MATH-224

LINEAR ALGEBRA AND FURTHER CALCULUS

Lecture 3: Adjoint of an n × n Matrix, Inverse of an n × n

Matrix, and Systems of Linear Equations

Course Lecturers: Dr. M. Maliyoni & Mr. B. Malipa

Applied Studies Department, MUST

(Maliyoni & Malipa, MUST) MATH-224 Lecture 3 2019/2020 Academic Year 1 / 29

Lesson Outcomes

By the end of this lesson, you should be able to:

Find the adjoint (or adjunct) of a square matrix.
Find the inverse of a square matrix.
Define a consistent and inconsistent system of linear equations.
Transcribe a system of linear equations into matrix form.

(Maliyoni & Malipa, MUST) MATH-224 Lecture 3 2019/2020 Academic Year 2 / 29

Introduction

Hello there! Welcome to the third lecture for this course. Just like
the previous lectures, we are still looking at matrices.
In the previous lecture, you learnt about addition of matrices, scalar
multiplication of a matrix, matrix multiplication, transpose of a
matrix, and determinant of an n × n matrix.
In this lecture, you will learn about adjoint/adjunct of an n × n
matrix, inverse of an n × n matrix, and systems of linear equations.
Please ensure that you have a working scientific calculator which you
may utilise in this lecture.
It is our hope that you will equally enjoy this lecture as has been the
case with the first two lectures.

(Maliyoni & Malipa, MUST) MATH-224 Lecture 3 2019/2020 Academic Year 3 / 29

Adjoint (or Adjunct) of a Square Matrix

Definition
Let A be any square matrix. Then, the Adjoint of A, denoted Adj(A) is a
matrix that is obtained by replacing all elements of A by their cofactors
and transposing the result. In other words, the adjoint of A is the
transpose of the matrix of cofactors of A.

It follows from the above definition that the adjoint of a square matrix A
can be found by the following steps:
i) Find cofactors of all the elements of A.
ii) Replace each element of A by its cofactor to obtain a matrix of
cofactors of A.
iii) Finally, transpose the matrix of cofactors of A to obtain Adj(A).

(Maliyoni & Malipa, MUST) MATH-224 Lecture 3 2019/2020 Academic Year 4 / 29

Adjoint Matrix of a 2 × 2 Matrix

 
a b
Let A = . We want to find Adj(A). To do this, we find the
c d
cofactors of the elements of A as follows:

Element Cofactor
a d
b −c
c −b
d a
Now, we write matrix of cofactors of A denoted Ac by replacing all
elements of of A by their cofactors.
Therefore,

(Maliyoni & Malipa, MUST) MATH-224 Lecture 3 2019/2020 Academic Year 5 / 29

  
d −c
Ac = (matrix of cofactors of A)
−b a
To find Adj(A), we transpose Ac . Thus,


T d −b
Adj(A) = (Ac ) = .
−c a

As you can observe in Adj(A) above, you will notice that the leading
diagonal elements have swapped places where as elements on the other
diagonal have their signs reversed. This observation is summarised below.

Remark
To find the Adjoint matrix of a 2 × 2 matrix, do the following:
(i) Swap the leading diagonal elements.
(ii) Reverse the signs of the elements on the other diagonal.

(Maliyoni & Malipa, MUST) MATH-224 Lecture 3 2019/2020 Academic Year 6 / 29

Example
 
1 −2
Given that B = , find Adj(B).
3 −4

Solution
We swap the leading diagonal elements and reverse the signs of the
elements on the other diagonal. Thus,
 
−4 2
Adj(B) = .
−3 1

(Maliyoni & Malipa, MUST) MATH-224 Lecture 3 2019/2020 Academic Year 7 / 29

Adjoint Matrix of a 3 × 3 Matrix

Let A be a 3 × 3, that is,

 
a11 a12 a13
a21 a22 a23  .
a31 a32 a33

Then, Adj(A) = (Ac )T where Ac is the matrix of cofactors of A.

In this case, if  
C11 C12 C13
Ac = C21 C22 C23  .
C31 C32 C33
is the matrix of cofactors, where Cij is a cofactor of element aij of
matrix A. Transposing matrix Ac leads to

(Maliyoni & Malipa, MUST) MATH-224 Lecture 3 2019/2020 Academic Year 8 / 29

  
C11 C21 C31
Adj(A) = (Ac )T = C12 C22 C32  .
C13 C23 C33

Example
 
8 −3 2
Let P =  2 3 0. Find Adj(P).
−2 1 4

Solution
We find a cofactor of each element in P. Then, we replace each element
of matrix P by its cofactor. Finally, we transpose matrix P to determine
Adj(P).

Recall: To find a cofactor of an element, delete the row and column the
element lies. Then, you compute the determinant of the resulting square
matrix. Also, be mindful of the sign pattern of cofactors as discussed in
Lecture 2.
(Maliyoni & Malipa, MUST) MATH-224 Lecture 3 2019/2020 Academic Year 9 / 29
 For example, to find the cofactor of element 8 which is positioned at
a11 , i.e. row 1 and column 1, we delete row 1 and column 1 of matrix
P.  
3 0
Doing so results in a 2 × 2 matrix whose determinant is
1 4
3 0
= (3 × 4) − (0 × 1) = 12 − 0 = 12.
1 4
Therefore, the cofactor of element 8 is 12 since the sign is positive for
this position.
Likewise, the cofactors of the remaining elements of matrix P are as
follows:

(Maliyoni & Malipa, MUST) MATH-224 Lecture 3 2019/2020 Academic Year 10 / 29

 Element Cofactor
8 12
−3 −8
2 8
2 14
3 36
0 −2
−2 −6
1 4
4 30

(Maliyoni & Malipa, MUST) MATH-224 Lecture 3 2019/2020 Academic Year 11 / 29

 Replacing elements of matrix P by their cofactors, we obtain
 
12 −8 8
Pc =  14 36 −2  (matrix of cofactors)
−6 4 30

Therefore,
 
12 14 −6
Adj(P) = (Pc )T =  −8 36 4 .
8 −2 30

(Maliyoni & Malipa, MUST) MATH-224 Lecture 3 2019/2020 Academic Year 12 / 29

Inverse of a Square Matrix

Definition
If A is a non-singular square matrix (i.e. det(A)6= 0), then there exists an
n × n matrix, A−1 which is called the inverse of A. The inverse of A is
given by
1
A−1 = Adj(A).
|A|

It follows from the above definition that:

A−1 exists if and only if its determinant is nonzero, i.e., |A| =
6 0
implying that A is non-singular. The inverse does not exist if A is
singular, that is, |A| = 0.
The inverse matrix is unique when it exists.
1
A−1 6= .
A

(Maliyoni & Malipa, MUST) MATH-224 Lecture 3 2019/2020 Academic Year 13 / 29

 AA−1 = A−1 A = In , where In is an identity matrix of order n × n.
This property means that A and A−1 are pairs of square matrices
whose product is an identity matrix.
If A and B are two matrices such that AB = BA = In , then A and B
are inverses of each other, that is,

A−1 = B and B −1 = A.

Example
 
2 3
Given that A = , find A−1 if it exits.
4 1

Solution
Firstly, we compute the determinant. Thus,
2 3
|A| = = 2 − 12 = −10.
4 1

Therefore, A−1 exists since |A| =

6 0, i.e., A is non-singular.
(Maliyoni & Malipa, MUST) MATH-224 Lecture 3 2019/2020 Academic Year 14 / 29
METHOD 1
Now,  
1 −3
Adj(A) = .
−4 2
Therefore,
 
−1 1 1 1 −3
A = Adj(A) = −
|A| 10 −4 2
1 −3
 
−
 10 −10 
= 
 

 −4 2
−
−10 10
1 3
 
− 10 10 
= 
 

 2 1
−
5 5
(Maliyoni & Malipa, MUST) MATH-224 Lecture 3 2019/2020 Academic Year 15 / 29
METHOD 2
Alternatively, A−1 can be found using the property that AA−1 = In .
a b
Let A−1 = . Then, AA−1 = In can be written as
c d
    
2 3 a b 1 0
= .
4 1 c d 0 1
Multiplying the matrices on the left side of the above equation yields
   
2a + 3c 2b + 3d 1 0
= .
4a + c 4b + d 0 1
Since the matrices are equal, then the corresponding elements must be the
same. Thus,
2a + 3c = 1
4a + c = 0
and
2b + 3d = 0
4b + d = 1
(Maliyoni & Malipa, MUST) MATH-224 Lecture 3 2019/2020 Academic Year 16 / 29
Solving for a, b, c, and d in the two sets of simultaneous equations gives
1 3 2 1
a=− , b= , c= , and d = − .
10 10 5 5
Therefore,
1 3
 
  − 1010 
a b
A−1 = = .
 
c d  2 1
−
5 5
Note that you are at liberty to use either method 1 or 2 when finding the
inverse of a matrix.
Remark
A square matrix is called an invertible matrix if its inverse exists
(non-singular matrix).
If A is invertible, then A−1 is also invertible and (A−1 )−1 = A.
If A and B are invertible matrices of the same size, then AB is also
invertible and (AB)−1 = B −1 A−1 .
(Maliyoni & Malipa, MUST) MATH-224 Lecture 3 2019/2020 Academic Year 17 / 29
A Simple Formula for Finding the Inverse of a 2 × 2 Matrix

In the case of a 2 × 2 matrix, say A, a simple formula exists to find its

inverse. 
a b
If A = , then
c d
 
−1 1 d −b
A = .
ad − bc −c a

Note: ad − bc is the determinant of A.

Example

3 2
Let G = . Find G −1 if it exits.
6 4

(Maliyoni & Malipa, MUST) MATH-224 Lecture 3 2019/2020 Academic Year 18 / 29

Solution
We compute the determinant of matrix G , that is,

3 2
|G | = = (3)(4) − (2)(6) = 12 − 12 = 0.
6 4

Since |G | = 0, the matrix is singular and therefore has no inverse.

Example
 
8 −3 2
Let P =  2 3 0. Find P −1 if it exits.
−2 1 4

(Maliyoni & Malipa, MUST) MATH-224 Lecture 3 2019/2020 Academic Year 19 / 29

Solution
We find det(P) by cofactor expansion along the first row. So,

3 0 2 0 2 3
|P| = 8 − (−3) +2
1 4 −2 4 −2 1
= 8 (3)(4) + 3 (8) + 2 (2 + 6)
= 136

Therefore, P −1 exists since |P| =

6 0. Now, from previous Example
 
12 14 −6
Adj(P) =  −8 36 4 (See Slide number 12)
8 −2 30

(Maliyoni & Malipa, MUST) MATH-224 Lecture 3 2019/2020 Academic Year 20 / 29

Therefore,
1
P −1 = Adj(P)
|P|
 
12 14 −6
1 
= −8 36 4 .
136
8 −2 30

Note: Alternatively, you can find P −1 by applying Method 2 as

demonstrated earlier. See Slide number 16 and 17. Remember to use a
3 × 3 matrix which is the order of matrix P.

(Maliyoni & Malipa, MUST) MATH-224 Lecture 3 2019/2020 Academic Year 21 / 29

Systems of Linear Equations

Definition
A system of m linear equations in n variables is a set of m equations, each
of which is linear in the same n variables:

a11 x1 + a12 x2 + a13 x2 + . . . + a1n xn = b1

a21 x1 + a22 x2 + a23 x2 + . . . + a2n xn = b2
a31 x1 + a32 x2 + a33 x2 + . . . + a3n xn = b3 (1)
..
.
am1 x1 + am2 x2 + am3 x2 + . . . + amn xn = bn

The unknowns are are given by x1 , x2 , . . . , xn .

(Maliyoni & Malipa, MUST) MATH-224 Lecture 3 2019/2020 Academic Year 22 / 29

Definition
A solution of a system of linear equations is a sequence of numbers
S1 , S2 , S3 , · · · , Sn that is a solution of each of the linear equations in the
system.

For example, the system below

3x + 2y = 3
−x + y = 4

has x = −1 and y = 3 as a solution because both equations are satisfied

by these values. On the other hand, x = 1 and y = 0 is not a solution of
the system because these values satisfy only the first equation in the
system.

(Maliyoni & Malipa, MUST) MATH-224 Lecture 3 2019/2020 Academic Year 23 / 29

 It is possible for a system of linear equations to have exactly one
solution, an infinite number of solutions, or no solution.
A system of linear equations is called consistent if it has at least one
solution and inconsistent if it has no solution.

Number of Solutions of a System of Linear Equations

For a system of linear equations in n variables, precisely one of the
following is true:

(i) The system has exactly one solution (consistent system).

(ii) The system has an infinite number of solutions (consistent system).
(iii) The system has no solution (inconsistent system).

(Maliyoni & Malipa, MUST) MATH-224 Lecture 3 2019/2020 Academic Year 24 / 29

Writing a System of Linear Equations in Matrix Form

System (1) above can be written in matrix form as

    
a11 a12 a13 . . . a1n x1 b1
 a21 a22 a23 . . . a2n  x2  b2 
    
 a31 a32 a33 . . . a3n  x3  b3 
   =   (2)
 .. .. .. .. ..   ..   .. 
 . . . . .  .   . 
am1 am2 am3 . . . amn xn bn

(Maliyoni & Malipa, MUST) MATH-224 Lecture 3 2019/2020 Academic Year 25 / 29

 Now, let
     
a11 a12 a13 ... a1n x1 b1
 a21 a22 a23 ... a2n  x2  b2 
     
A =  a31 a32 a33 ... a3n 
, x = x3  and b = b3 
    
 .. .. .. .. ..   ..   .. 
 . . . . .  . .
am1 am2 am3 . . . amn xn bn

Matrix A is called matrix of coefficients, x is the column matrix of

unknowns (variables), and b is a column matrix.
Thus, we can write system (1) as

Axx = b

(Maliyoni & Malipa, MUST) MATH-224 Lecture 3 2019/2020 Academic Year 26 / 29

 Having learnt about systems of linear equations and writing the same
in matrix form, we now look at three methods that are used to solve
systems of linear equations using matrices and these are:
(i) Inverse matrix method.
(ii) Cramer’s Rule.
(iii) Elementary row operations (or Gauss-Jordan and pivoting).
Note that the above three methods will be covered in the next lecture.

(Maliyoni & Malipa, MUST) MATH-224 Lecture 3 2019/2020 Academic Year 27 / 29

Conclusion

In this lesson, you have learnt about the following:

(a) Adjoint of an n × n matrix.
(b) Inverse of an n × n matrix.
(c) Consistent and inconsistent systems of linear equations.
(d) Writing a system of linear equations in matrix form.
For further reading, please refer to MATH-224 Module Study Guide,
Pages 22-28.
If you have any questions about this lecture, please do not hesitate to
contact us using the discussion forum on this platform and we will be
happy to assist you.
We are convinced that this lecture was well presented and you have
understood it.
We wish you all the best. Stay safe. COVID-19 is real!

(Maliyoni & Malipa, MUST) MATH-224 Lecture 3 2019/2020 Academic Year 28 / 29

 END OF LECTURE 3

THANK YOU!

(Maliyoni & Malipa, MUST) MATH-224 Lecture 3 2019/2020 Academic Year 29 / 29