Encyclopedia of Science Education

DOI 10.1007/978-94-007-6165-0_128-2
# Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 2014

Problem-Based Learning (PBL)

Synonyms
Deep learning; Group work; Solving problems

Problem-based learning (PBL) represented a major and widespread change in educational practice
within higher education when introduced into McMaster University and Case Western Reserve
Medical Schools during the 1960s (Barrows 2007). The teaching and learning strategy spread during
the 1970s into medical schools in Newcastle (Australia), Maastricht (Netherlands), and New Mexico
Universities. Since then problem-based learning has spread across the world and is currently
practiced intermittently across the United States, Canada, Europe, Singapore, and Australia. From
beginnings in medical schools, problem-based learning has been introduced into all of the health
sciences, engineering, business, science, and education. Increasing uptake of problem-based learn-
ing (which differs from problem solving) occurred because it was considered a means to engage
students in deep rather than surface learning and was viewed as a successful strategy to align
university courses with the real-life professional work students were expected to undertake on
graduation.
Problem-based learning is considered “problem-first learning” because it is the problem which
defines the learning. Instructors design problems to represent authentic, real-world situations or
issues likely to be addressed in the work place on graduation. Typically, students in small groups
work through the problem to decide on the information and skills they will need to investigate the
issues identified and strive to resolve the situation. Often the problem involves collaboration
between disciplines so that students are required to build on current knowledge to synthesize then
integrate new information. Instructors monitor group processes and facilitate student learning.
However, students themselves are responsible for the learning that occurs within the group.
Generally standard problems developed in education programs are well constructed so that all
elements of the problem are clear from the outset and there is a preferred process to arrive at the
correct conclusion. In a shift from this format, problems crafted for problem-based learning are ill
structured and vague, where students define the elements of the problem and there are often
alternative pathways to alternative solutions. Throughout this student-centered and self-directed
process, students collaborate to share their knowledge and reflect on their learning and assessment
(Azer 2008). Contemporary examples of ill-constructed problems suitable for problem-based
learning include those centered on policy (fixing a price on carbon emissions), engineering design
(processing gas onshore or offshore), and ethical dilemmas (levels of support to refugees).
On beginning a problem-based learning task, students work in small groups of four to eight, which
may be self-selected or allocated by the facilitator. Students often underestimate the importance of
negotiating group protocols so this is the initial priority before identifying the learning outcomes and
sharing their prior knowledge. They are then able to determine gaps in their collective knowledge
and plan strategies to obtain further information they perceive as required. Regular group

*Email: coral.pepper@iinet.net.au

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Encyclopedia of Science Education
DOI 10.1007/978-94-007-6165-0_128-2
# Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 2014

conversations occur, and during the process students commonly reassess the requirements of the task
as their collective knowledge increases so that their learning focus may alter. Throughout problem-
based learning, facilitators participate to support student learning without directing or providing all
of the information for the students. On completion of the task, students provide a summary of their
learning for assessment. This may take the form of oral presentations, formal reports, or executive
summaries. It is appropriate also to include an element of peer assessment.
Modern insights on learning emphasize four elements of learning: that learning should be
constructive, self-directed, collaborative, and contextual. The problem-based learning strategy
meets each of these criteria. Researchers supporting problem-based learning describe many benefits
gained by engaging in the strategy. The first of these is to increase students’ own engagement in
learning with them experiencing deep learning rather than surface learning. This is due to the
alignment of teaching and learning activities and between curricular objectives and the assessment
tasks. Students are also perceived as taking greater responsibility for their own learning by deciding
on the information and skills they require to investigate problems and then synthesizing new
information to provide solutions to those problems. While high-achieving students are often hesitant
to welcome group work, many warm to problem-based learning after experiencing the student-
centered focus and the opportunities to pursue group interests. Small group work also contributes to
reducing student dropout because it encourages them to share and elaborate their prior knowledge,
share responsibility for group goals, and engage in learning in a social context.
As a teaching and learning strategy characterized by flexibility and diversity, it is implemented in
a variety of ways in different disciplines in diverse contexts. (Savin-Baden 2003; Savin-Baden and
Howell Major 2004) Typically medical courses use problem-based learning case studies where
a multifaceted problem is posed in place of a series of traditional lectures on sequential topics
throughout a learning program. Clinical courses are often restructured and the entire curriculum
remapped for the problem-based learning approach. (Barrows 2007) Engineering students are
frequently exposed to problem-based learning in the form of project work during their final years
of study, and science students are regularly introduced to problem-based learning to complete
assessment tasks within their studies. In addition a simplified version of problem-based learning
has been introduced into primary and secondary school settings in recent years, although in these
contexts a fundamental aspect of much tertiary PBL is changed. In school contexts there are no
forms of professional/work contexts that have the same shared immediacy for students as is the case
in most tertiary contexts.

Cross-References
▶ Authentic Assessment
▶ Authentic Science
▶ Communities of Practice
▶ Cooperative Learning
▶ Problem Solving in Science Learning

References
Azer S (2008) Navigating problem-based learning. Elsevier, Marrickville
Barell JF (2007) Problem-based learning: an inquiry approach. Sage, Thousand Oaks

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Encyclopedia of Science Education
DOI 10.1007/978-94-007-6165-0_128-2
# Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 2014

Barrows HS (2007) Problem-based learning in medicine and beyond: a brief overview. In:
Wilkerson L, Gijselaers W (eds) Bring problem-based learning to higher education: theory and
practice, vol 68. Jossey-Bass, San Francisco, pp 3–12
Savin-Baden M (2003) Facilitating problem-based learning: illuminating perspectives. SRHE and
Open University Press, Berkshire
Savin-Baden M, Howell Major C (2004) Foundations of problem-based learning. Open University
Press, Berkshire

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