Department of Hydraulic and Water Resources Engineering

KOIT, Wollo University

Lecture Notes
Course Code: WRIE3154
Course Title: Basics of Hydropower Engineering
Chapter 2: Reading and
Target Group: G3_WRIE
Summarizing Assignment 2020

Lecturer: Endalkachew Y.,

E-mail: eyeshewas@gmail.com
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 Reading and Summary Assignment

Write a summery note about this lecture Note. Your assignment

should be approximately 1-2 pages.
• The first page should summarize the lecture note.
• The second page should write what you understand of the
lecture note (including chapter 1 and this reading lecture
note) .
Successful assignments will be typed and double-spaced, with
one-inch margins and 12 point font. The assignment will count
toward your final “Section Assignments Grade’’.
 Definition:
 Hydropower engineering refers to the technology involved in
converting the pressure energy and kinetic energy of water into more
easily used electrical energy.
 The prime mover in the case of hydropower is a water wheel or
hydraulic turbine which transforms the energy of the water into
mechanical energy.
 Sources of water power?

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 History of Water Power
 Greek poet Antipater (400 B.C.) refers to energy of falling water
 ~200 B.C., Egyptians were grinding grain with horizontal water mills
 Technology from the Persians (Iran/Iraq), who may have gotten it from
China
 By the First Century, the wheels were turned to operate vertically
(horizontal axis) at much better efficiency
 About 1800, water mills were common in Europe
 In 1820s, Benoit Furneyron invented the turbine
 First electric power of 12 kW on Fox River, Appleton Wisconsin, 1882

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 1.1 Types of developments
 In studying the subject of hydropower engineering, it is important to
understand the different types of development. The following
classification system are commonly used:
 Operational feature
 Basis of operation
 Purpose of development
 Uses to meet the demand for electrical power
 Hydraulic feature
 Plant capacity
 Operational head

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 Operational feature
 Run-of-river developments:
 The normal flow of the river is not disturbed
 There is no significant storage
 A weir or barrage is built across a river and the low
head created is used to generate power
 Power house is in the main course of river
 Preferred in perennial rivers with moderate to high
discharge, flat slope, little sediment and stable reach of
a river.

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 Operational feature
 Diversion and canal developments:
 Power canal or tunnel diverts water from main stream channel
 Powerhouse is provided at suitable location along the stretch of canal or tunnel
 Water from power house is returned to main stream by tailrace channel
 Short term pondage/storaged requirement is met through a pool called fore
bay in the case of diversion canals and by means of a surge tank in case of
diversion tunnel

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 Operational feature
 Storage regulation developments: An extensive impoundment at the power
plant or at reservoirs upstream of the power plant permits changing the flow of the
river by storing water during high-flow periods to augment the water available
during the low-flow periods, thus supplying the demand for energy in a more
efficient manner.
 Valley Dam Types of Hydropower Plants are storage regulation
development type that have their powerhouse immediately at the toe of the
dam. The head difference between the reservoir water surface and the tail water
level is characterized by its variability depending on the reservoir’s storage
conditions.

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 Operational feature
 Tidal power developments: In some estuaries, tidal power can be economically
harnessed to develop electric energy.

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 Basis of operation/Purpose
 Basis of Operation:
 Off-grid (isolated) plant operating independently
 In a grid system: Plant operating as part of the interconnected grid system. In
this system, a particular power plant may serve as a base load plant or as a peak
load plant. Hydropower plants are best suited as peak load plants, because
hydropower plants can start relatively quickly and can thus accept load quickly.
 Purpose
 Single-purpose developments: The water is used only for the purpose of
producing electricity.
 Multipurpose developments: Hydropower production is just one of many
purposes for which the water resources are used. Other uses might include, for
example, irrigation, flood control, navigation, municipal, and industrial water
supply.

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 Hydraulic feature
 Conventional Hydro-plants
 Use normally available hydraulic energy of the flow of river
 Run-off-river plant, diversion plant, storage plant
 Pumped-storage plants
 Use the concept of recycling the same water
 Normally used in areas with shortage of water
 It has a function of indirect energy storage
 Unconventional Hydro-plants
 Tidal power plant (Use the tidal energy of seawater)
 Depression power plants
 Energy generated by diverting water into a low lying depression
 Tailwater to be absorbed by evaporation
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 Basis of uses
Uses to meet the demand for electrical power:
 Base-load developments: When the energy from a hydropower plant is used to
meet all or part of the sustained and essentially constant portion of the electrical load or
firm power requirements, it is called a base-load plant. Energy available essentially at all
times is referred to as firm power.
 Peak-load development: Peak demands for electric power occur daily, weekly, and
seasonally. Plants in which the electrical production capacity is relatively high and the
volume of water discharged through the units can be changed readily are used to meet
peak demands. Storage of the water supply is necessary.

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13
 Plant capacity and head
 Plant capacity: Usually this type of classification is arbitrary: for
example:
 Micro hydro < 100 kW
 Mini hydro < 1000 kW
 Small to Medium < 60 MW
 Large Hydro > 60 MW
 Classification based on head too arbitrary:
 Low head plants < 15 m
 Medium head plants 15 – 50 m
 High head plants 50-250 m
 Very high head plants > 250 m

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Contents
1. Hydraulic Theory
2. Hydrologic analysis for hydropower
3. Flow Duration Analysis
4. Other Hydrologic Considerations
 2.1 Hydraulic theory
 Energy-work approach:
 Work (W) = Force x Distance in the direction of force
 Work = weight of water x the distance it falls

W   wVw gh
• Where: ρw is density of water; g- acceleration due to gravity; Vw-
volume of water falling; h- the vertical distance the water falls.
• It is conventional in hydropower computations to treat h as the
effective head that is utilized in producing power.
 • Effective head (h) is the difference between
energy head at the entrance to the turbine
and the energy head at the exit of the draft
tube.

 The h has been purposely designated as slightly below the headwater or

fore-bay level. Hence, in the Figure, the losses of head in the water moving
through the penstock to the entrance of the turbine have been accounted
for in positioning the elemental cube.
  Power (P) = Work / time

W  wVw gh
P    wQgh
t t
Vw
Note Q 
t
• Where Q is discharge.
• P is in watt. To compare kilowatts and horsepower remember that:
Pkw  0.746 Php
  Energy Equation Approach
 Mathematical development in terms of energy grade lines and hydraulic grade lines,
using the Energy Equation.
v12 p1 v22 p2
  z1    z 2  h f  Cons .
2g  2g 
• where V1 = water velocity at point 1
• p1 = pressure at point 1
• γ = ρg = specific weight of water
• Z1 = potential head at point 1 referenced to the
datum
• V2 =water velocity at point 2
• p2 =pressure at point 2
• Z2 =potential head at point 2
• hf = head loss in flow passage between points 1
and 2
 Referring to the Figure, the Energy
equation for a hydropower
installation is first written between
point 1 at the surface of the fore-bay
and point 2 at the entrance to the
turbine as

v12 p1 v22 p2
  z1    z 2  h f ...(1)
2g  2g 
 Then the Energy equation is written between points 2 and 3, the surface of
the water at the exit to the draft tube:

v22 p2 v32 p3
  z2    z3  h...( 2)
2g  2g 
 Where h is effective head on the turbine
 Recognizing that for practical purposes V1, p1, and p3 are equal to zero, then
solving for p2/γ in Eq. 1, the result is:

p2 v22
 z1   z 2  h f ...(3)
 2g
v22 p2 v32 v22  v22  v32
h   z2   z3  
 z1   z2  h f 
  z 2  2 g  z3
2g  2g 2g  2g 
v32
h  z1  z3  h f  ...(4)
2g
 Because the Energy equation defines terms in units of Kilogram –meter per
Kilogram of water flowing through the system, it should be recognized that the
Weight of water flowing through the turbine per unit of time by definition is
ρgQ.
 Now recognizing that energy per unit of time is power, it is simple to calculate by
multiplying Eq. (4) and ρgQ or γQ to obtain the theoretical power delivered by the water
to the turbine as γQh which is the theoretical power
2.2 Hydrology of hydropower
 Hydrology is the study of the occurrence, movement and distribution of water
on, above, and within the earth's surface.
 Parameters necessary in making hydropower studies are water discharge
(Q) and hydraulic head (h). The measurement and analyses of these parameters
are primarily hydrologic problems.
 Determination of the head for a proposed hydropower plant is a surveying
problem that identifies elevations of water surfaces as they are expected to
exist during operation of the hydropower plant.
2.2 ctd.
 In some reconnaissance studies, good contour maps may be sufficient to
determine the value for the hydraulic head.
 Because the headwater elevation and tail-water elevations of the
impoundment can vary with stream flow, it is frequently necessary to develop
headwater and tail-water curves that show variation with time, river discharge, or
operational features of the hydropower project.
 2.3 Flow duration analysis
 Flow Duration Curves: is a plot of flow
versus the percent of time a particular 140

flow can be expected to be equaled or 120

exceeded. 100

Discharge in m3/s
 A flow duration curve merely reorders 80

the flows in order of magnitude instead 60

of the true time ordering of flows in a 40

flow versus time plot. 20

0
0 20 40 60 80 100
Exceedence in %
Flow…
 Flow duration curve, very often, plotted using the average monthly values of the flow.
 The capacity estimate for firm power is then made by using the entire recorded flow
data and plotting in a single flow duration curve.

CENG 6803
 In such a case two different methods are in use.
(i) the total period /rank ordered method, and
(ii) the calendar year/ Class - interval method.
 Both methods utilize the flow data available for the entire period for which records are
available.

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 Flow…
 Total period method/Rank ordered Method:
 Considers a total time series of flows that represent equal increments of time for
each measurement value, such as mean daily, weekly, or monthly flows, and
ranks the flows according to magnitude.

CENG 6803
 The entire available record is used for drawing the FDC. Thus, ten years’ record
would produce 120 values of monthly average flows.
 These are first tabulated in the ascending order starting from the driest
month in the entire period and ending with the wettest month of the ten-
year duration.

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Flow…
 The rank-ordered values are assigned individual order numbers, the
smallest beginning with order 1. The order numbers are then divided
by the total number in the record and multiplied by 100 to obtain the
percent of time that the mean flow has been equaled or exceeded
during the period of record being considered.
 The flow value is then plotted versus the respective computed equaled
or exceeded percentage.
 For the 10 year example the FDC would then be drawn with the help of
120 values.
Flow…
 Calendar year method/Class Interval Method: each year’s/interval average
monthly/interval values are first arranged in ascending order.
 Then the average flow values corresponding to the driest year, second
driest year, and so on up to the wettest month are found out by taking
arithmetic mean of all values of the same rank. These average values are
then used for plotting flow duration curve.
 Such a curve for example would have only ten points for the ten year
example.
 The class-interval technique: is slightly different in that the time series of
flow values are categorized into class intervals. The classes range from the
highest flow value to the lowest value in the time series.
Flow…
 A tally is made of the number of flows in each, and by summation the
number of values greater than a given upper limit of the class can be
determined.
 The number of flows greater than the upper limit of a class interval can be
divided by the total number of flow values in the data series to obtain the
equaled or exceeded percentage.
 The value of the flow for the particular upper limit of the class interval is
then plotted versus the computed equaled or exceeded percent.
 The total period/rank ordered method gives more correct results than the calendar
year method which averages out extreme events.
 Naturally, the longer the record, the more statistically valuable the
information that results.
Characteristics of Flow Duration Curves
 The flow duration curve (FDC) shows how flow is distributed over a period (usually a year).

 A steep flow duration curve implies a flashy catchment – one which is subject to extreme floods and
droughts.
 Factors which cause a catchment to be flashy are:
 Rocky, shallow soil,
 Lack of vegetation cover,
 Steep, short streams,
 Uneven rainfall (frequent storms, long dry periods).

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Flow…
 Such type of FDC (i.e. steep) is not suitable for hydropower
development (especially run-of-river type).
 A flat flow duration curve is good because it means that the total
annual flow will be spread more evenly over the year, giving a useful
flow for longer periods, and less severe floods.
 The selection of the time interval for FDC depends on the purpose of the study.
 As the time interval increases the range of the curve decreases.
 While daily flow rates of small storms are useful for the pondage studies in a run-off river
power development plant, monthly flow rates for a number of years are useful in power
development plants from a large storage reservoir

•The flow duration curve is actually a river

discharge frequency curve and the longer the
period of record, the more accurate is the
indication of the long term yield of a stream

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 Since the area under the curve represents the volume of flow, the storage will
affect the flow duration curve as shown
by the dashed line in the Fig.; i.e., reducing the extreme flows and increasing
the very low flows.

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 Discharge capacity of a plant
 Discharge capacity (Qc) of a plant is the discharge the plant can pass at its
full gate opening of the runner(s) of the turbine(s) under design head.

CENG 6803
140 • A flow duration curve is used
120 to explain discharge capacity
100
(Qc) as labeled in the Figure.
Even though to the left of
Discharge in m3/s

80
that point on the duration
60 curve the stream discharge is
40
greater, it is not possible to
Qc pass the higher discharges
20
through the plant.
0 35
0 20 40 60 80 100
Exceedence in %
 Extrapolation of Flow Duration Data to Un-gauged
Sites
 Method 1 (Gladwell, et al. 1978):
Useful in regions where stream
flow does not vary directly with
the area of the contributing
drainage.
 The procedure is to make plots of
flow duration curves for all gauged
streams within a drainage basin, as
shown in the Fig.A.

Figure A
 Develop a family of parametric
duration curves in which flow (Q) is
plotted against the average annual
runoff (R), at the respective gauges for
several exceedance percentages. A
separate curve is developed for each
exceedance interval used.
 A correlation analysis is then
performed to obtain the best-fitting
curve for the data taken from the
measured records of stream flow. The
result is a parametric flow duration
curve such as the one shown in the
Figure.
Figure B
 Method 2, (Heitz, 1978): The values of flow for each flow duration for a given
exceedance point are divided by the average annual discharge, Q, to give a dimensionless
flow term. These are then plotted against the particular exceedance interval on
logarithmic probability paper as shown in the Figure (next slide) to give a dimensionless
flow duration curve.
 Then a best-fitting curve is developed for a particular area having homogeneous
hydrology so that a single curve results that relates a characteristic dimensionless flow
term to the exceedance percentage.
 It is easy to recognize that at the limits of the curve the reliability of the curve is
questionable because the number of values are minimal and these outlier values are the
unusual occurrences of flash floods or extremely low flows.
Figure C
Determination of Average Annual Discharge
 To use the parametric flow duration curves effectively, it is necessary
to determine the average annual discharge, Q, at the point or location
on the stream for which a hydropower analysis is to be made.
 A procedure for making that determination follows.
 First an accurate isohyetal map of normal annual precipitation (NAP) of
the river basin involved must be obtained or developed. Isohyetal maps
contain lines representing equal precipitation for a geographic region.
 Care should be taken that the map represents the same period of record as
the stream flow data for which flow duration data are available and
needed.
 Then, utilizing the records of average annual precipitation input to the basins at
measured streams nearby or having similar hydrologic characteristics, a runoff
coefficient is estimated for the drainage basin being studied. This value can be
rather subjective in determination and thus represents a place for making a
considerable error.
 Much care should be exercised in estimating the annual runoff coefficient. The
product of this coefficient and the computed normal annual precipitation input to
the basin and the basin area can be used to calculate the average annual discharge
using the formula:
 Q = kPA,
 Where Q is average annual discharge
 k is annual runoff coefficient as a decimal value
 P is weighted average annual precipitation
 A is drainage area
  Given: A stream location on the Clearwater River in Idaho has been identified for making
a hydropower analysis. The location is at a point where no stream flow record is available.
A parametric flow duration curve has been developed for the streams in the river basin
being studied and is shown in Fig. B. A normal-annual precipitation map showing the
isohyetal lines is presented in Fig. D. The planimetering of the respective areas between
isohyetal lines for the map areas of Fig. B is indicated in Table Below and an annual runoff
coefficient based on the work of Emmert (1979) has been estimated to be 0.73.

Designation P b/n Isohytal lines (in) Planimeterd area on map (in2) % of total area
A 60 0.46 1.24
B 60 8.16 22.01
C 55 27.41 73.92
D 50 1.05 2.83
Total 37.08 100
 C

B  Required: Determine the

average annual discharge at the
B
marked location and develop
A C
D
ordinate values for a flow
duration curve at the site
B
designated.

Figure D: Normal-annual-precipitation map

 Analysis and solution: First, determine average annual precipitation input to basin using data
from the above table.
PA AA  PB AB  PC AC  PD AD
P   56.02in
AA  AB  AC  AD

 Convert this to volume units of runoff per year R. The map used had a scale of 1: 250,000, so
56.02  37.08  250000 2 10 ft
3
ft3
R  0.73  5.485  10  1739
144  12 yr s
 Because the parametric flow duration curve was developed on the basis of average annual
runoff expressed in (ft3/sec)(day) units, it is necessary to convert to R(ft3/sec)(day) which is
done by multiplying by 365 (the number of days in year), so: 1739 x 365 = 643.7
 Entering the parametric flow duration curve of Fig. C or using the regression equation for
each specified exceedance percentage, it is possible to arrive at the following values for the
ordinates of a specific flow duration curve for flow at the outflow station designated on Fig.
D:
 Q95 = 240; Q80 = 360, Q50= 690, Q30 = 1468, Q10= 5214 ft3/sec
 2.4 Other hydrologic considerations
 Tail water Relationships: As releases of
water over spillways and any other releases into
the stream immediately below a hydropower
plant are made, the tail water elevation below
Elevation (m amsl)

the outlet to the turbines will fluctuate.

Therefore, it is important to develop a tail
water elevation versus river discharge curve
over the complete range of flow that is to be
expected.
0
Discharge
20 40
m3/s 60 80 100
2.4 Ctd.
 Area capacity curves: Most hydropower
developments involve an impoundment behind a
dam. As the water in storage in the impoundment
is released the headwater elevation changes and
this will influence the design of the plant and the
pattern of operation. Therefore, it is
necessary to have a storage volume versus
impoundment surface elevation curve.
Area-Capacity curve
2.4 ctd.
 Reservoir Rule Curves: When releases from reservoirs are made, the
schedule of releases is often dictated by considerations other than just
meeting the flow demands for power production. The needs for
municipal water supply, for flood control, and for downstream use
dictate certain restraints. The restraints are conventionally taken care
of by developing reservoir operation rule curves that can guide
operating personnel in making necessary changes in reservoir water
releases.
2.4 ctd.
 Evaporation Loss Evaluation: Where there is an impoundment involved in a
hydropower development there is need to assess the effect of evaporation loss
from the reservoir surface.
 Spillway Design Flood Analysis: Many hydropower developments require a
dam or a diversion that blocks the normal river flow. This then requires that
provisions be made for passing flood flows. Spillway design flood analysis treats a
unique type of hydrology that concerns the occurrence of rare events of extreme
flooding. It is customary on larger dams and dams where failure might cause a
major disaster to design the spillway to pass the probable maximum flood. For
small dams, spillways are designed to pass a standard project flood.