SEMICONDUCTOR PHYSICS

UNIT - I

PRESENTED BY
DR. C. RATHIKA THAYA KUMARI,
Associate Professor,
Department of Physics
INTRODUCTION
 CLASSICAL FREE ELECTRON THEORY
POSTULATES
 The free electrons in metals, move freely or
randomly in all possible directions, in the absence of
electric field

 While moving, the free electrons collide with each

other and also with the lattice elastically without any
loss in energy.
 The force between electrons and ion core is
negligible, hence its total energy is only kinetic not
potential.
 POSTULATES

When an external field is applied, the free electrons

moves in a direction opposite to the electric field.
 As a result, these free electrons may acquire a
constant velocity called drift velocity.
 DEFINITIONS

DRIFT VELOCITY
The average velocity acquired by the free electron in a
particular direction, due to the application of electric
field is called drift velocity.
MOBILITY
The drift velocity acquired by the free electron per unit
electric field applied to it.
Mobility = Drift velocity / Electric field
 DEFINITIONS

RELAXATION TIME
It is the time taken by the free electrons to reach its
equilibrium position from its disturbed position in the
presence of electric field.
MEAN FREE PATH
The average distance travelled between two
successive collisions are called mean free path.
 DRAWBACKS OF CLASSICAL FREE ELECTRON
THEORY
• It is a macroscopic theory

• Classical theory states that all free electrons absorb energy,

but quantum theory states that only few electrons absorb
energy.
• Classical theory cannot explain compton effect,
photoelectric effect, blackbody radiation etc. but these
concepts are completely based on quantum theory.
• The electrical conductivity and resistivity of a
semiconductors and insulators are not explained by classical
theory but band theory clearly explains these concepts
successfully for all solids.
 QUANTUM FREE ELECTRON THEORY

The drawbacks of classical theory can be rectified using

quantum theory. The problem was approached using Fermi-
Dirac statistics.
ASSUMPTIONS
• Classical theory – Kinetic Energy of an electron is Zero at
0K.
• Quantum theory – The electrons arrangement in an energy
level is clearly explained by knowing the following terms:
Energy distribution of an electron
 Number of available energy states
 Number of filled energy states
 Probability of filling an electron in an
energy state
 ENERGY DISTRIBUTION OF ELECTRONS IN A METAL

• The energy levels are discrete.

• The space between two energy
levels is very less (10^-6 eV).
• The distribution of energy levels
seems to be continuous.
• Each energy level can provide
only two states, one for spin up
and the other for spin down.
• Thus 2 electrons can be filled in
each energy state.
• It there N number of electrons
means, N/2 number of energy
states.
• This (N/2)th level is the highest
filled energy level, called Fermi
Energy Level.
 FERMI ENERGY AND ITS IMPORTANCE

o Fermi energy level is the maximum energy level upto

which the electrons can be filled at 0K.
o Thus, it acts as a reference level which separates the
vacant and filled states at 0K.
o At 0K, below fermi energy level electrons are filled and
above that it is empty.
o When the temperature is increased, few electrons gain
thermal energy and it goes to higher energy states.
 FERMI DISTRIBUTION FUNCTION

The probability of an electron occupying in a given

energy state E. It is a probability distribution function.

EF = Fermi energy or Fermi level

k = Boltzmann constant = 1.38 1023 J/K
T = absolute temperature in K
 DENSITY OF STATES IN METALS

• Fermi function – Probability of filling of electrons in an

energy state.
- It does not gives information about the
number of electrons that can be filled in
an energy state.

• The number of available energy states are called as

density of states.
• Density of states is defined as the number of available
electrons per unit volume in an energy interval.
DENSITY OF STATES IN METALS
DENSITY OF STATES IN METALS
DENSITY OF STATES IN METALS
DENSITY OF STATES IN METALS
DENSITY OF STATES IN METALS
DENSITY OF STATES IN METALS
DENSITY OF STATES IN METALS
 Kronig - Penny Model

Potential well (V = 0)

Potential barrier
. . . 1 2
. (V = V0)

• represents the positive ion core

In the potential well near the positive ion electron
potential is zero i.e. V = 0
In the potential barrier away from the positive ion
electron potential is maximum i.e. V = V0
 Kronig - Penny Model

According to this theory, the electrons move in a

periodic potential produced by the positive ion cores.
The potential of the electron varies periodically with
periodicity of the ion core and the potential energy of
the electron is zero near the nucleus of the positive ion
core and maximum when it is lying between the adjacent
nuclei which are separated by the interatomic spacing
‘a’.
 Kronig - Penny Model
Applying the Schrodinger’s Time Independent wave equation
for the above two regions,
 Kronig - Penny Model
Substituting the value of α and β,

The solutions for Equations 3 and 4 can be given as,

Kronig - Penny Model
Kronig - Penny Model
 Kronig - Penny Model
The general solution for equations 7 & 8 can be given as,

By solving we get,
 Kronig - Penny Model

o Shaded region represents the Allowed Region (-1 to +1)

o Non - Shaded region represents the Forbidden Region
o The discontinuity in energy occurs at the region at K = ± π/a, ±
2π/a, ± 3π/a…
 Discussion

 At P tends to infinity, Sin αa = 0, i.e. αa = nπ, α = nπ /a.

Hence Energy E = n2π2 / 8ma2
In this case, the Energy levels are discrete
It is similar to a particle in a one dimensional potential box.
This indicates the nature of an insulator.

 At P tends to Zero, Cos αa = Cos Ka,

Hence Energy E = P2 / 2m
In this case, the Energy of an electron is Kinetic, shows it is a free electron.
This indicates the nature of a conductor.
E-K Diagram
 E-K Diagram Discussion

 All real K vectors lead to propagate electron states,

results to allowed states.
 All imaginary K vectors cannot propagate electron
states, results to forbidden states.
 If the potential barrier between the walls is strong,
energy bands are narrow and wide apart.
 If the potential barrier is weak, energy bands are wide
and closely packed.
 Band Theory or Zone Theory

o The free electron theories failed to explain why

some solids are conductors, insulators and
semiconductors.
o A solution to this problem was given by band
theory of solids.
o According to free electron theory, the potential
energy of an electron inside the crystal is constant
(zero). So it can move freely inside the crystal and is
restrained only by the surface of the crystal.
 Postulates of Band Theory
o According to band theory, potential energy of an electron
within the crystal is periodic due to periodicity of the crystal.
i.e. free electrons move inside periodically in the lattice.
o The potential energy of the solid varies periodically with
the periodicity of space lattice.
o It is assumed that the potential energy of the electron
at the positive ion site is zero and is maximum when it is
half way between the adjacent nuclei.
 Brillouin Zone
Brillouin zones are defined as the boundaries in a crystal
lattice that are marked by the values of propagation wave vector
in which the electrons can have allowed energy values without
diffraction.
The relation between wave vector and the energy of an electron in a
constant potential field is given by, E = n2h2 / 8ma2
The wave vector K= nπ /a
From this, a= nπ /K
Substituting in E, we get E = K2h2 / 8π2 m
oAlso, K = ± π/a, ± 2π/a, ± 3π/a…

If we plot a graph between E and K, the curve obtained is in the

form of parabola with discontinuities.
 Brillouin Zone

From the graph, it is seen

that the energy of an
electron increases
continuously from
0 to ± π/a, then the
electron meets the wall
and is reflected.
This range of allowed
energy values in the region
between - π/a to + π/a is
called first Brillouin zone
 Brillouin Zone

The second allowed energy value consists of two parts. One

energy value from π/a to 2π/a and another from -π/a to -
2π/a, which is called second Brillouin zone.
Similarly, there will be 3rd, 4th etc. Brillouin zones for various
ranges for different k values.
Also, each Brillouin zone is separated by break up energy
values known as forbidden zone or Energy gap.
Thus, we conclude that the electrons can go from one
Brillouin zone to the other only when it is supplied with an
energy equal to forbidden gap energy.
 Origin of Energy Levels in Solids
Energy levels in solids can be explained by the concept
Energy Bands.
In case of solids, the atoms are arranged in a systematic
space lattice. The closeness of atoms results in the
intermixing of electrons of neighboring atoms.
Due to this intermixing, the number of permissible energy
levels increases, as a result the electrons are free to move in
increased energy levels of the atoms which in turn increases
the conduction of the solids.
A set of closely spaced energy levels is called an energy
band.
 Origin of Energy Levels in Solids
Valence Band: The electrons in the outermost shell are called
valence electrons. The band formed by a series energy level
containing the valence electrons is known as Valence band.
Thus, it is defined as a band which is occupied by the
valence electrons. The valence band may be partially or
completely filled up depending on the nature of the material.
Conduction Band: The next higher permitted band is the
conduction band.
The conduction band energy levels are defined as the lowest
unfilled energy band. This band may be empty or partially
filled. Here the electrons can move freely.
 Origin of Energy Levels in Solids
The conduction band and valence
band are separated by a region or
gap known as forbidden band.
This band is collectively formed by a
series of energy levels above the top of
valence band and below the bottom
of conduction band.
Hence, no electron can exist in this
band. When an electron in the valence
band absorbs enough energy, it
crosses the forbidden gap and enters
into the conduction band.
ENERGY BANDS IN SOLIDS
ENERGY BANDS IN SOLIDS
ENERGY BANDS IN SOLIDS
ENERGY BANDS IN SOLIDS
 Properties of Conductors

• It is a material that easily conducts electrical current

• Most metals are good conductors
• It may have one valence electron very loosely bound to
the atom
• These loosely bound valence electrons can become free
electrons
with the addition of a small amount of energy
• The free electrons are responsible to carry current
• Free electrons are the charge carriers in a conductor
• Examples: Copper (Cu), Silver (Ag), Gold (Au),
Aluminum (Al) etc.
 Properties of Insulators
•. It does not conduct electrical current under normal
conditions
• Good insulators are compounds rather than single-
element materials
• It have very high resistivity's
• The atoms are tightly bound to one another so
electrons are difficult to strip away for current flow
• Valence electrons are tightly bound to the atoms
• Few free electrons are present in an insulator.
• Examples : Rubber, plastics, glass, mica, quartz etc.
 Properties of Semiconductors
• It is a material between conductors and insulators
• Semiconductor in its pure state is neither a good
conductor nor a good insulator i.e. At 0K, it acts as an
insulator and if temperature is given or impurities are
added it acts as a conductor
• Free electrons and holes are the charge carriers
• Single-element semiconductors are antimony,
arsenic, Boron, Polonium, Tellurium, Silicon, Germanium.
• Compound semiconductors are Gallium arsenide,
Indium phosphide, Gallium nitride, silicon carbide etc.
 Basic Definitions
Lattice:
An array of imaginary points representing the position of atoms in a
crystal.

Unit Cell:
 The smallest repeating unit of the crystal lattice is a unit cell.
 It is the building blocks of a crystal.

Primitive cell:
It is the simplest type of unit cell that
contains only one lattice point per unit
cell.
Brillouin Zone
 Brillouin Zone

The procedure of constructing Weigner Seitz primitive

cell in a direct lattice:
 Consider a two dimensional square lattice.
 Draw lines to connect a given lattice point to all
nearby lattice points.
 Draw perpendicular bisectors to the line joining the
points to its nearest neighboring points.
 The innermost region bounded by the perpendicular
bisectors is identified as the weigner Seitz primitive cell.
 Brillouin Zone
STEP : 1

Construction of WS primitive cell in a 2D lattice

STEP : 2

STEP : 3
 Classification of Electronic Materials
Based on the magnitude of forbidden gap, the solids are
classified into insulators, semiconductors and conductors.
Insulators:
 At 0K, the valence band is completely filled
and conduction band is empty.
 The forbidden energy band is very wide.
 The electrons cannot jump from valence
band to conduction band because the
valence electrons are very tightly bounded to
the atoms.
 Even in the presence of electric field, the electrons cannot jump
from valence band to conduction band.
 Semiconductors
 The forbidden gap is very small. For Germanium it is 0.7 eV & for
Silicon it is 1.1 eV.
 The electrical properties of semiconductors lies between
conductors and insulators.
 At 0K, there are no free electrons in conduction band but
valence band is completely filled.
 When a small amount of energy is supplied, the electrons can
easily jump from valence band to conduction band , since the
forbidden gap is very small.
 Conductors
 In conductors, there is no forbidden gap, because the
valence band and conduction bands overlap each other.
 In the conduction band, plenty of free electrons are present
for electrical conduction.
 The electrons from valence band freely enter into the
conduction band.
 The total current in conductors is only due to the flow of
electrons.
 Energy Bands for, Insulator,
Semiconductor and Conductor
 Energy band structure in semiconductors

In a semiconductors, At 0K,
o The lower energy bands are completely filled.
o The higher energy bands are completely empty.
o The nearly upper filled band is called the valence band.
o The nearly lowest empty band is called the conduction band.
o The gap between valence band and conduction band is
called the band gap.
o The totally filled band and unfilled band do not conduct
current.
o The uppermost filled and lowermost unfilled only conduct
current in a semiconductor.
Energy band structure in semiconductors
 Band Gaps in Semiconductors

Based on the Band gap, semiconductors are classified into

o Direct band gap semiconductors
o Indirect band gap semiconductors
 Direct Band Gap Semiconductors

o The conduction band minima and the

valence band maxima occurs at the same

value of momentum.
o An electron from the conduction band
returns to the valence band without changing
its momentum and releases energy in the
form of light (photons).
o These direct band gap materials are the
efficient sources of light such as LEDs, Lasers
etc.
 Indirect Band Gap Semiconductors
o The conduction band minima and
valence band maxima occurs at different
momentum.
o The electrons from the conduction
band returns to the valence band with
varying momentum and releases energy
in the form of heat (phonons).
o These indirect band gap materials are
more efficient for making diodes,
transistors etc.
o Example: Silicon, Germanium.
 Importance of Direct & Indirect Band
Gap Semiconductors

The difference between direct and indirect band

structure is very important for deciding which semiconductors
can be used in devices requiring light output.
 Effective Mass in Semiconductors

The E-K relationship for the free electron is calculated and is

related to the electron mass.

Thus the electron energy is

parabolic with wave vector K.
 Effective Mass in Semiconductors

When an electron is moving inside the solid material the potential

field will affect the movement of electron. For low kinetic energy,
E = P / 2m*
Where P is the crystal momentum.
i.e. a conduction electron behaves as a particle with an effective
mass m*.
The effective mass of an electron (m*) in a band is given as

o m* reflects the periodic potential and the

motion of an electron.
o m* is inversely proportional to the second
derivative of E – K diagram.
 Effective Mass in Semiconductors

For a free electron if m* = m, the conduction band energy of an

electron in K- space is given as,

If this is compared with m*, it shows that the effective mass is

constant in the parabolic band.

Hence the conduction band effective mass is directly related to

the band gap energy. i.e. if the band gap is small then the
effective mass is also small. Hence the effective mass of an
electron differs from band to band and also depends on the
nature of the bond.