By: Dr. A.S.

Sai Prasad 1

UNIT-III

SEMICONDUCTOR PHYSICS
By: dr. a.S. Sai Prasad
 2

Introduction
• Electrical conduction is one of the main property of solids. It has been believed
that the valence electrons are responsible for the electrical conduction in
metals.
• An evidence for this was given by P. Drude in the form of free electron model.
According to this model, the valence electrons become free in metals and
move randomly within the metal in a same way as that of the molecules of a
gas confined in a container.
• This model is used to explain not only the electrical properties but also the
thermal, optical and magnetic properties of the solids.
• The free electron theory underwent successive modifications in order to
explain the electrical behavior of the solids.

By: Dr. A.S. Sai Prasad

 By: Dr. A.S. Sai Prasad 3

Band Theory of Solids

• Band theory of solids was given by F. Bloch in 1928.

• According to this theory, potential inside the crystal is considered to be periodic i.e. the
potential experienced by an electron in passing through the crystal lattice is periodic.
• The P.E of an electron in the field of positive ion is negative, so force between them is
attractive.
• The potential is minimum at the positive ion sites and maximum in between the lattice ion
positions.
• This periodicity extends up to infinity in all the directions within the crystal.
 By: Dr. A.S. Sai Prasad

Kronig-Penney Model- Introduction to Origin of Band Gaps in Solids

• Kronig-Penney model tells us about the behavior of electrons in a periodic

potential.
• According to this model, the potential filed of an electron in a linear
arrangement of positive ions consists of periodically arranged rectangular
potential wells separated by potential barriers.
• These potential wells are considered to be of zero potential and width ‘a’ and
• the potential barriers are of height ‘Vo’ and width ‘b’.

This arrangement can be summarized as:

• Region I: 0 < x < a , called Potential well region
• Region II: -b < x < 0, called Potential barrier region

4
K.P Model…. By: Dr. A.S. Sai Prasad 5

The Schrodinger Equations for the two regions are given as:

𝑑2 𝜓 2𝑚
+ E𝜓=0 0<x<a -------- (1)
𝑑𝑥 2 ℏ2
𝑑2 𝜓 2𝑚
+ (E – Vo) 𝜓 = 0 -b < x < 0 ---------- (2)
𝑑𝑥 2 ℏ2
Assume E < Vo, and
2𝑚
Let α2 = E ------------ (3)
ℏ2
2𝑚
β2 = (V - E ) ------------(4)
ℏ2 o
Equations (1) and (2) become

𝑑2 𝜓
2 + α2 𝜓 = 0 ------------ (5)
𝑑𝑥

𝑑2 𝜓
- β2𝜓=0 ------------- (6)
𝑑𝑥 2
 By: Dr. A.S. Sai Prasad 6
K.P Model….

The solution of wave equation for a periodic potential is given by

𝜓 (𝑥) = 𝑒 𝑖𝑘𝑥 uk (x) ------------ (7)
where uk(x) is a periodic function in x.
The wave function of above type is known as Bloch function.
Substituting the above wave functions into the Schrodinger equations and solving it. After applying
the periodic boundary condition, we get the following expression
sin 𝛼𝑎
𝑃 + cos 𝛼𝑎 = cos ka
𝑎
𝑚𝑎𝑉 𝑏
where P = ℏ2𝑜 is the measure of the area (Vob) of the potential barrier.
Large value of P means, the electron is strongly bound to the potential well.
▪ The R.H.S of equation (8) can take values between +1 to -1. This equation can be satisfied only
for those values of 𝛼𝑎 for which left side lies between +1 to -1.
▪ The plot below shows that Eq. (8) is satisfied only for only certain ranges of values of 𝛼a.

▪ The regions of allowed energy are called bands and they are separated by regions where there
are no allowed energies (forbidden regions) and are called band gaps.
 By: Dr. A.S. Sai Prasad 7
K.P Model….

Conclusions:
1. Since, cos ka can have values between +1 and -1, so
only those values of 𝛼𝑎 are allowed for which LHS if
eqn. (8) is satisfied.
So, allowed range of 𝛼𝑎 is given by
cos ka = ±1
cos ka = cos 𝑛𝜋
±𝑛𝜋
k= n = 0, 1, 2, 3---
𝑎
The values of k define the boundaries of Brillouin zones.

2. The width of allowed energy bands go on increasing as

value of 𝛼𝑎 increases.

3. As P gets larger, the height of the curve becomes very

large and so the slope becomes steeper. Thus, the bands
become narrower.
 By: Dr. A.S. Sai Prasad

In the limit P → ∞, each band shrinks and are 4. In the limit P → 0 i.e. when there is no potential
compressed to a line spectrum. So, equation 8 barrier, the energy band is broadened
will have solution only if cos 𝛼a = cos ka
sin 𝛼a = 0 𝛼=k
sin 𝛼a = sin nπ
2𝑚
𝛼a = nπ E = k2
ℏ 2
𝑛𝜋
𝛼= ℏ2 𝑘 2
𝑎
E=
𝑛𝜋 2 2𝑚
𝛼 = 2
This is the case for a free electron.
𝑎
2𝑚
also 𝛼2 = 2 E
ℏ
Equating above two relations of α2
𝑛𝜋 2 2𝑚𝐸
= 2
𝑎 ℏ
2 2
𝑛 𝜋 ℏ 2
𝐸 = 2𝑚𝑎2

which are the energies for an infinite square

well.
8
By: Dr. A.S. Sai Prasad
 By: Dr. A.S. Sai Prasad

E-k Diagram
• Figure shown depicts the variation of energy (E) with
wave number (k). The parabolic relation between E and
k obtained in case of a free electron is interrupted at
certain values of k.
• From the graph, it is clear that the electron has a
−𝜋
allowed energy values in the region or zone from k = 𝑎
+𝜋
to k = . This is called first Brillouin zone.
𝑎
• After a break in energy values called Forbidden energy
gap, there exists another allowed region of energy value
−𝜋 −2𝜋 +𝜋 +2𝜋
from k = 𝑎 to 𝑎 and from k = 𝑎 to 𝑎 . This is called
second Brillouin zone. Similarly, another higher zones
may be defined.
• The concept of allowed energy bands and forbidden
gaps is clear from the figure shown.

9
By: Dr. A.S. Sai Prasad
 By: Dr. A.S. Sai Prasad

Effective Mass
• It has been observed that the experimentally measured values of mass of an
electron in a solid is different (either smaller or larger) from that of the free
mass of electron. This experimentally determined electron mass. is called the
effective mass m*.
• The cause of this deviation is due to the interaction between the drifting
electrons and the atoms in a solid.
• Effective mass depends on the location of an electron in the allowed energy
band.

ℏ𝟐
m* = 𝟐
𝒅 𝑬ൗ
𝒅𝒌𝟐
By: Dr. A.S. Sai Prasad
 By: Dr. A.S. Sai Prasad 12

Density of States (DOS)

The density of states (DOS) is defined as the number of various
states at a particular energy level that electrons are allowed to
occupy, i.e. the number of electron states available per unit volume
per unit energy.
Bulk properties such as specific heat, paramagnetic susceptibility and other transport
phenomena of conductive solids depend on this function.
• Density of states in 3-D (Bulk)
3Τ
1 2𝑚∗ 2
• g(E) = 2𝜋2 ℏ2
𝐸𝑔 − 𝐸
• Density of states in 2-D (Quantum Well)
𝒎∗
• g(E) =
𝝅ℏ𝟐
• Density of states in 1-D (Quantum Wire)
𝑚∗ 𝑚∗
• g(E) =
𝜋ℏ 2 (𝐸𝑔 −𝐸)
• Density of states in 0-D (Quantum dot)
• g(E) = 2δ(Eg - E)

By: Dr. A.S. Sai Prasad

 By: Dr. A.S. Sai Prasad 13

Energy Band Structure of a Solid

• Atoms have been seen to have

discrete energy levels.
• When a huge number of atoms are
combined to form a solid however,
these discrete energy levels are
replaced by discrete ranges of
energy, or energy bands, within
which there are so many individual
allowed energy values that within
the bands the distribution can be
considered to be continuous. This
idea is seen in the figure shown.
 By: Dr. A.S. Sai Prasad 14

Energy levels for single atom, 2 atoms and N number of atoms (i.e bulk material)

N=1 N=2 N number of atoms

i.e bulk material
 By: Dr. A.S. Sai Prasad 15
Energy band diagram for a Si crystal as a function of interatomic distance
 By: Dr. A.S. Sai Prasad 16

SEMICONDUCTORS
Intrinsic & Extrinsic Semiconductors
 By: Dr. A.S. Sai Prasad 17

Intrinsic Semiconductors

A chemically pure semiconductor is known as an intrinsic semiconductor. Intrinsic

semiconductors have less than one impurity atom in a billion host atoms.
• Fermi level lies exactly at the center of the energy gap.
• At 0 K, an intrinsic semiconductor behaves as a perfect insulator.
• At higher temperature, electrons get thermally excited from the valence band to the conduction
band.
• Examples: Germanium and Silicon.
 18

Extrinsic Semiconductors

The extrinsic semiconductors are the one in which n-type p-type

impurities are present. These added impurities can be Phosphorous (P) Aluminium (Al)
either group-III elements or group-V elements. Based
on the impurities present in the extrinsic Arsenic (As) Boron (B)
semiconductors, they are classifies into two
categories: Antimony (Sb) Gallium (Ga)
• n-type semiconductors
Indium (In)
• p-type semiconductors
The process of adding a controlled amount of impurity
in an intrinsic semiconductor is called doping and the
impurity added is called dopant.
Extrinsic semiconductors = intrinsic semiconductor +
impurities

By: Dr. A.S. Sai Prasad

Extrinsic Semiconductors

1. n-type Semiconductor:
• Doped with pentavalent atom (5 valence electrons)
• four electrons participate in the bonding with Si atoms
and the fifth electron is left free.
• this free electron contributes to the conductivity.
• No. of electrons >> No. of holes

• The pentavalent impurity added in these semiconductors is

known as donor impurities, as they donate a free electron.
• Fermi level (EFn) is located between conduction band and donor
level at lower temperatures.
• but as the temperature increases, the Fermi level (Efn) shifts
towards the intrinsic Fermi level (Ei).

Image source: kimiq.com

By: Dr. A.S. Sai Prasad
19
 Extrinsic Semiconductors By: Dr. A.S. Sai Prasad

2. p-type Semiconductor:
• Doped with trivalent atom (3 valence electrons)
• only three complete covalent bonds are formed and the fourth bond
cannot be formed as it is short of one electron.
• When an adjoin electron acquires sufficient energy it jumps into the
vacancy to form the fourth bond and it leaves behind a hole.
• This hole can move freely in the lattice.
• No. of holes >> No. of electrons
• As the Boron atom accepts an electron, it is called acceptor atom.
• the Fermi level (EF) is located between valence band and acceptor level
at lower temperatures

20
Image source: electronicsdesk.com
 By: Dr. A.S. Sai Prasad 21

Expression For Carrier Concentration of

Intrinsic Semiconductors

i.e. Expression For Electron Concentration And Hole Concentration

 22

➢ Calculation of electron density

Let dn → number of electrons whose energy lie in the energy interval E and
E + dE in the conduction band. Then,
dn = Z(E) f(E) dE ------ (1)
where Z(E) dE → is the density of state i n the energy interval E and E + dE
f (E) → probability that a state of energy is occupied by an electron.
∞
n = ‫𝐸𝑑 )𝐸(𝑓 )𝐸(𝑍 𝐸׬‬ ------- (2)
𝑐

The density of state in the conduction band is given by

4𝜋
Z(E) dE = (2𝑚𝑒∗ )3Τ2 E 1/2 dE for E > Ec
ℎ3
The bottom level of conduction band (Ec) corresponds to the P.E of electron at rest.
Thus, (E-Ec) is the K.E of electron in the higher levels of the conduction band.
Therefore, above equation can be written as
4𝜋
Z(E) dE = (2𝑚𝑒∗ )3Τ2 (E – Ec) 1/2 dE ------(3)
ℎ3
By: Dr. A.S. Sai Prasad
 By: Dr. A.S. Sai Prasad 23

The probability of an electron occupying an energy level is given by

1
f (E) =
1+𝑒 (𝐸−𝐸𝐹 )/𝑘𝐵 𝑇
When number of available energy states >> number of electrons, the
Fermi-Dirac distribution function can be approximated to the Boltzmann
function.
f (E) = exp.[ -(E - EF)/ kT] ------ (4)
Substituting values (3) and (4) in equation (2), we get
4𝜋 ∞
n= (2𝑚𝑒∗ )3Τ2 ‫)𝑐𝐸 – 𝐸( 𝐸׬‬1Τ2 𝑒 −(𝐸 − 𝐸𝐹)/ 𝑘𝑇 𝑑𝐸
ℎ3 𝑐

4𝜋 ∞
n= (2𝑚𝑒∗ )3Τ2 ‫)𝑐𝐸 – 𝐸( 𝐸׬‬1Τ2 𝑒 −(𝐸 − 𝐸𝐹+𝑬𝒄−𝑬𝒄)/ 𝑘𝑇 𝑑𝐸
ℎ3 𝑐

4𝜋 ∞
n= (2𝑚𝑒∗ )3Τ2 𝑒 (𝐸𝐹−𝐸𝑐 )/ 𝑘𝑇 ‫)𝑐𝐸 – 𝐸( 𝐸׬‬1Τ2 𝑒 −(𝐸 −𝐸𝑐)/ 𝑘𝑇 𝑑𝐸 -------(5)
ℎ3 𝑐

The above integral is of the standard form whose solution is given by

∞ 𝝅
‫𝟏𝒙 𝟎׬‬Τ𝟐 𝒆−𝒂𝒙 𝒅𝒙 =
𝟐𝒂𝟑/𝟐
where a = 1/kT and x = (E – Ec)
 By: Dr. A.S. Sai Prasad 24

So, equation (5) becomes

𝜋
n==
4𝜋
(2𝑚𝑒∗ )3Τ2 𝑒 (𝐸𝐹 −𝐸𝑐 )/ 𝑘𝑇 (𝑘𝑇)3/2
ℎ3 2

2𝜋𝑚𝑒∗ 𝑘𝑇 3Τ2 −(𝐸 −𝐸 )/ 𝑘𝑇

n=2 2 𝑒 𝑐 𝐹
ℎ
Put

2𝜋𝑚𝑒∗ 𝑘𝑇 3Τ2
Nc = 2
ℎ2
and it is known as effective density of states in the conduction band.
Thus, we get

n = Nc 𝒆−(𝑬𝒄 −𝑬𝑭 )/ 𝒌𝑻
This is the expression for the electrons concentration in the conduction band of intrinsic
semiconductor.
 By: Dr. A.S. Sai Prasad 25

➢ Calculation of hole density

Let dp → number of holes whose energy lie in the energy interval E

and E + dE in the valence band. Then,
dp = Z(E) [1 - f(E)] dE ------ (1)
𝐸
p = ‫׬‬−∞
𝑣
𝑍(𝐸) 𝑓(𝐸) 𝑑𝐸 --------- (2)
where Z(E) dE → is the density of state in the energy interval E and E
+ dE
[1 - f (E)] → Probability that a state of energy is vacant i.e. is not
occupied by an electron.
1 1
[1 - f (E)] = 1 - =
1+𝑒 (𝐸 − 𝐸𝐹 )/ 𝑘𝑇 1+𝑒 (𝐸𝐹 −𝐸)/ 𝑘𝑇

[1 - f (E)] = 𝑒 −(𝐸𝐹−𝐸)/ 𝑘𝑇 ---- (3)

The density of state in the valence band is given by
4𝜋
Z(E) dE = (2𝑚ℎ∗ )3Τ2 E 1/2 dE
ℎ3
 By: Dr. A.S. Sai Prasad 26

The topmost level of valence band (Ev) corresponds to the P.E of a hole at rest. Thus, (Ev -E) is the
K.E of hole in the lower energy levels of the valence band.
Therefore, above equation can be written as
4𝜋
Z(E) dE = (2𝑚ℎ∗ )3Τ2 (Ev – E) 1/2 dE ------(4)
ℎ3
Substituting values (3) and (4) in equation (2), we get

4𝜋 𝐸
p= (2𝑚ℎ∗ )3Τ2 ‫׬‬−∞
𝑣
(𝐸𝑉 – 𝐸)1Τ2 𝑒 −(𝐸𝐹 −𝐸)/ 𝑘𝑇 𝑑𝐸
ℎ3

4𝜋 𝐸
p= (2𝑚ℎ∗ )3Τ2 ‫׬‬−∞
𝑣
(𝐸𝑉 – 𝐸)1Τ2 𝑒 −(𝐸 − 𝐸𝐹 +𝐸𝑣 −𝐸𝑣)/ 𝑘𝑇 𝑑𝐸
ℎ3

4𝜋 𝐸
p= (2𝑚ℎ∗ )3Τ2 𝑒 −(𝐸𝐹 −𝐸𝑣)/ 𝑘𝑇 ‫׬‬−∞
𝑣
(𝐸𝑉 – 𝐸)1Τ2 𝑒 −(𝐸𝑣 −𝐸)/ 𝑘𝑇 𝑑𝐸 ------(5)
ℎ3
The above integral is of the standard form whose solution is given by
∞ 𝜋
‫׬‬0 𝑥 1Τ2 𝑒 −𝑎𝑥 𝑑𝑥 =
2𝑎3/2
where a = 1/kT and x = (Ev – E)
 By: Dr. A.S. Sai Prasad 27

So, equation (5) becomes

𝜋
p=
4𝜋
(2𝑚ℎ∗ )3Τ2 𝑒 −(𝐸𝐹 −𝐸𝑣 )/ 𝑘𝑇 (𝑘𝑇)3/2
ℎ3 2

∗ 3Τ2
2𝜋 𝑚ℎ 𝑘𝑇
p= 2 𝑒 −(𝐸𝐹−𝐸𝑣)/ 𝑘𝑇
ℎ2

∗ 3Τ2
2𝜋𝑚ℎ 𝑘𝑇
Put Nv = 2
ℎ2
and it is known as effective density of states in the valence band.
Thus, we get

p = Nv 𝑒 −(𝐸𝐹 −𝐸𝑣 )/ 𝑘𝑇

This is the expression for the hole concentration in the valence band of intrinsic
semiconductor.
 28

➢ Intrinsic carrier concentration

In intrinsic semiconductor, the concentration of both the charge carriers i.e. electrons and
holes is equal, and therefore they both are denoted as ni.
n = p = ni
ni2 = np
ni 2 = (Nc 𝑒 −(𝐸𝑐 −𝐸𝐹)/ 𝑘𝑇 ) (Nv 𝑒 −(𝐸𝐹−𝐸𝑣)/ 𝑘𝑇 )
ni 2 = (Nc Nv) 𝑒 −(𝐸𝑐 −𝐸𝑣 )/ 𝑘𝑇 )
But 𝐸𝑐 − 𝐸𝑣 = 𝐸𝑔

ni 2 = (Nc Nv) 𝑒 −𝐸𝑔/ 𝑘𝑇

Substituting the values of Nc and Nv, we get

2𝜋 𝑘𝑇 3
ni 2= 4
𝑚𝑒∗ 𝑚ℎ∗ 3 2 𝑒 −𝐸𝑔/ 𝑘𝑇
ℎ2 /

𝟐𝝅 𝒌𝑻 𝟑/𝟐
ni = 2 𝒎∗𝒆 𝒎𝒉∗ 𝟑 𝟒 𝒆−𝑬𝒈/𝟐 𝒌𝑻
𝒉𝟐 /

By: Dr. A.S. Sai Prasad

 29

Fermi level in Intrinsic semiconductor

n = Nc 𝒆−(𝑬𝒄 −𝑬𝑭 )/ 𝒌𝑻
p = Nv 𝒆−(𝑬𝑭 −𝑬𝒗)/ 𝒌𝑻
Since n = p,
Nc 𝒆−(𝑬𝒄 −𝑬𝑭 )/ 𝒌𝑻 = Nv 𝒆−(𝑬𝑭 −𝑬𝒗)/ 𝒌𝑻
Taking log on both sides

𝑵𝒗 (𝑬𝑭 −𝑬𝒗 )
- (𝑬𝒄𝒌𝑻
−𝑬𝑭 )
= ln -
𝑵𝒄 𝒌𝑻
𝑵𝒗
−𝑬𝒄 + 𝑬𝑭 = kT ln - 𝑬𝑭 + 𝑬𝒗
𝑵𝒄
𝑵
2𝑬𝑭 = kT ln 𝑵𝒗 + (𝑬𝒄 + 𝑬𝒗 )
𝒄
𝟏 𝑵𝒗 𝟏
𝑬𝑭 = kT ln + 𝟐(𝑬𝒄 + 𝑬𝒗 )
𝟐 𝑵𝒄
 By: Dr. A.S. Sai Prasad 30

Carrier Concentration in N-type Semiconductor

• Let Nd → number of donor atoms in the semiconductor
When temperature is increased above 0 K, the donor atoms get ionized and the
electrons start moving from donor levels to the conduction band.
• Ed → energy required by electrons to move from donor levels to the
conduction band
• If n → electron concentration in conduction band
we assume that
n = 𝑁𝑑+
n = Nd - 𝑁𝑑0
where 𝑁𝑑+ → is the number of ionized donor atoms
𝑁𝑑0 → is the number of unionized donor atom left at energy level Ed
 31

n = Nd - Nd f (Ed)
1
n = Nd [1 – f (Ed)] = Nd [1 - ]
1+𝑒 (𝐸𝑑 − 𝐸𝐹)/ 𝑘𝑇

n = Nd 1
1+𝑒 −(𝐸𝑑 − 𝐸𝐹 )/ 𝑘𝑇
or, n = Nd 𝑒 (𝐸𝑑 − 𝐸𝐹)/ 𝑘𝑇 ------- (1)
But, electron concentration in conduction band is given as,
n = Nc 𝑒 −(𝐸𝑐 −𝐸𝐹)/ 𝑘𝑇 ------- (2)
Equating (1) and (2)
Nd 𝑒 (𝐸𝑑 − 𝐸𝐹)/ 𝑘𝑇 = Nc 𝑒 −(𝐸𝑐 −𝐸𝐹)/ 𝑘𝑇
Taking log on both sides and rearranging the terms, we get
𝐸𝑑 − 𝐸𝐹 𝐸𝑐 − 𝐸𝐹 𝑁𝑐
+ = ln
𝑘𝑇 𝑘𝑇 𝑁𝑑
𝑁𝑐
𝐸𝑑 + 𝐸𝑐 – 2 EF = (kT) ln
𝑁𝑑

By: Dr. A.S. Sai Prasad

 32

𝐸𝑑 + 𝐸𝑐 𝑘𝑇 𝑁𝑐
EF = - ln
2 2 𝑁𝑑
𝐸𝑑 + 𝐸𝑐 𝑘𝑇 𝑁𝑑
EF = + ln
2 2 𝑁𝑐

𝐸𝑑 + 𝐸𝑐 𝑘𝑇 𝑁𝑑
EF = + ln 3/2 --------- (3)
2 2 2𝜋𝑚∗𝑒 𝑘𝑇
2 ൗ 2
ℎ
at T = 0 K, above equation gives

𝐸𝑑 + 𝐸𝑐
EF =
2
i.e. the Fermi level lies between the bottom of conduction band and donor levels.
Rewriting equation (2)
n = Nc 𝑒 (𝐸𝐹 −𝐸𝑐 )/ 𝑘𝑇
Substituting value of EF from equation (3) in the above relation, we obtain
𝐸𝑑 + 𝐸𝑐 𝑘𝑇 𝑁𝑑
n = Nc exp + 𝑙𝑛 3/2 − 𝐸𝑐 /𝑘𝑇
2 2 2𝜋𝑚∗𝑒 𝑘𝑇
2 ൗ 2
ℎ

𝐸𝑑 − 𝐸𝑐 1 𝑁𝑑
n = Nc exp + 𝑙𝑛 3/2
2𝑘𝑇 2 2𝜋𝑚∗𝑒 𝑘𝑇
2 ൗ 2
ℎ

By: Dr. A.S. Sai Prasad

 33

𝐸𝑑 − 𝐸𝑐 𝑁𝑑 1
n = Nc exp + 𝑙𝑛 3/2 [∵ 𝑙𝑛 𝑥 = 𝑙𝑛 𝑥]
2𝑘𝑇 2𝜋𝑚∗𝑒 𝑘𝑇 2
2 ൗ 2
ℎ

𝐸𝑑 − 𝐸𝑐 𝑁𝑑
n = Nc exp
2𝑘𝑇
. 𝑒𝑥𝑝 𝑙𝑛 3/2 [∵ 𝑒𝑥𝑝 𝑎 + 𝑏 = 𝑒𝑥𝑝 𝑎 . 𝑒𝑥𝑝 𝑏]
2𝜋𝑚∗𝑒 𝑘𝑇
2 ൗ 2
ℎ

𝐸𝑑 − 𝐸𝑐 𝑁𝑑
n = Nc exp 3/2 [∵ 𝑒𝑥𝑝 ln 𝑥 = 𝑥]
2𝑘𝑇 2𝜋𝑚∗𝑒 𝑘𝑇
2 ൗ 2
ℎ

2𝜋𝑚𝑒∗ 𝑘𝑇 3Τ2
Substituting the value Nc = 2 ℎ2
, we get

2𝜋𝑚𝑒∗ 𝑘𝑇 3Τ2 𝐸 − 𝐸𝑐 𝑁𝑑
n=2 2 exp 𝑑 3/2
ℎ 2𝑘𝑇 2𝜋𝑚∗𝑒 𝑘𝑇
2 ൗ 2
ℎ

1/2 2𝜋𝑚𝑒∗ 𝑘𝑇 3Τ4 𝐸𝑑 − 𝐸𝑐

n = 2𝑁𝑑 ℎ2
exp 2𝑘𝑇
From this expression, it is clear that, the n-type semiconductor the electron concentration is
dependent on the donor concentration (i.e. it is directly proportional to the square root of Nd).
By: Dr. A.S. Sai Prasad
 34

Carrier Concentration In P-type Semiconductor

• Let Na → number of donor atoms in the semiconductor
When temperature is increased above 0 K, the acceptor atoms get ionized and the holes start appearing in the
valence band.
• Ea → energy required by electrons to move into acceptor levels from the valence band
• If p → hole concentration in valence band
we assume that, p = 𝑁𝑎−
where 𝑁𝑎− → is the number of ionized acceptor atoms
• The concentration of ionized acceptor atoms
𝑁𝑎− = Na f (Ea)
𝐸𝐹 − 𝐸𝑎
p = Na 𝑒𝑥𝑝 ------- (1)
𝑘𝑇

• But, the hole concentration in valence band is given as: p = Nv 𝑒 −(𝐸𝐹 −𝐸𝑣 )/ 𝑘𝑇
𝐸𝑣 − 𝐸𝐹
p = Nv 𝑒𝑥𝑝
𝑘𝑇
------- (2)

By: Dr. A.S. Sai Prasad

 35

Equating (1) and (2)

𝐸𝐹 − 𝐸𝑎 𝐸𝑣 − 𝐸𝐹
Na 𝑒𝑥𝑝 = Nv 𝑒𝑥𝑝
𝑘𝑇 𝑘𝑇
Taking log on both sides and rearranging the terms, we get

𝐸𝐹 − 𝐸𝑎 𝐸𝑣 − 𝐸𝐹 𝑁𝑣
+ = ln
𝑘𝑇 𝑘𝑇 𝑁𝑎
𝑁𝑣
− 𝐸𝑣 + 𝐸𝑎 – 2 EF = (kT) ln
𝑁𝑎

𝐸𝑣 + 𝐸𝑎 𝑘𝑇 𝑁𝑣
EF = + ln
2 2 𝑁𝑎

𝐸𝑣 + 𝐸𝑎 𝑘𝑇 𝑁𝑎
EF = - ln
2 2 𝑁𝑣

𝐸𝑣 + 𝐸𝑎 𝑘𝑇 𝑁𝑎
EF = - ln 3/2 --------- (3)
2 2 2𝜋𝑚∗ℎ 𝑘𝑇
2 ൘2
ℎ

𝐸𝑣 + 𝐸𝑎
at T = 0 K, EF =
2
i.e. the Fermi
By: Dr.level lies
A.S. Sai exactly between the top level of valence band and acceptor levels.
Prasad
 36

Substituting value of EF from equation (3) in the equation (2), we obtain

𝐸𝑣 − 𝐸𝐹
p = Nv 𝑒𝑥𝑝 𝑘𝑇
𝐸𝑣 𝐸𝑣 + 𝐸𝑎 1 𝑁𝑎
p = Nv exp − + 𝑙𝑛 3/2
𝑘𝑇 2𝑘𝑇 2 2𝜋𝑚∗ℎ 𝑘𝑇
2 ൘2
ℎ

𝐸𝑣 − 𝐸𝑎 1 𝑁𝑎
p = Nv exp + 𝑙𝑛 3/2
2𝑘𝑇 2 2𝜋𝑚∗ℎ 𝑘𝑇
2 ൘2
ℎ

𝐸𝑣 − 𝐸𝑎 𝑁𝑎 1
p = Nv exp + 𝑙𝑛 3/2 [∵ 𝑙𝑛 𝑥 = 𝑙𝑛 𝑥]
2𝑘𝑇 2𝜋𝑚∗ℎ 𝑘𝑇 2
2 ൘2
ℎ

𝐸𝑣 − 𝐸𝑎 𝑁𝑎
p = Nv exp exp 𝑙𝑛 3/2 [∵ 𝑒𝑥𝑝 𝑎 + 𝑏 = 𝑒𝑥𝑝 𝑎 . 𝑒𝑥𝑝 𝑏]
2𝑘𝑇 2𝜋𝑚∗ℎ 𝑘𝑇
൘2
2 ℎ

By: Dr. A.S. Sai Prasad

 By: Dr. A.S. Sai Prasad 37

𝐸𝑣 − 𝐸𝑎 𝑁𝑎
p = Nv exp 2𝑘𝑇 3/2 [∵ 𝑒𝑥𝑝 ln 𝑥 = 𝑥 ]
2𝜋𝑚∗ℎ 𝑘𝑇
2 ൘2
ℎ

∗ 3Τ2
2𝜋𝑚ℎ 𝑘𝑇
Substituting the value Nv = 2 , we get
ℎ2

∗ 3Τ2
2𝜋𝑚ℎ 𝑘𝑇 𝐸𝑣 − 𝐸𝑎 𝑁𝑎
p =2 exp 3/2
ℎ2 2𝑘𝑇 2𝜋𝑚∗ℎ 𝑘𝑇
2 ൘2
ℎ

∗ 3Τ4
1/2 2𝜋𝑚ℎ 𝑘𝑇 𝐸𝑣 − 𝐸𝑎
p = 2𝑁𝑎 exp
ℎ2 2𝑘𝑇

From above expression, it is clear that, in p-type semiconductor the hole

concentration is dependent on the acceptor concentration (i.e. it is
directly proportional to the square root of Na).
 38

3Τ2
2𝜋𝑚𝑒∗ 𝑘𝑇 3Τ2 ∗
2𝜋𝑚ℎ 𝑘𝑇
Nc = 2 and Nv = 2
ℎ2 ℎ2

∗ 3/2
𝑵𝒗 𝑚ℎ
Therefore, =
𝑵𝒄 𝑚𝑒∗
∗
𝑵𝒗 3 𝑚ℎ
ln = ln
𝑵𝒄 2 𝑚𝑒∗
∗
𝟏 𝟑 𝑚ℎ
𝑬𝑭 = (𝑬 + 𝑬𝒗 ) + kT ln
𝟐 𝒄 𝟒 𝑚𝑒∗
∗
𝑚ℎ
If 𝑚𝑒∗ = 𝑚ℎ∗ , then ln =0
𝑚𝑒∗
𝟏
And 𝑬𝑭 = 𝟐(𝑬𝒄 + 𝑬𝒗 )

𝟏
𝑬𝑭 = 𝟐(𝑬𝒄 − 𝑬𝒗 ) + 𝑬𝒗

𝟏
𝑬𝑭 = 𝟐 𝑬𝒈 + 𝑬𝒗
If we denote top of valence band as zero level, 𝑬𝒗 = 0
𝟏
Then 𝑬𝑭 = 𝑬𝒈
𝟐
 By: Dr. A.S. Sai Prasad 39

Intrinsic conductivity

▪ Under applied field the electrons (thermally excited into the conduction band) can
move using the vacant sites in the conduction band
▪ Holes move in the opposite direction in the valence band
▪ The conductivity of a semiconductor depends on the concentration of these charge
carriers (ne & nh)
▪ Similar to drift velocity of electrons under an applied field in metals in
semiconductors the concept of mobility is used to calculate conductivity

 = ne e e + nh e h
 40

Conductivity as a function of temperature

 = ne e e + nh e h

 Eg 
 = N e (  e +  h ) exp − 
 2 kT 
 Eg 
 =   exp− 
 2 kT 

Ln()→
Eg
−
2k
Eg
ln  = ln   −
2kT
1/T (/K) →
 By: Dr. A.S. Sai Prasad 41

Extrinsic Conductivity
Conductivity in n-type semiconductor
σn = (nn e µn + pne µp)

As in n-type semiconductor, pn << nn

σn = nn e µn

As in p-type semiconductor, np << pp

σp = pp e µh
 By: Dr. A.S. Sai Prasad 42

Variation of Fermi Level (EF) with Temperature

➢ For Intrinsic semiconductors

It is found that with an increase in temperature the Fermi

level
• shifts up towards the lowermost level of conduction band if
m*h > m*e
• shifts downwards to the topmost level of valence band m*h
< m*e

In general, for intrinsic semiconductors,

the Fermi level is considered to be independent of temperature and
thus, lies in the mid of band gap irrespective of the temperature.
Variation of Fermi Level (EF) with Temperature 43

➢ For n-type semiconductors

At low temperatures, some of the donor atoms get ionized and
provide electrons to the conduction band.
✓ At 0 K, the Fermi level (EFn) lies between the donor level and
bottom level of the conduction band.
𝐸 +𝐸
EFn = 𝑐 2 𝑑
✓ As the temperature increases, the donor level gets depleted and
Fermi level shifts downwards. At the temperature of total
depletion (T = Td), the Fermi level coincides with the donor level
(Ed).
EFn = Ed at T = Td

✓ At T > Td, the Fermi level moves downward in a linear manner.

✓ At T = Ti , when there are no more donor atoms, intrinsic process contributes to the electron
concentration. So, at further higher temperatures, the n-type semiconductor loses its extrinsic behavior
and acts as an intrinsic semiconductor. Thus, the Fermi level approaches the intrinsic value.
𝐸𝑔
EFn = EFi = 2 at T ≥ Ti
Variation of Fermi Level (EF) with Temperature 44

➢ For p-type semiconductors

At low temperatures, holes in the valence band are only because of
movement of electrons from the valence band to the acceptor level.
✓ At 0 K, the Fermi level (EFP) lies in the mid of acceptor levels and
top level of the valence band.
𝐸 +𝐸
EFp = 𝑣 2 𝑎
✓ As the temperature increases, the acceptor levels get filled up
gradually and Fermi level shifts upwards. At the saturation
temperature Ts (when acceptor level is totally filled) the Fermi
level coincides with the acceptor level (Ea).
E Fp = E a at T = Ts

✓ As temperature goes above Ts i.e. T > Ts, the Fermi level moves
upward in a linear manner somehow.

✓ At T = Ti, intrinsic behavior is established. At further higher temperatures, the p-type semiconductor
loses its extrinsic behavior and acts as an intrinsic semiconductor. Thus, the Fermi level approaches the
intrinsic value.
𝐸𝑔
EFp = EFi = 2 at T ≥ Ti
 45

Variation of Fermi Energy Level With Doping Concentration

➢ For n-type semiconductors
• At low impurity concentration, there are discrete donor
energy levels.
• With an increase in the impurity concentration, donor level
undergoes splitting and it results in the formation of
formation of donor band below the conduction band.
• With further increase in impurity concentration the width of
the donor band increases.
• At one point, donor band overlaps with the conduction
band
• In the process the Fermi level also shifts upwards, closer
to the conduction band (with increase in impurity
concentration) and finally enters the conduction band.
• With the widening of the acceptor band the width of
forbidden gap decreases.
By: Dr. A.S. Sai Prasad
 46

Variation of Fermi Energy Level With Doping Concentration

➢ For p-type semiconductors
• At low impurity concentration, there are discrete acceptor
energy levels.
• With the increase in the impurity concentration the
acceptor atoms interact. As a result the acceptor level
broadens and splits into the band.
• acceptor band gradually broadens with increasing doping
concentration.
• At one point the acceptor band overlaps with the valence
band
• In this process the Fermi level also shifts downwards and
at higher doping concentration it enters the valence band.
• With the widening of the acceptor band the width of
forbidden gap decreases.

By: Dr. A.S. Sai Prasad

 Hall effect
• Hall Effect was discovered by Edwin Hall in 1879.
• Hall Effect is a Galvano magnetic effect.
When a metal or semiconductor carrying current is
placed in a transverse magnetic field, a voltage is
developed across the specimen in a direction
perpendicular to both the current and the magnetic
field.
This phenomenon is called the Hall effect and
voltage so developed is called the Hall voltage.
 By: Dr. A.S. SAi Prasad

Consider a p-type semiconductor, carrying a current Ix in the x-direction. When a

uniform magnetic field Bz is applied along the z-axis.
Current through the wafer is given by
I = peAvd
𝐼
Current density, Jx = = p e v d ___________(1)
𝐴

On the application of magnetic field, holes experience a deflection because

of Lorentz force (FL), given by
____ (2)
FL = e (𝑣𝑑 x 𝐵) = e vd B sin 90 = e vd B
o

The holes are deflected towards the lower surface and get accumulated
there producing a net positive charge.
Simultaneously, a net negative charge appears on the upper surface. This
creates an upward electric field called Hall field (EH).
Due to action of electric field EH, holes experience an electric force FE in
addition to Lorentz force.
F =eE ________(3)
E H
 By: Dr. A.S. SAi Prasad

When an equilibrium is reached, the magnetic deflecting force on the

charge carriers are balanced by the electric forces due to electric Field.
FE = FH
e EH = e vd B
𝑉𝐻
If w = width of semiconductor wafer, EH =
𝑤
So, above relation becomes,
𝑉𝐻
e = e vd B
𝑤

𝑉𝐻
= vd B ______ (4)
𝑤
𝑱𝒙
From equation (1), vd= 𝒑𝒆
𝑉𝐻 𝐽𝑥
Equation (4) becomes = B
𝑤 𝑝𝑒
𝑤𝐵𝐽𝑥 𝑤𝐵𝐼
VH = =
𝑝𝑒 𝑝𝑒 𝐴

If t = thickness of Semiconductor wafer, A = wt

𝒘𝑩𝑱𝒙 𝑩𝑰
VH = = __𝒕 _____(5)
𝒑𝒆 𝒑𝒆
 By: Dr. A.S. SAi Prasad

Hall Coefficient (RH) is defined as Hall field per unit current density per
unit magnetic induction.
𝑬𝑯 𝑽𝑯 /𝒘
Thus, RH = =
𝑱𝒙 𝑩 𝑱𝒙 𝑩

𝑉𝐻
Using relation (4) i.e. = vd B , we get
𝑤

vd B vd
RH = =
𝐽𝑥 𝐵 𝐽𝑥
𝐽𝑥
From eqn. (1), vd = 𝑝𝑒
𝐽𝑥 1 1
RH = =
𝑝𝑒 𝐽𝑥 𝑝𝑒

1
RH =
𝑝𝑒
Using this value, eqn. (5) can be rewritten as
BI RH t VH
VH = 𝒕 or
RH = 𝑩𝑰
 By: Dr. A.S. SAi Prasad

Drift Velocity
Acc. to equilibrium condition, FE = FH
e EH = e vd B
V
e H= e vd B
𝑤
𝑽𝑯
vd =
𝑩𝒘

Carrier Concentration
1
RH =
𝑝𝑒
𝟏
p=
𝑹𝑯 e
−1
In case of conductors and n-type semiconductor, RH =
𝑛𝑒

−𝟏
n=
𝑹𝑯 e
where n is concentration of electrons
 By: Dr. A.S. SAi Prasad

Hall Mobility
Mobility is defined as the drift velocty acquired in unit electric field.
Since, J = p e vd
Also
𝐽
So, =𝜎𝐸 pev =𝜎𝐸 d

𝑣𝑑 𝜎
=
𝐸 𝑝𝑒

μ h= R H 𝝈
 By: Dr. A.S. SAi Prasad

Applications of Hall effect

• Hall Effect is used to find whether a semiconductor is N-
type or P-type.
• Hall Effect is used to find carrier concentration.
• Hall Effect is used to calculate the mobility of charge
carriers (free electrons and holes).
• Hall Effect is used to measure conductivity.
• Hall Effect is used to measure a.c. power and the strength
of magnetic field (RH α B)
 Dr. A.S. Sai Prasad

P-N junction formation

Dr. A.S. Sai Prasad
 Dr. A.S. Sai Prasad

p-n junction = semiconductor in which impurity changes abruptly from p-type to n-

type ;
“diffusion” = movement due to difference in concentration, from higher to lower
concentration;
in absence of electric field across the junction, holes “diffuse” towards and across
boundary into n-type and capture electrons;

electrons diffuse across boundary, fall into holes (“recombination of majority

carriers”);
 formation of a “depletion region” (= region without free charge carriers)
around the boundary;
charged ions are left behind (cannot move):
negative ions left on p-side  net negative charge on p-side of the junction;

positive ions left on n-side  net positive charge on n-side of the junction

 this creates an electric field across junction which prevents further

diffusion.
 Dr. A.S. Sai Prasad

Formation of depletion region in

pn-junction:
 Dr. A.S. Sai Prasad

pn Junction – built-in potential barrier

No applied voltage across pn-junction The junction is in thermal equilibrium —the Fermi
energy level is constant throughout the entire
system.
▪ Electrons in the conduction band of the n
region see a potential barrier in trying to move
into the conduction band of the p region. This
potential barrier is referred to as the built-in
potential barrier and is denoted by Vbi (or V0).
▪ The potential Vbi maintains equilibrium, so no
current is produced by this voltage.
𝑁𝐷 𝑁𝐴 Where VT= kT/e
Vo = 𝑉𝑇 𝑙𝑛
𝑛𝑖 2

Diode current equation:

I = 𝐼0 (𝑒 𝑒𝑉/𝑘𝑇 -1)
 By: Dr. A.S. Sai Prasad 59

Applications of semiconductor devices to computer

architecture.
Semiconductors are the Brains of Modern Electronics. n- and p-type semiconductors are used to create transistors, small devices that are
essential components in modern computers. When a small electrical current is input through a transistor’s ‘gate’, the device outputs a large
current. The effect acts as both an amplifier and an electrical switch.
Semiconductors are very special materials that allow you to create binary switches called transistors and are the basis of all digital
computing, memory and storage from the simplest electronic to massive supercomputers. These semiconductor-based devices are crucial
to microchip manufacturing, from processors to memory cards.
• Memory Chips: From the perspective of functionality, semiconductor memory chips store data and programs on computers and data
storage devices. Random-access memory (RAM) chips provide temporary workspaces, whereas flash memory chips hold information
permanently unless erased. Read-only memory (ROM) and programmable read-only memory (PROM) chips cannot be modified.
• Microprocessors: Microprocessors contain one or more central processing units (CPUs). Computer servers, personal computers (PCs),
tablets, and smartphones may each have multiple CPUs.
• Graphic Processing Units (GPUs): Technically a type of microprocessor, Graphics Processing Unit (GPU) is capable of rendering
graphics for display on an electronic device. The GPU was introduced to the wider market in 1999 and is best known for its use in
providing the smooth graphics that consumers expect in modern videos and games.
• Before the arrival of GPUs in the late 1990s, graphic rendering was handled by the Central Processing Unit (CPU).

• Monitor: Alternatively referred to as a VDT (video display terminal) and VDU (video display unit), a monitor is an output
device that displays video images and text. A monitor is made up of circuitry, a screen, a power supply, buttons to adjust screen settings,
and casing that holds all of these components. Like most early TVs, the first computer monitors were comprised of a CRT (cathode ray
tube) and a fluorescent screen. Today, all monitors are created using flat-panel display technology, usually backlit with LEDs (light-
emitting diode).
By: Dr. A.S. Sai Prasad 60

That’s
all!!!!

Thank You…