humbly and without presumption declare
our faith and hope in our own resurrection, our own inevitable victory.

We, too, were betrayed by Judases. We were taken in the night by force of arms, and though we had
done wrong to no man, our people were bound and delivered into the hands of our enemies. We have
been with mock symbols of sovereignty, denied by weaklings, lashed with repeated oppression,
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tortured and starved. We have been given gall to drink, and we have shed our blood. To those who
look upon us from afar it must seem the Filipino people have descended into hell, into the valley of
death. But we know that the patient and watching men who said their simple prayers in the hills of
Bataan, have not lost faith, and we know that the hushed congregations in the churches throughout
the land, drew from the gospel as Mass renewed hope in their resurrection. To all of them we give
today the message of the angel of Easter morning: “Be not afraid, for He is risen.”

We, too, shall rise. After we have paid the full price of our redemption, we shall return to show the
scars of sacrifices that all may touch and believe. When the trumpets sound the hour we shall roll
aside the stone before the tomb and the tyrant guards shall scatter in confusion. No wall of stone shall
then be strong enough to contain us, no human force shall suffice to hold us in subjection, we shall
rise in the name of freedom and the East shall be alight with the glory of our liberation.

RADIO BROADCAST MESSAGE, AS WRITTEN BY CAPTAIN SALVADOR P. LOPEZ, DELIVERED BY THIRD

LIEUTENANT NORMANDO ILDEFONSO “NORMAN” REYES ON THE “VOICE OF FREEDOM” RADIO BROADCAST OF
APRIL 9, 1942 FROM MALINTA TUNNEL, CORREGIDOR:

Exercise 5

1. How do you think this speech has affected the people who were listening to the radio?

2. Who do you think is the audience meant for this speech? Why was it in English?

3. What particular part of speech touched you or gave you strong feelings? What paragraphs,
what specific words were effective for you? Why were they effective for you?

4. Did you like the speech? Why or why not?

5. What is the purpose of the speech? Did it achieved its purpose?

Techniques you can use to make your speech memorable

William Shakespeare once told us, “Brevity is the soul of wit.” The always colourful Dorothy Parker
adapted Shakespeare’s aphorism and taught us that “brevity is the soul of lingerie.” My humble
contribution to the power of getting to the point is that “brevity is essential in public speaking.”

Whether you’re talking about the length of a speech or the number of points you plan to cover, one of
the most important qualities of an effective speech is that it’s relatively short. As proof, think about
Abraham Lincoln’s "Gettysburg Address" and Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr.’s “I Have a Dream” speech.
Both are powerful and brief.

But a speech’s length is only one factor you need to consider when you’re preparing to give a speech
at an event. Here are some other techniques you can use to make your speech memorable.

1. Deliver a performance, rather than a speech.

A speech is primarily about the words that you speak, but a performance is so much more. It’s
inflection, gesture, tension, resolution and suspense. Don’t believe me? Go see a one-man (or
woman) play, and you’ll instantly understand what I mean. Performers work hard at capturing and
keeping an audience’s attention, and words are only one tool in their arsenals. Don’t stop crafting
your performance once you’ve written the text of your speech.

2. Use the power of eye contact.

Bill Clinton was a master of eye contact—watch any of his speeches, and you'll see the master at
work. Your audience is made up of individuals, and you should make an effort to make eye
contact with each of them. Eye contact makes a person feel personally engaged in a speech, and
engaged listeners are much more likely to be persuaded.
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3. Don’t hide behind the lectern.

The lectern is a crutch—a structure built to conceal knocking knees and shaking hands. It’s a
barrier between you and your audience, and you must step out from behind it. Not only will your
movement keep folks from falling asleep, but they’ll perceive you as more open and accessible if
you’re out in the open rather than hiding behind a big wooden barrier.

4. Posture matters.

Don’t ever, ever slouch. It looks weak, and your message will inevitably be diluted by what your
audience perceives as a lack of confidence. Stand up straight, and keep your shoulders back.
Also, never let ‘em see you sweat. Even if there are lights on that make the stage feel like an
oven, pit stains on your shirt are distracting. Make sure you wear clothing that will conceal any
signs of nervousness. Project confidence. Always.

5. Tell compelling stories.

The power of storytelling lies in the images that your audience will create in their heads as you
spin your yarn. Rather than just loading folks up with information, if you tell a story, you’re making
them active participants in your performance. Stories—brief, relevant stories—are a powerful tool.

6. Vary your cadence.

Deliberately mixing it up in terms of your speech patterns—volume, speed and tone—keeps your
audience from being lulled to sleep by a monotone. With regard to speed, slower is always better
than fast. When in doubt, slow down and let the tortoise mind catch up to the rabbit speaker.

If you know you’re naturally a quick talker, you can build pauses into your speech by saying things
like, “Now think about that for a moment” or “Let that sink in.” It takes an audience more time to
process your points than it will take for you to articulate them. Give them time to ponder your
brilliant message.

7. Speak about what you know and care about.

Passion translates into energy and authenticity, and that matters to your audience. If you’re not
invested and engaged with your subject, why on earth would your audience care? Emotion pulls
the audience in and gets them involved in the process. If you find you’re not moved by your topic,
modify it until it matters to you. If you’re going to invest the energy in writing and delivering a
speech, it should be on a subject that’s important to you.

You’ll notice that I didn’t give you any advice about content—that’s because you should be the
expert on the subject. After all, you were invited to speak because you’re the go-to person in your
field. But while you don’t need my help putting together your main points, using the techniques
I’ve shared with you will help you deliver your message in a compelling and memorable way.

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