PRAVEGA RACING

MANUFACTURING TASK
23BME0063
B S LAKSHMI VENKATESWARA

ADDITIVE MANUFACTURING:
Additive manufacturing is the process of creating an object by
building it one layer at a time. It is the opposite of subtractive
manufacturing, in which an object is created by cutting away
at a solid block of material until the final product is complete.
Technically, additive manufacturing can refer to any process
where a product is created by building something up, such as
molding, but it typically refers to 3-D printing.

AM distinguishes itself from traditional formative and

subtractive methods through its capacity for complex
geometries and customization with minimal waste, making it
ideal for prototypes and small production runs.
While AM can reduce initial costs by eliminating the need for
molds or tooling, its cost advantages diminish with scale,
unlike traditional methods that benefit from economies of
scale. Thus, the choice between AM and traditional methods
hinges on the project’s specific demands regarding
complexity, volume, and cost efficiency.

Additive Manufacturing Process Additive manufacturing (AM),

commonly known as 3D printing, has revolutionized the way
objects are created, from simple models to complex
structures used in various industries. The process involves
adding material layer by layer to create objects from 3D model
data, contrary to traditional subtractive manufacturing
methods. The overall pipeline of AM encompasses several
critical steps, each contributing to the final product’s accuracy,
quality, and functionality. Each step in the AM pipeline is vital
for ensuring that the final product meets the desired
specifications and quality standards. Advances in software,
materials, and printing technologies continue to expand the
possibilities of what can be achieved with 3D printing, making
it an increasingly integral part of modern manufacturing
processes . The overall workflow of the additive manufacturing
process is given below

The design phase marks the beginning of the AM process,

where the creation of a 3D model is pivotal. Utilizing
Computer-Aided Design (CAD) software tools, designers and
engineers can craft detailed and complex digital
representations of the desired object. This stage is
characterized by meticulous planning of each aspect of the
model, ensuring that every curve, edge, and dimension aligns
perfectly with the final product’s requirements. A number of
critical factors influence the design process
Once the 3D model is complete, it is exported as an STL file.
The conversion of 3D models into stereolithography (STL) files
represents a crucial step in the pipeline of 3D printing, serving
as the bridge between digital design and physical realization.
This process involves transforming a 3D design into a format
that 3D printers can interpret and use to build objects layer by
layer. The STL format simplifies the model by breaking down
its surface into a series of triangles, also known as tessellation.
Each triangle is described by the coordinates of its Sensors
vertices and the direction of its normal (an outward-facing
vector perpendicular to the triangle’s surface). This
simplification is crucial because it translates complex
geometrical shapes into a uniform language of triangles that
3D printers can understand.Once the STL file is generated, the
next essential step is slicing, which is a pivotal process where
specialized software, often referred to as a slicer, transforms
the STL file into a series of thin, horizontal layers. This
conversion is critical because it breaks down the complex
geometry of the model into a stack of manageable, printable
layers, effectively translating the digital design into a physical
object. The slicing software plays a multifaceted role in the 3D
printing process. Generation of G-code: The primary output of
the slicing process is the generation of G-code, a universally
recognized programming language for Computer Numerical
Control (CNC) machinery, including 3D printers. G-code is
meticulous and detailed, containing precise instructions that
direct the printer’s movements, such as the path it should
follow, the speed of the extrusion head or laser, and where to
start and stop extruding material. This code is what makes it
possible for the 3D printer to materialize the digital model into
a tangible form, layer by layer.

Fusion Deposition Modelling (FDM):

Fused deposition modeling (FDM) 3D printing, also known as
fused filament fabrication (FFF), is an additive manufacturing
(AM) process within the realm of material extrusion. FDM
builds parts layer by layer by selectively depositing melted
material in a predetermined path. It uses thermoplastic
polymers that come in filaments to form the final physical
objects.

An FDM 3D printer works by depositing melted filament

material over a build platform layer by layer until you have a
completed part. FDM uses digital design files that are
uploaded to the machine itself and translates them into
physical dimensions.

To operate an FDM machine, you first load a spool of this

thermoplastic filament into the printer. Once the nozzle hits
the desired temperature, the printer feeds the filament
through an extrusion head and nozzle.

This extrusion head is attached to a three-axis system that

allows it to move across the X, Y and Z axes. The printer
extrudes melted material in thin strands and deposits them
layer by layer along a path determined by the design. Once
deposited, the material cools and solidifies. You can attach
fans to the extrusion head to accelerate cooling in some cases.

To fill an area, multiple passes are required, similar to coloring

in a shape with a marker. When the printer finishes a layer, the
build platform descends and the machine begins work on the
next layer. In some machine setups, the extrusion head moves
up. This process repeats until the part is finished.
 schematic of FDM
The picture on the left shows the whole structure of typical FDM printers where parts
(1) to (7) are x-axis motor, z-axis motor, y-axis motor, hot nozzle, printing bad,
controller display board, and filaments, respectively. The picture on the right shows
more details of the printing nozzle where (7A) is the feed filament, and (4A), (4B), and
(4C) are heating wires, Hotend, and extruded materials, respectively

PARAMETERS
Most FDM systems allow you to adjust several process parameters.
These include the nozzle and build platform temperatures, build
speed, layer height and cooling fan speed. If you’re a designer, you
normally don’t have to worry about these adjustments, as an AM
operator probably already has that covered.

Factors that are important to consider, though, are build size and
layer height. The common build size of a desktop 3D printer is 200
x 200 x 200 mm, while industrial machines can reach sizes of 1,000
x 1,000 x 1,000 mm. If you prefer to use a desktop machine to print
your part, you can break down a big model into smaller parts and
then reassemble it.

FDM’s typical layer height measures between 50 and 400 microns.

Printing shorter layers produces smoother parts and more
accurately captures curved geometries, though printing taller
layers lets you create parts quicker and for a lower price tag.

CHARACTERISTICS OF FDM:
The main advantages of FDM printing are the low price, their
ability to be reproduced, their speed efficiency, and low
maintenanceHowever, there are also many different limitations
facing FDM printers. This type of printer typically requires a higher
temperature and supports for angles greater than 45 degreesOne
of the biggest limitations of FDM is its inability to produce a part
regardless of the geometry

Warping

When extruded material cools during solidification, its dimensions

decrease. Since different sections of the printed part cool at
different rates, their dimensions also change at different speeds.
Differential cooling causes the buildup of internal stresses that pull
the underlying layer upward, causing it to warp.

There are several ways to prevent warping. One method is to

closely monitor the temperature of your FDM system,
especially the build platform and chamber. You can also
increase the adhesion between the part and the build
platform to mitigate warping.
Layer adhesion
Secure adhesion between deposited layers of a part is critical
in FDM. When an FDM machine extrudes molten
thermoplastic through the nozzle, this material presses
against the previously printed layer. High temperature and
pressure cause this layer to re-melt and enable it to bond with
the previous layer.

And since the molten material presses against the previously

printed layer, its shape deforms to an oval. This means that
FDM parts always have a wavy surface, no matter what layer
height is used, and that small features, such as small holes or
threads, may require post-processing.
Support structure

FDM printers can’t feasibly deposit molten thermoplastic over thin

air. Certain part geometries require support structures, which are
usually printed in the same material as the parts themselves.

Oftentimes, removing support structure materials can be difficult,

so it’s often far easier to design parts in such a way that minimizes
the need for support structures.

Infill and shell thickness

To reduce print time and save on materials, FDM printers usually

don’t produce solid parts. Instead, the machine traces the outer
perimeter - called the shell - over several passes, and fills the
interior - called the infill - with an internal, low-density structure.
POWDER BED FUSION (SLM)

the process usually starts by heating the bed of powder to a

consistent temperature. The machine then begins drawing the
first layer of the part or support features and, in doing so, fuses
together the powder particles. This is continued, layer-by-layer,
until the part is completed.

In the laser powder bed fusion (LPBF) process or selective laser

melting (SLM) process, a thin powder layer is first applied on a
building platform, usually metal, with a so called recoater, which
consists of a blade or a roller. This takes place inside a tight
chamber that contains inert gas, either argon or nitrogen, with
extremely low oxygen levels. A laser beam selectively melts the
layer of powder. Then the platform is gradually lowered, and a new
powder layer is applied. After that, the laser beam melting
operation is repeated. After a certain number of cycles, counted in
thousands, the part is removed from the powder bed.
Power bed fusion advantages include:

1. Reduced material wastage and cost (superior buy-to-fly ratio)

2. Improved production development times
3. Enablement of rapid prototyping and low volume production
4. Capable of building functionally graded parts
5. Fully customized parts on a batch by batch basis, eliminating
fixed designs
6. Good resolution when compared to other additive
manufacturing processes
7. Efficient recycling of un-melted powder
8. Ability to join many material grades, including ceramics,
glass, plastics, metals and alloys
SLM, similar to other AM technologies, benefits from a shorter
build time than traditional machining process. This is especially
powerful when coupled with the fact that the process results in a
fully functional object because of its high forming accuracy,
netshape ability, and high tolerancing as well as its ability to
fabricate complex shapes [76]. The advantages of SLM are highly
attributed to its ability to melt and fully fuse powder that results in
fully dense parts—up to 100% density which allows it to maximize
tensile strength . SLA can produce functional, complex,
net-shaped, and fully dense parts, but still struggles with
limitations. The extreme heat is, again, a culprit of many problems
seen with the nature of having to fully melt metal such as warping.
It is a high-energy process that relies on temperature gradients to
fuse particles, which requires higher energy costs and has been
found to be less energy efficient by upwards of 10-15%

Binder Jetting
Binder Jetting is a family of additive manufacturing processes. In
Binder Jetting, a binder is selectively deposited onto a powder bed,
bonding these areas together to form a solid part one layer at a time.
The materials commonly used in Binder Jetting are metals, sand, and
ceramics that come in a granular form.
Here is how the Binder Jetting process works:

I. First, a recoating blade spreads a thin layer of powder over the build
platform.

II. Then, a carriage with inkjet nozzles (which are similar to the
nozzles used in desktop 2D printers) passes over the bed, selectively
depositing droplets of a binding agent (glue) that bond the powder
particles together. In full-color Binder Jetting, the colored ink is also
deposited during this step. The size of each drop is approximately 80
μm in diameter, so good resolution can be achieved.

III. When the layer is complete, the build platform moves downwards
and the blade re-coats the surface. The process then repeats until
the whole part is complete.

IV. After printing, the part is encapsulated in the powder and is left to
cure and gain strength. Then the part is removed from the powder
bin and the unbound, excess powder is cleaned via pressurized air.

Depending on the material, a post-processing step is usually

required. For example, metal Binder Jetting parts need to be sintered
(or otherwise heat treated) or infiltrated with a
low-melting-temperature metal (typically bronze). Full-color
prototypes are also infiltrated with acrylic and coated to improve the
vibrancy of colors. Sand casting cores and molds are typically ready
to use after 3D printing.
Printer Parameters

In Binder Jetting, almost all process parameters are preset by the

machine manufacturer.

The typical layer height depends on the material: for full color models
the typical layer height is 100 microns, for metal parts 50 microns
and for sand casting mold materials 200-400 microns.

A key advantage of Binder Jetting over other 3D printing processes is

that bonding occurs at room temperature. This means that
dimensional distortions connected to thermal effects (such as
warping in FDM, SLM) are not a problem in Binder Jetting.

Moreover, Binder Jetting requires no support structures: the

surrounding powder provides to the part all the necessary support
(similar to SLS). This is a key difference between metal Binder Jetting
and other metal 3D printing processes, which usually require
extensive use of support structures, and allows for the creation of
freeform metal structures with very few geometric restrictions.
Geometric inaccuracies in metal Binder Jetting come mainly from
the post-processing steps, as discussed in a later section.

Vat Photopolymerization
Vat photopolymerization uses a light source to activate a
photopolymer, basically a liquid “goo” that hardens when hit by
the right wavelength and intensity of light. Early systems had a
large vat of liquid photopolymer (hence the name) that was
selectively hardened by a laser layer-by-layer to form the part.
Material advancements now enable digital light projection (DLP)
systems — the exact same ones used to project movies on your
wall from your computer — to initiate the cross-linking that
hardness the polymers into a solid object.
DLP systems are significantly faster than laser-based systems
because you can solidify a whole layer at once versus waiting for
the laser to trace and fill in the image in each layer. This is why
newcomers like Carbon can additively manufacture soles for
Adidas so quickly. Their patented Continuous Liquid Interface
Production (CLIP) technology enables their systems to look like
they are pulling a part out of a puddle

SLA printers are either top-down or bottom-up oriented. For top-down

printers, the build plate starts at the top of the reservoir, the laser cures
the layer as specified by the geometry code, and then the build plate
moves down corresponding to one increment of layer thickness; thus,
each successive layer is above the previous. On the other hand, the
build plate of bottom-up printers starts at the bottom of the resin
reservoir. Between each curing, the build plate moves up one thickness
layer, resulting in each successive layer being below the prior. Digital
light processing is similar to SLA in that a photopolymer resin is being
cured; however, this method utilizes a digital light projector for curing.
This digital light projector cures the complete layer simultaneously
rather than tracing. Because the curer is a digital source, the print will
exhibit square-like subunits
As the first additive manufacturing process, vat photopolymerization
has come a long way the past three decades. It offers the highest
resolution of many AM processes. In many parts, it is nearly impossible
to see the layering or staircasing effects that plague other AM
processes. Build volumes continue to get bigger, and the latest
advancements in software and hardware, combined with new
advancements in materials, have opened new avenues for
commercialization and profitability. Producing consumer items such as
braces, crowns, hearing aids, razor blade handles and soles for your
running shoes, vat photopolymerization has shown us that AM is
capable of scaling to volume production and making custom products
on demand
One of the primary drawbacks is the limited build volume, which can
restrict the size of parts that can be produced. This makes it less
suitable for applications requiring large components or high-volume
production runs. Additionally, the materials used in VAT polymerization,
typically photopolymer resins, can be more expensive than those used
in other forms of 3D printing, such as filament for FDM. The resins can
also be brittle and may not possess the same strength or durability as
materials used in other manufacturing processes, limiting their use in
functional parts that require high mechanical strength. Furthermore,
the parts produced by VAT polymerization may suffer from shrinkage
and warping due to the curing process, which can affect dimensional
accuracy and require additional post-processing to achieve the desired
tolerances. Lastly, working with photopolymer resins requires careful
handling due to their potential toxicity and the need for proper
disposal, posing environmental and safety concerns.
Subtractive manufacturing
Subtractive manufacturing involves material removal with turning, milling,
drilling, grinding, cutting, and boring. The material is typically metals or
plastics, and the end product has a smooth finish with tight dimensional
tolerances. A wide variety of materials are available. Change-overs are longer,
but automatic tool changers help reduce time-consuming delays. The
processes can be fully automated, although an attendant may oversee two or
more machines.

The equipment costs are higher and usually require additional jigs, fixtures,
and tooling. It is best suited for large production with reasonably fast
manufacturing time but lengthy changeovers. Material handling equipment
helps both processes with material loading and removal. Geometries are not
as complex as additive manufacturing processes.

Subtractive manufacturing technologies include:

● Abrading—This manufacturing process uses friction to wear the

material surface by grinding and polishing products.
● CNC Machining — The computerized manufacturing process to control
complex machinery via pre-programmed software to regulate the
machining equipment to cut and shape parts. This equipment includes
milling, turning, drilling, boring, grinders, and 5-axis CNC machining
centers.
● Electrical Discharge Machining (EDM)—Also known as “spark
machining,” “wire burning,” or “wire erosion,” EDM is a non-traditional
machining process that utilizes electrical discharges ranging from
80.00ºC to 12,000ºC to remove material from a workpiece placed in a
dielectric liquid.
● Laser Cutting—This manufacturing method utilizes a gas laser, often
CO2, for energy. The laser beam is guided by mirrors and directed
toward the workpiece to remove material. The laser beam output is
between 1,500 and 2,600 watts.
● Waterjet Cutting—Waterjet cutting is an accelerated erosion process
using a high-pressure water stream. This CNC method of cutting
objects uses energy from ultra-high-pressure water that becomes
hypersonic at speeds up to 2,500 mph (Mach 3).
ABRASIVE MACHINING
Abrasive machining is essentially a subtractive manufacturing process
that relies on the controlled abrasion of a workpiece’s surface. This is
achieved through the
strategic application of hard, abrasive particles, which are propelled or
rubbed
against the material, gradually removing minute layers to achieve the
desired shape, size, or surface finish. By employing abrasive tools, such
as grinding wheels or belts, manufacturers can sculpt and refine
workpieces with unparalleled precision. Unlike conventional machining
methods that employ cutting tools, abrasive machining harnesses the
collective force of countless abrasive grains, each acting as a
microscopic cutting edge. This unique approach enables the precise
removal of material, even from the most intricate geometries or
hard-to-reach areas, making it an indispensable and vital process in
industries ranging from aerospace to electronics.
CNC (Computer Numerical Control) machining

CNC (Computer Numerical Control) machining is a subtractive

manufacturing technology: parts are created by removing material
from a solid block (called the blank or the workpiece) using a variety
of cutting tools.

This is a fundamentally different way of manufacturing compared to

additive (3D printing) or formative (Injection Molding) technologies.
The material removal mechanisms have significant implications on
the benefits, limitations and design restrictions of CNC.

CNC
machining is a digital manufacturing technology: it produces
high-accuracy parts with excellent physical properties directly from a
CAD file. Due to the high level of automation, CNC is
price-competitive for both one-off custom parts and
medium-volume productions.

Almost every material can be CNC machined. The most common

examples include metals (aluminum and steel alloys, brass etc) and
plastics (ABS, Delrin, Nylon etc). Foam, composites and wood can
also be machined.

The basic CNC process can be broken down into 3 steps. The
engineer first designs the CAD model of the part. The machinist then
turns the CAD file into a CNC program (G-code) and sets up the
machine. Finally, the CNC system executes all machining operations
with little supervision, removing material and creating the part
CNC milling
● The workpiece is held stationary directly on the machine bed
or in a vice.
● Material is removed from the workpiece using cutting tools or
drills that rotate at high speed.
● The tools are attached to a spindle, which can move along
three linear axis.
CNC turning (lathes)

● The workpiece is held on the spindle while rotating at high

speed.
● A cutting tool or center drill traces the outer or inner perimeter
of the part, forming the geometry.
● The tool does not rotate and moves along polar directions
(radially and lengthwise).

3-axis CNC machines

CNC milling and CNC turning machines are examples of 3-axis CNC systems.
These “basic” machines allow the movement of the cutting tool in three linear
axes relative to the workpiece (left-right, back-forth and up-down).
5-axis CNC machining

Multi-axis CNC machining centers come in three variations: 5-axis

indexed CNC milling, continuous 5-axis CNC milling and mill-turning
centers with live tooling.

These systems are essentially milling machines or lathes enhanced

with additional degrees of freedom. For example, 5-axis CNC milling
centers allow the rotation of the machine bed or the toolhead (or
both) in addition to the three linear axes of movement.

The advanced capabilities of these machines come at an increased

cost. They require both specialized machinery and also operators
with expert knowledge. For highly complex or topology optimized
metal parts, 3D printing is usually a more suitable option though.

Laser cutting

Laser cutting is a high precision CNC thermal process that uses a

high-power laser beam to cut, melt, or burn a material sheet. It uses
a focussed beam of light to cut and etch sheet material to the design
specification. Ideal for a variety of material types (including metals,
wood and polymers), it is capable of producing complicated parts
without using a custom-designed tool.
In laser cutting, a part is placed onto a bed, where material is then etched or
cut from a sheet using a laser. Here is a simple overview of the laser cutting
process:

1. Power is adjusted based on the material being cut and the thickness of
the sheet. A typical laser beam has a diameter of 0.1 - 0.3mm (power of
2-3kW.)
2. A CAD drawing is converted into a series of commands that can be
interpreted by the laser cutting machine. This is usually done by the
machine operator based on its standard working procedure.
3. A sheet of material is then cut to size, placed on the machine's bed
workpiece is clamped onto the bench, making sure that the orientation
is straight (not slanted).
4. The material is now cut or scored by the laser. The light is emitted from
a resonator; this is an airtight glass tube composed of two facing
mirrors and filled with diode activated gases. It’s then emitted from the
cutting head, where light from the resonator is focussed onto a curved
lens, where it is focused into a single beam).
5. Multiple parts can be cut from the same sheet and will run on the same
program.

Advantages

1. Near unparalleled flexibility when working with sheets of material

 2. Creates precise cuts and marks
Disadvantages

1. Difficult to work with thicker materials

2. Potential higher costs

WATER JETTING
Water Jet Machining, also known as Waterjet Cutting, is an environmentally
friendly non-traditional machining process used to cut, shape, and machine
various materials with high precision. It harnesses the force of a high-velocity
jet of water, often combined with abrasive particles, to erode and remove
material from the workpiece. The water jet, propelled at extreme velocities,
creates a focused and powerful stream capable of cutting through metals,
ceramics, composites, stone, glass, and even food products. Water Jet
Machining is favored for its ability to produce intricate shapes, sharp corners,
and smooth edges without introducing heat-affected zones

Advantages of Water Jet machining

● · Water jet machining is capable of achieving high precision.

● · Machining does not require coolant.
● · It is possible to produce complex shapes and cuts.
● · An excellent surface finish can be achieved.
● · By washing machine parts with water, they are dust-free.
● · No harmful by-products are produced, making it environmentally friendly.
Disadvantages of Water Jet machining

● · Water jet machining cannot be used for very thick materials.

● · Initial investment is high.
● · When compared to traditional processes, it takes much more time.

FABRICATION PROCESS

Welding:
MIG welding:
MIG welding is an arc welding process in which a continuous solid wire electrode is fed
through a welding gun and into the weld pool, joining the two base materials together. A
shielding gas is also sent through the welding gun and protects the weld pool from
contamination. In fact, MIG stands for metal inert gas. The technical name for it is gas
metal arc welding (or GMAW), and the slang name for it is wire welding.
TIG WELDING

TIG welding is a stable arc welding process that uses a non-consumable

tungsten electrode and an inert gas in the welding arc to create high-quality

welds. It became a groundbreaking success during the 1940s when it was first

used for welding together aluminium and magnesium alloys in the aerospace

industry.

While it started out as a solution to manufacture aircrafts, TIG welding

eventually became an accelerator in different industries offering unmatched

quality. A lot of advancements and innovations in technology have been

made since and this process has become irreplaceable in many instances.
FORMING
We generally classify Forming operations according to the differences in effective
stress. Compressive forming involves a uni- or multiaxial compressive loading and
includes processes:

● rolling, where the material passes through a pair of rolls,

● extrusion, where machine push the material through an orifice,
● die forming, where a press stamps the material around or onto a die,
● forging, where localized compressive forces shape the material
● indenting, where a tool is pressed into the object.

Metal Extrusion

Extrusion consists in shaping a material by pressing it with a mechanical or hydraulic

tool. It can be hot or cold, continuous or semi-continuous. This process can produce
compressive and shearing forces in the base material. During the operation, the metal
alloys undergo considerable deformation without being torn. The objects then obtain a
cross-sectional profile and are suitable for a wide range of applications. One of the main
drivers in the materials extrusion market remains the growing demand for packaged
ready-to-eat foods (ready-made pasta, cereals, snack bars, etc.).
Stamping Forming

During stamping, a press around or a die deform the metal. Like molds, this tool is
usually adapted to the product. Products made using dies range from simple paper clips
to complex parts applied in advanced technologies.

Manufacturers can use two tools to form sheet metal, such as automotive body
components. One, termed the punch, performs the stretching, bending, and/or cutting
operation. The other, called the die block, firmly clamps the part and serves a similar
stretching, bending, and/or cutting process.