Unit–II: Quantum Mechanics Physics for Biotechnology

Unit–II QUANTUM MECHANICS

Introduction to Quantum mechanics-Wave nature of Particles- de-Broglie hypothesis –

Matter waves – Time dependent and time independent Schrodinger equation for wave
function- Applications: Particle in a box (one dimensional and three dimensional) -
Uncertainty principle and its applications- Electron microscope: Scanning electron
microscope.

2.1 Introduction

Laws of thermodynamics and classical laws of electricity and magnetism provide the
basis for explanation of all phenomena in classical physics. It was general belief of the scientists
that these laws would suffice to account for any subsequent discovered phenomena. Classical
mechanics successfully explained the motion of the objects, which are directly observable.
When the objects are not observable, then the concept of classical mechanics cannot be
applied. The phenomena in the realm of the atoms, nuclei and elementary particles are
commonly referred to as quantum phenomena and subject matter containing all these phenomena
constitutes what is known as Quantum Physics. The Classical mechanics is not adequate to
explain the motion of the atomic particles like electrons, protons etc.

Many examples for the failure of classical mechanics are,

 Black body radiation

 Specific heat of solids
 Theory of atomic structure
 Photo- electric effect
 Compton Effect
To explain the failures of classical mechanics, the quantum theory was developed.

2.2 Black body radiation

A perfect black body is the one which absorbs and emits all the radiation (corresponding
to all wavelengths) that fall on it. The radiation given out by a perfect black body is called black
body radiation.

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2.3 De-Broglie Wavelength and Properties of Matter Waves

De-Broglie Hypothesis
The universe is made of radiation and particles. The light exhibits the dual nature it can
behave both as a wave (interference, diffraction phenomenon) and as a particle (photo electric
effect and Compton effect).
The waves associated with a material particle are called matter waves.
Let us consider a photon behaves as a wave has energy is given by
E = hν − − − − − (1)

Where h – Planck’s constant

ν - frequency of radiation
the same photon is considered as a particle of mass ‘m’ moving with a velocity ‘c’ and it has
energy from Einstein’s mass energy relation
E = mc2− − − − −(2)
Comparing Eq(1) and Eq(2)
hγ = mc2

We know that γ = c / λ

hc / λ = mc2

h
𝜆= − − − − − (3)
𝑚𝑐

h
𝜆= − − − − − (4)
𝑃
Where P = mc is the momentum of the particle moving with the velocity of the light. The
above equation (3) is called De-Broglie wavelength equation.
De-Broglie suggested that above equation is valid for material particle also. Consider a
particle of mass ‘m’ moving with a velocity ‘v’ has the de-Broglie wavelength is given by
h h
𝜆= = − − − − − (5)
𝑃 𝑚𝑣
Where P = mv

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(i) De-Broglie Wavelength interms of Energy

Let us consider a particle of mass ‘m’ moving with a velocity ‘v’. Hence the kinetic
energy of the particle E = ½ m v2.
Multiply ‘m’ on both sidesmE = ½ m2 v2.

2mE = m2 v2

2mE = p2

𝑝 = √2𝑚𝐸

h
We know that the De-Broglie wavelength 𝜆 =
𝑃

𝒉
De-Broglie wavelength 𝝀 =
√𝟐𝒎𝑬

(ii) De-Broglie Wavelength associated with electrons

If a charged particle of charge ‘e’ is accelerated through a potential difference ‘V’.

Therefore the kinetic energy of the particle is given by E = ½ m v2.
The work done on the charged particle (say electron) = eV
We know that
work done by the charged particle= kinetic energy of the charged particle
eV = ½ m v 2 .
2eV = m v 2 .
Multiply by ‘m’ on both sides meV = m2 v 2
2meV = p2
p = √2meV

ℎ
We know that the De-Broglie wavelength 𝜆 =
𝑝

ℎ
𝜆=
√2𝑚𝑒𝑉
If the charged particle is electron hence
Mass of the electron m = 9.11 X10-31 kg

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Charge of an electron e = 1.602 X 10-19 C

Planck’s constant h = 6.625 X 10-34Js

6.625 𝑋10−34
𝜆=
√2X9.11X10−31 X1.602X10−19 XV

𝟏𝟐. 𝟐𝟓
𝝀= Å
√𝐕

Properties of Matter waves

 Matter waves are not electromagnetic waves. They are entirely different waves

 Lighter particles will have high wavelength.

 Particles moving with a lesser velocity will have higher wavelength.

 The velocity of matter waves are not constant, it depends on the velocity of the particle.

 The velocity of matter waves may be greater than the velocity of light.

 Matter waves are independent of charge. Thus, they are produced by both charged and

uncharged particles.

2.4 Schroedinger’s wave equations

Schrodinger describes the wave nature of a particle in mathematical form and is known as

schroedinger’s wave equations. There are two types of wave equations

1. Time independent wave equation

2. Time dependent wave equation.

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(i) Time independent Wave Equation

Consider a system of stationary waves associated with a particle. Let x,y,z be the co-
ordinates of the particle and ψ be a wave function of the particle, which represents the position of
the particle at any time.
The classical differential equation of a wave motion is given by

𝜕2ψ 𝜕2ψ 𝜕2ψ 1 𝜕2ψ

+ + =
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑧 2 𝑣 2 𝜕𝑡 2

2
1 𝜕2ψ
𝛻 ψ = 2 2 − − − − − − − − − (1)
𝑣 𝜕𝑡
Where
𝜕2 𝜕2 𝜕2
𝛻2 = + + 𝒊𝒔 𝒂 𝒍𝒂𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒄𝒊𝒂𝒏 𝒐𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒐𝒓
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑧 2

The solution of equation (1) is given by

ψ (x,y,z, t) = ψ0 e-iωt− − − − −(2)
Where, ω is the angular frequency.

Differentiating Equation (2) with respect to time we have

∂ψ
= 𝜓0 𝑒 −iωt(– 𝑖ω) − − − − − −(3)
𝜕𝑡
Differentiating Equation (3) with respect to time we have

𝜕2 ψ
= 𝜓0 𝑒 −iωt (– 𝑖ω)2 − − − − − (4)
𝜕𝑡 2

𝜕2 ψ
= −ω2 𝜓 − − − − − − − − − (5)
𝜕𝑡 2

Therefore Equation (1) becomes

−ω2 𝜓
𝛻 2ψ =
𝑣2

2
ω2
𝛻 ψ + 2 𝜓 = 0 − − − − − (6)
v

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We know that the angular frequency ω = 2пν

ω = 2п v / λ
ω / v = 2п / λ
(ω / v)2 = 4п2 / λ2− − −(7)

Substituting Equation (7) in Equation (6) we have

2
4π2
𝛻 ψ+ 𝜓 = 0 − − − − − − (8)
λ2
From De-Broglie matter waves
h
𝜆=
𝑚𝑣

4π2
Therefore Equation (8) becomes 𝛻 2 ψ + 2 𝜓=0
h
(mv)

2
2
4m2 v 2 π
𝛻 ψ+ 𝜓 = 0 − − − − − −(9)
h2

A particle can behave as a wave only under motion. So it should be accelerated by a

potential field. Therefore the total energy of the particle is equal to sum of its potential energy
and its kinetic energy.
E = V + ½ m v2

E - V = ½ m v2

2 (E – V) = m v2
Multiply ‘m’ on both sides
2m (E – V) = m2 v2− − − − −(10)

Substituting equation (10) in equation (9) we get

4π2 2m(E − V)
𝛻 2ψ + 𝜓=0
h2

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𝟐𝐦(𝐄 − 𝐕)
𝜵𝟐 𝛙 + 𝝍 = 𝟎 − − − − − −(11)
ћ𝟐
ℎ
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 ћ = 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑟𝑒𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑘 ′ 𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡.
2π

The above equation (11) is called the Schrodinger’s time independent wave equation. In one
dimension it can be written as

𝐝𝟐 𝛙 𝟐𝐦(𝐄 − 𝐕)
+ 𝝍 = 𝟎 − − − − − (12)
𝐝𝐱 𝟐 ћ𝟐

For a free particle potential energy (V =0) is zero then equation (12) becomes

𝐝𝟐 𝛙 𝟐𝐦𝐄
+ 𝟐 𝝍 = 𝟎 − − − − − − − −(13)
𝐝𝐱 𝟐 ћ

(ii)Time dependent Wave Equation

Time dependent Schrodinger wave equation is derived from Schrödinger time

independent wave equation. Consider a system of stationary waves associated with a particle. Let
x, y and z be the co-ordinates of the particle and ψ be a wave function of the particle, which
represents the position of the particle at any time.
The classical differential equation of a wave motion is given by

𝜕2ψ 𝜕2ψ 𝜕2ψ 1 𝜕2ψ

+ + =
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑧 2 𝑣 2 𝜕𝑡 2
1 𝜕2ψ
𝛻 2ψ = − − − − − − − −(1)
𝑣 2 𝜕𝑡 2
Where
𝜕2 𝜕2 𝜕2
𝛻2 = + + 𝒊𝒔 𝒂 𝒍𝒂𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒄𝒊𝒂𝒏 𝒐𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒐𝒓
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑧 2
The solution of equation (1) is given by
ψ (x,y,z, t) = ψ0 e-iωt− − − − −(2)
Where, ω is the angular frequency.

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Differentiating equation (2) with respect to time we have

∂ψ
= 𝜓0 𝑒 −iωt (– 𝑖ω) − − − − − − − −(3)
𝜕𝑡

We know that angular frequency ω = 2п ν and energy of the particle E = h ν

ν = E/h

Therefore ω = 2пE / h

𝐸
𝜔= − − − − − − − − − −(4)
ћ
Sub equation (4) in equation (3) we get
∂ψ 𝐸
= 𝜓0 𝑒 −iωt (– 𝑖 )
𝜕𝑡 ћ
Multiply by ‘i’ on both sides, we get
∂ψ 𝐸
𝑖 = 𝜓0 𝑒 −iωt (– 𝑖 2 )
𝜕𝑡 ћ

∂ψ 𝐸
𝑖 = ψ( )
𝜕𝑡 ћ

∂ψ
𝐸ψ = i ћ − − − − − −(5)
𝜕𝑡
We know that the Schroedinger’s time independent wave equation is given by

2m(E − V)
𝛻 2ψ + 𝜓=0
ћ2

2m
𝛻 2ψ + (𝐸𝜓 − 𝑉𝜓) = 0 − − − −(6)
ћ2
Substituting equation (5) in equation (6) we have
2m ∂ψ
𝛻 2ψ + 2
(iћ − 𝑉𝜓) = 0
ћ 𝜕𝑡
2m ∂ψ
𝛻 2ψ = − 2 ( i ћ − 𝑉𝜓)
ћ 𝜕𝑡

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ћ2 2 ∂ψ
− 𝛻 ψ= (iћ − 𝑉𝜓)
2m 𝜕𝑡

ћ2 2 ∂ψ
− 𝛻 ψ + 𝑉𝜓 = ( i ћ )
2m 𝜕𝑡

ћ2 2 ∂
(− 𝛻 + 𝑉) 𝜓 = ( i ћ ) ψ − − − (7)
2m 𝜕𝑡

Hψ=Eψ
ћ2 2
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝐻 = (− 𝛻 + 𝑉) 𝑖𝑠 𝐻𝑎𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑡𝑜𝑛𝑖𝑎𝑛 𝑂𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑛𝑑
2m

∂
𝐸 = (iћ ) 𝑖𝑠 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟
𝜕𝑡

The above equation (7) is the Schroedinger’s time dependent wave equation.

2.5 Wave function and its Physical significance (ψ)

Wave Function
In quantum mechanics it is postulated that there exists a function determined by the
physical situation. This function is called wave function. It is also postulated to contain all
possible information about the system. Hence, it is also called as state function
The wave function may vary with respect to both the position coordinates of the physical
system and the time. It is then called the total wave function and it is represented by a capital
form of a greek letter Ψ (Psi)
Mathermatically it is expressed as Ψ = A ei(kx-ωt)
Physical Significance of Wavefunction

 The variable quantity that characterize the de-Broglie wave is called wave function.
 The wave function represents the variations in the matter waves and it connects the
particle nature and its associated wave nature statistically.
 The wave function associated with a moving particle at a particular instant of time
and at a particular point in space is related to the probability of finding the particle at
that instant and at that point.

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 The probability 0 corresponds to the certainty of not finding the particle and
probability 1 corresponds to the certainty of finding the particle.

∭ 𝛙∗ 𝛙 𝐝𝛕 = 𝟏 𝐢𝐟 𝐩𝐚𝐫𝐭𝐢𝐜𝐥𝐞 𝐢𝐬 𝐩𝐫𝐞𝐬𝐞𝐧𝐭

∭ 𝛙∗ 𝛙 𝐝𝛕 = 𝟎 𝐢𝐟 𝐩𝐚𝐫𝐭𝐢𝐜𝐥𝐞 𝐢𝐬 𝐧𝐨𝐭 𝐩𝐫𝐞𝐬𝐞𝐧𝐭

 The wave function is a complex quantity that cannot be measured.

 The probability of finding a particle at particular region must be real and positive, but
the wave function ψ is in general a complex quantity.

2.6 Particle (Electron) enclosed in a one dimensional potential box

(Application of Schroedinger’s time independent Wave equation)

Figure 4.4 (a) Figure 4.4 (b)

Let us consider a particle of mass ‘m’ moving along x-axis enclosed in a one dimensional
potential box. The particle is confined between the length of the box ( l = a) and has elastic
collision with the walls of the box.
Therefore the potential energy of the particle inside the box is constant and it is assumed to be
zero for simplicity. We can say that the potential energy of the particle is infinite at the wall of
the box and outside the box.
So that the boundary conditions as follows
V(x) = 0 when 0 < x < a
V(x) = ∞ when 0 ≥ x ≥ a
To find the wave function of the particle with in the box of length ‘a’, let us consider the
schroedinger one dimensional time independent wave equation

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𝑑 2 ψ 2𝑚(𝐸 − 𝑉)
+ ψ = 0 − − − −(1)
𝑑𝑥 2 ћ2
Here inside the box potential energy is constant and it is taken as zero (V = 0)
Eq (1) becomes
𝑑 2 ψ 2𝑚𝐸
+ 2 ψ=0 − − − −(2)
𝑑𝑥 2 ћ
2𝑚𝐸
𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑢𝑠 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒 𝐾 2 =
ћ2
Equation (2) can be written as
𝑑2ψ
+ 𝐾 2 ψ = 0 − − − −(3)
𝑑𝑥 2

The equation (3) is the second order differential equation, it has the solution
ψ (x) = A sin Kx + B cos Kx− − − − (4)
Where A and B are called as arbitrary constants

Now we apply the boundary conditions

Boundary condition 1: At x = 0 and ψ (x) = 0

Equation (4) becomes, 0 = A sin K(0) + B cos K(0)
B= 0
Boundary condition 2: At x = a and ψ (x) = 0
Equation (4) becomes, 0 = A sin Ka + B cos Ka (B cos Ka = 0 ;
Because B=0)
A sin Ka = 0
Sin Ka = 0 because A≠0
Ka = sin-1(0)
Ka = nп
K = nп / a − − − − − − −(5)
Substituting the values of B and K in equation (4)
𝑛𝜋 𝑛𝜋
𝜓𝑛 (𝑥 ) = 𝐴 sin 𝑥 + 𝐵𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥
𝑎 𝑎

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𝑛𝜋
𝜓𝑛 (𝑥) = 𝐴 sin 𝑥 − − − −(6)
𝑎
The above Eq(6) is called Eigen function or wave function of the particle in a one dimensional
box.
Eigen value or energy of the particle:
We know that
2mE
K2 = − − − − − − − (7)
ћ2
And
nπ
K=
a

n2 π2
K2 = − − − − − − − (8)
a2

Comparing equation (7) and equation (8)

2mE n2 π2
= 2
ћ2 a
2mE 4π2 n2 π2
= 2
h2 a
n2 h 2
En = − − − − − − − (9)
8ma2

The above equation (9) is called Eigen value of the particle.

Energy levels:

We know that energy of the particle inside box is given by

n2 h 2
En =
8ma2
For n= 1
For n = 2
22 h2
E2 = = 4E
8ma2
For n = 3
32 h2
E3 = = 9E etc.,
8ma2
In general
Figure 4.5
En = n2 E

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From the above we conclude that the energy levels of the particles are discrete. This is
the great success of the quantum mechanics.

Normalization of the Wave Function

Normalization is the process by which the probability (P) of finding the particle
(electron) inside the box can be done.
We know that the total probability (P) is equal to 1 means then there is a particle inside the box.
For a one dimensional potential box of length ’l’ the probability
𝑎
𝑃 = ∫ |𝜓|2 𝑑𝑥 = 1 − − − − − (10)
0

Substituting equation (6) in equation (10), we get

𝑎 𝑛𝜋𝑥
𝑃 = ∫0 𝐴2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑑𝑥 = 1
𝑎
𝑎
1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝑛𝜋𝑥/𝑎
𝑃 = 𝐴2 ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = 1
0 2
sin 2𝑛𝜋𝑥
𝐴2 𝑥 𝑎
𝑃= [ − 2𝑛𝜋 ]=1
2 2
𝑎
We know sin n  0 and sin 2n  0
 Equation (11) can be written as

A2l
1 Figure 4.6
2
A 2  a2
A 2
a

Substituting the value of ‘A’ in Equation (6) we get

2 nx
 ( x)  sin      (11)
a a
The above equation (11) gives the normalized wave function of a particle in a one dimensional
box.

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2.6.1 Particle in a three dimensional potential box (Extension to 3D)

The solution of one-dimensional potential box can be extended for a three dimensional
potential box. In a three dimensional potential box, the particle (electron) can move in any
direction in space. Therefore instead of one quantum number ‘n’ , we have to use three quantum
number nx,ny, nz corresponding to the three coordinate axis x,y, z respectively. If a,b, c are the
length of the box along the x, y z axis respectively.

The energy of the particle = Ex + Ey+ Ez

𝒏𝒙 𝟐 𝒉𝟐 𝒏𝒚 𝟐 𝒉𝟐 𝒏𝒛 𝟐 𝒉𝟐
𝑬𝒙,𝒚,𝒛 = + +
𝟖𝒎𝒂𝟐 𝟖𝒎𝒃𝟐 𝟖𝒎𝒄𝟐
If a = b = c for a cubical box
ℎ2
𝐸𝑥,𝑦,𝑧 = (𝑛 2 + 𝑛𝑦 2 + 𝑛𝑧 2 ) − − − − − −(1)
8𝑚𝑎2 𝑥

The corresponding normalized wave function of an electron in a cubical box can be written as
2 2 2 𝒏𝒙 𝝅𝒙 𝒏𝒚 𝝅𝒚 𝒏𝒛 𝝅𝒛
𝜓𝒏𝒙𝒏𝒚𝒏𝒛 = √ 𝑥 𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛
𝑎 𝑎 𝑎 𝑎 𝑎 𝑎

8 𝒏𝒙 𝝅𝒙 𝒏𝒚 𝝅𝒚 𝒏𝒛 𝝅𝒛
𝜓𝒏𝒙𝒏𝒚𝒏𝒛 = √ 3 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛 − − − (2)
𝑎 𝑎 𝑎 𝑎
From equations (1) and (2) we can understand that there are several combinations of the three
quantum numbers leads to different energy eigen values and eigen functions.

Examples:

If a state has quantum numbers nx =1 ny = 1 nz = 2

𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑛𝑥 2 + 𝑛𝑦 2 + 𝑛𝑧 2 = 6
Similarly for nx =1 ny = 2 nz = 1 combination and nx =2 ny = 1 nz = 1 combinations We have
𝑛𝑥 2 + 𝑛𝑦 2 + 𝑛𝑧 2 = 6
𝟔𝒉𝟐
𝑬𝟏𝟏𝟐 = 𝑬𝟏𝟐𝟏 = 𝑬𝟐𝟏𝟏 = − − − − − − − − − − − (𝟑)
𝟖𝒎𝒂𝟐

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Corresponding wave functions can be writtenas

8 πx πy 2πz
ψ112 = √ 3 sin sin sin
a a a a

8 πx 2πy πz
ψ121 = √ 3 sin sin sin
a a a a

8 2πx πy πz
ψ211 = √ 3 sin sin sin
a a a a

2.7. Electron Microscope

It is a type of microscope in which instead of light beam, a beam of electrons are used to
form a large image of very small object. These microscopes are widely used in the field of
engineering and medicine.

2.7.1 Scanning Electron Microscope

Scanning electron microscope is an improved model of an electron microscope. SEM is

used to study the three dimensional image of the specimen.

Principle

When the accelerated primary electrons strike the sample, they produce secondary
electrons. These secondary electrons are collected by a positive charged electron detector which
in turn gives a 3- dimensional image of the sample.

Construction
It consists of an electron gun to produce high energy electron beam. A magnetic
condensing lens is used to condense the electron beam and a scanning coil is arranged in between
magnetic condensing lens and the sample.

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The electron detector (scintillator) is used to collect the secondary electrons and can be
converted into electrical signal. These signals can be fed into CRO through video amplifier as
shown fig. 4.9

Figure 4.9: Scanning Electron Microscope

Working

 Stream of electrons are produced by the electron gun and these primary electrons are
accelerated by the grid and anode.
 These accelerated primary electrons are made to be incident on the sample through
condensing lenses and scanning coil.
 These high speed primary electrons falling over the sample produces low energy
secondary electrons.
 The collection of secondary electrons is very difficult and hence a high voltage is
applied to the collector.
 These collected electrons produce scintillations on to the photo multiplier tube and
are converted into electrical signals.
 These signals are amplified by the video amplifier and are fed to the CRO.
 By similar procedure the electron beam scans from left to right and the whole picture
of the sample is obtained in the CRO screen.

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Unit–II: Quantum Mechanics Physics for Biotechnology

Advantages

 It can be used to examine the specimens of large thickness

 It has large depth of focus.
 It can be used to get the 3D image of an object.
 Structural details can be resolved in a precise manner.
 The magnification is upto 3,00,000 times greater than that of the size of the
object.

Disadvantages

 It has limited resolution power 10nm - 20nm.

Applications

 It is used to examine the structure of very large specimen in a 3D view.

 It has many applications such as biology, industries, engineering, physics,
chemistry etc.,

2.8. Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle

The uncertainty principle states that it is impossible to specify simultaneously the

position and momentum of a particle, such as an electron, with precision. The theory further
states that a more accurate determination of one quantity will result in a less precise
measurement of the other, and that the product of both uncertainties is always greater than or
equal to Planck’s constant divided by 4π

That is Δx Δp ≥ h/4π

The Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle can also be expressed in terms of the uncertainties
involved in the simultaneous measurements of angular displacement & angular momentum and
energy & time
Δt ΔE ≥ h/4π

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Unit–II: Quantum Mechanics Physics for Biotechnology

Solved Problems

1. Calculate the wavelength associated with an electron with energy 2000 eV.

Sol: E = 2000 eV = 2000 × 1.6 × 10–19 J

ℎ
𝑑𝑒 − 𝐵𝑟𝑜𝑔𝑙𝑖𝑒 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝜆 =
√2𝑚𝐸

6.63 𝑋 10−34
𝜆= = 0.0275 𝑛𝑚
√2𝑋9.11𝑋10−31𝑋 2000𝑋1.6𝑋10−19

2. Calculate the velocity and kinetic energy of an electron of wavelength 1.66 × 10 –10 m.

Sol: Wavelength of an electron (λ) = 1.66 × 10–10 m

ℎ
𝜆=
𝑚𝑣

ℎ 6.63𝑋10−34
𝑣 = = = 438.9 𝑋 104 𝑚𝑠 −1
𝑚𝜆 9.11𝑋10−31𝑋 1.66𝑋10−10
To calculate KE:
ℎ
𝑑𝑒 − 𝐵𝑟𝑜𝑔𝑙𝑖𝑒 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝜆 =
√2𝑚𝐸
Squaring

2
ℎ2
𝜆 =
2𝑚𝐸
ℎ2 (6.63𝑋10−34 )2
𝐸= 2
= −31 −10 2
= 𝟖. 𝟕𝟓𝟒𝑿𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟖 𝑱
2𝑚𝜆 2𝑋9.1𝑋10 𝑋(1.66𝑋10 )

3. An electron is moving under a potential field of 15 kV. Calculate the wavelength of the
electron waves.

Sol: V = 15 × 103 V λ=?

12.25
𝑊𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ λ = Å
√V
12.25
λ= = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏 𝐧𝐦
√15000

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Unit–II: Quantum Mechanics Physics for Biotechnology

4. An electron is bound in one-dimensional infinite well of width1 A m. Find the energy

values in the ground state and first two excited states.

Sol: Potential well of width (L) = 1 × 10–10 m

For ground state n = 1,

𝑛2 ℎ2 12 [6.63𝑋10−34 ]2
𝐸1 = = = 0.6038𝑋10−17 𝐽
8𝑚𝑎2 8𝑋9.11𝑋10−31 𝑋10−10 𝑋10−10

0.6038𝑋10−17
𝐸1 = = 37.737 𝑒𝑉
1.602 𝑋 10−19

For first excited state n =2 E2 = 4 E1

E2 = 4E1 = 2.415 × 10−17 J

= 150.95 eV

For second excited state n =3 E3 = 9E1

E3 = 9E1 = 5.434 × 10−17 J= 339.639 eV.

5. An electron is bound in one-dimensional box of size 4 × 1010 m. What will be its

minimum energy?

Sol: Potential box of size (L) = 4 × 10–10 m

𝑛2 ℎ2 12 [6.63𝑋10−34 ]2
𝐸1 = = = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟑𝟕𝟕 𝑿𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟕 𝑱
8𝑚𝑎2 8𝑋9.11𝑋10−31 𝑋4𝑋 10−10 𝑋4𝑋10−10

6. Find the least energy of an electron moving in one-dimensional Potential box (infinite
height) of width 0.05 nm.

Sol: Potential box of size (L) = 0.5 × 10–10 m

𝑛2 ℎ2 12 [6.63𝑋10−34 ]2
𝐸1 = = = 𝟐. 𝟒 𝑿𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟕 𝑱
8𝑚𝑎2 8𝑋9.11𝑋10−31 𝑋0.5𝑋 10−10 𝑋0.5𝑋10−10

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Unit–II: Quantum Mechanics Physics for Biotechnology

PART-A (Q&A)

1. What are matter waves or de-Broglie’s waves?

The waves associated with a material particle are called matter waves or de-Broglie’s
waves. He suggested that an electron, which is particle, can also behave as a wave and exhibits
the dual nature.

2. What is de-Broglie wave equation?

The wavelength of matter waves or de-Broglie’s waves equation is,

h
𝜆=
𝑚𝑣
Where ‘h’ is the plank’s constant. ‘m’ and ‘v’ are mass and velocity of the particles
respectively.

3. State some of the properties of matter waves.

 Lighter the particles, greater the wavelength associated with it.

 Smaller the velocity of the particle, greater is the wavelength associated with it.
 Matter waves are not electromagnetic waves.

4. State Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle with example.

It is impossible to specify precisely and simultaneously the value of both members of a

particular pair of physical variables that describes the behaviour of an atomic system.

Example: Δx Δp ≥ h

5. What is black body and black body radiation?

A perfect black body is the one which absorbs and emits all the radiation (corresponding
to all wavelengths) that fall on it. The radiation given out by a perfect black body is called black
body radiation.
The heat radiation emitted by a black body is known as black body radiation.

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Unit–II: Quantum Mechanics Physics for Biotechnology

1. Define Eigen value and Eigen function.

Eigen value is defined as energy of the particle at a particular energy level.

Eigen function is defined as the wave function of the particle at a particular energy level.

2. What are matter waves? (Or) State De Broglie’s hypothesis (or). Explain the concept of
wave nature (or) Explain the dual nature of the particle.

The waves associated with a material particle are called matter waves. De Broglie suggested
that an electron, which is particle, can also behave as a wave and exhibits the dual nature.
𝒉 𝒉
De Broglie wavelength λ= =
𝒑 𝒎𝒗

3. What is meant by wave function? Or What you understand the term wave function?.

Wave function is the variable quantity that is associated with a moving particle at any
position(x y z) and at any time‘t’ and it relates the probability of finding the particle at that
point and at that time.
Quantum mechanically it is represented as 𝜓(x) = A e-iωt.
4. Why the energy levels are discrete for a particle in one dimensional box (potential
well)?

The particle is restricted to move only inside the box due to this reason the particle has
discrete energy values

5. State the principle of electron microscope.

Streams of electrons are passed through the object and the electrons which carry the
information about the object are focused by electric and magnetic lenses, finally magnified
image is obtained.

6. What is photon? Give its properties.

The discrete energy values in the form of small packets or quanta’s of definite frequency or
wavelength are called photons. These photons propagate like a particle but with the speed of
light.
Properties of photons

 Photons are similar that of an electron.

 They are not charged particle.

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Unit–II: Quantum Mechanics Physics for Biotechnology

 They do not ionize the gases

 The energy of the photon is E = hν.

7. Write down the physical significance of the wave function.

 It is a complex quantity and individually it does not have any physical meaning.
 ψ2= ψ*ψ is real and positive. It has physical meaning.
 ψ2 represents the probability of finding the particle per unit volume (Probability
density).
 It statistically relates the particle and wave nature.

8. Define ‘ Resolving power” and “ Magnification power”

Resolving power: It is the ability of the microscope to show two closer objects as separated
one.
Magnification power: It is the ability of the microscope to show the image of an object in
an enlarged manner.

9. Mention some important applications of quantum mechanics.

 Quantum mechanics is used to explain the concept of photoelectric effect.

 Based on quantum ideas, the problem of specific heat of solids at low temperature is
explained successfully.
 The atomic structure and the origin of spectral lines are explained by Bohr based on
quantum concepts.
 The phenomenon like Scattering of X-rays are explained by Compton based on
quantum ideas.

10. What are the differences between electron microscope and optical microscope?

S. No Optical microscope Electron microscope

1 Light energy is used Electron beam is used

2 Glass lenses are used Electric or magnetic fields are used

3 Resolving power is poor Resolving power is high

4 Magnification is in the order of 1000X Magnification is in the order of

100000X
5 Very small in size Size is very large

6 Cost & weight is less Cost & Weight is high

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Unit–II: Quantum Mechanics Physics for Biotechnology

11. List out the advantages of SEM.

 It can be used to examine the specimens of large thickness

 It has large depth of focus.
 It can be used to get the 3D image of an object.
 Structural details can be resolved in a precise manner.
 The magnification is up to 3,00,000 times greater than that of the size of the object.

2.23