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Chap 16 Probability
Topic -1 Experiments, Events and Sample space
Quick Review
 Experiment
An operation which can produce some well-defined outcomes, is known as
experiment. There are two types of experiments. These are.
(i) Deterministic experiment and
(ii) Random experiment.
 Random experiment
An experiment conducted repeatedly under the identical conditions does not give
necessarily the same result every time, then the experiment is called random
experiment. For eg : rolling an unbiased die, drawing a card from a well shuffled
pack of cards, etc.

 Outcomes and sample space

A possible result of a random experiment is called its outcome. The set of all possible
outcomes in a random experiment is called sample space and is denoted by S i.e.,
sample space = {All possible outcomes}.
Each element of a sample space is called a sample point or an event point.
For eg: when we throw a die, then possible outcomes of this experiment are 1, 2, 3,
4, 5 or 6.

 Event
A subset of the sample space associated with a random experiment is called an
event, generally denoted by ‘E’. an event associated with a random experiment is

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 said to occur, if any one of the elementary events associated to it is an outcome of
the experiment.
For eg: suppose a die is thrown, then we have the sample space .
Then, is an event.
Also, if the outcome of experiment is 4. Then we say that event E has occurred.

 Type of events
on the basis of the element in an event, events are classified into the following types-
(i) Simple event – if an event has only one sample point of the sample space, it is
called a simple (element) event. E.g., Let a die is thrown, then sample space,

Then, A= are simple events.

(ii) Compound event – If an event has more than one sample point of the sample
space, then it is called compound event.
e.g., on rolling a die, we have the sample space,

the event of getting an off number are compound

events.
(iii) Sure event – The event which is certain to occur is said to be the sure event. The
whole sample space ‘S’ is a sure or certain event, since it is a subset of itself.
e.g., on throwing a die we have sample space,

event of getting a natural number less than 7, is a sure event, since

.
(iv) Impossible event – the event which has no element is called an impossible event
or null event. The empty set is an impossible event, since it is a subset of sample
space S.
e.g., on throwing a die, we have the sample space,

Then event of getting a number less than 1, is an impossible event, since .

(v) Equally likely events – Events are called equally likely when we do expect the
happening of one event in preference to the other.
(vi) Mutually exclusive events – Two event said to be mutually exclusive, if the
occurrence of any one of them excludes the occurrence of the other event i.e., they
cannot occur simultaneously.
Thus, two events are said to be mutually exclusive, if .
e.g., in throwing a die, we have the sample space

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 Let,
And ,
Then,
So, are mutually exclusive events.
In general, events are said to be mutually exclusive, if they are pair
wise disjoint, i.e., if .
(vii) Exhaustive events - A set of events is said to be exhaustive if the performance
of the experiment always results in the occurrence of at least one of them.
Let be n subsets of a sample space s. then, events are
exhaustive events, if .
Eg., consider the experiment of throwing a die. Then,

event of getting a number less than 3.

event of getting an odd number.
event of getting a number greater than 3.
Then, (
Thus, . Hence, are exhaustive events.

 Algebra of events
Let A and B be two events associated with a sample space S, then-
(i) Complementary event –for every E, there corresponds another event E’ called the
complementary event of E, which consists of those outcomes that do not
correspond to the occurrence of E.E’ is also called the event ‘event E’
e.g., in tossing three coins, the sample space is

Let
Then,
(ii) the event A and B- The even ‘A or B’ is same as the event and it contains all
those element which are either in event A or in B or in both. Thus,
A or B
(iii)the event A and B- the event ‘A and B’ is same as the event ‘A B’ and it contains
all those elements which are both in A and B. thus,

(iv) the event A but not B- the event A but not B is same as the event (
ant it contains all those elements which are in A but not in B.
Thus, A but not in B .

 The following are some events and their corresponding equivalent sets.
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 Events Equivalent sets
(i)Neither A nor B ̅ ̅ ( [ ]
(ii) exactly one of A and B ( ̅ ( ̅ ( (
(iii)At least one of A , B or C .
(iv) All three of A, B and C .
(v)Exactly two of A, B and C ( ̅ ( ̅ ( ̅ .

Extra Information
 A sample spaces is called a discrete sample space, if S a finite set.
 We can define as many events as there are subsets of a sample space. Thus, numbers
of events of a sample space S is , where ‘n’ is the number of elements in S.
 Elementary events associated with a random experiments are also known as
indecomposable events .
 All events other than elementary events and impossible events associated with a
random experiment are called compound events.
 For any event E, associated with a sample space –
.
 Simple events E, associated with a sample space are always mutually exclusive.
 If event are pair wise disjoint and
, then events are called mutually exclusive and
exhaustive events.

Topic -2
Axiomatic Approach to Probability
Quick Review
 Probability of occurrence of an event.
A numerical value that conveys the chance of occurrence of an event, when we
perform an experiment, is called the probability of that event. The different
approaches of probability are-
(i) Statistical Approach to Probability- in statistical approach, probability of an event
‘A’ is the ratio of observed frequency to the total frequency.
i.e., (
(ii)Classical approach to probability-

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 To obtain the probability of an event, we find the ratio of the number of outcomes
favourable to the event to the total number of equally likely outcomes. This theory is
known as classical theory of probability or theoretical probability.
i.e., (

(iii) Axiomatic Approach to Probability- Let ‘S’ be the sample space of a random
experiment. The probability P is a real valued function whose domain is the power
set of S and range is the interval [0, 1] satisfying the following axioms
(a) for any event ( .
(b) ( .
(c) if E and F are mutually exclusive, then ( ( (
Let ‘S’ be a sample space containing outcomes.

Then, from the axiomatic approach to probability, we have –

(i) ( .
(ii) ( ( ( .
(iii) for any event ( ∑ ( .

 Probability of equally likely outcomes

The outcomes of a random experiment are said to be equally likely, if the chance of
occurrence of each outcome is same.
Let the sample space of an experiment is –
. Also let all the outcomes.
Are equally likely. i.e., ( .
By Axiomatic approach to probability, ∑ ( .
⏟ .

 Addition rule of probability

If A and B are two events associated with a random experiment, then –
( ( ( (
Or ( ( ( (
It is known as addition law of probability for two events A and B.
When A and B are mutually exclusive events, then ( ( (
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 When A and B are mutually exclusive and exhaustive events, then
( ( ( .

 Probability of event A or B or C
If A, B and C are three events associated with a random experiment, then-
(
( ( ( ( ( ( (

 Probability of complementary event

Let E be an event and ( ̅ be its complementary event. Then, ( ̅ ( .

 Some result on probability of events

(i) For any two events A and B, ( ( .
(ii)Foe an event A, ( .
(iii) For any two events A and B
( ( (
( ( ( (

Extra Information

 Probability of an impossible or null event is zero i.e., ( .

 In case of equally likely outcomes, axiomatic approach coincide with the classical
approach of probability. (Try to check with the help of an example)
 If A, B and C are mutually exclusive events, i.e.,
( ( ( ( .
 For any two event A and B,
( ̅ ̅ (̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
And, ( ( ( ( .

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