UNIT 1-FUNDAMENTALS OF CAD &

GEOMETRICAL
TRANSFORMATION
1. Role of computers in design.

2. Graphic Primitives: Line & circle

algorithms

3. Geometric Transformations :
Translation, scaling & rotation.

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 INTRODUCTION TO CAD

CAD - Computer Aided Design use of

computer technology - design and
design documentation.
CAD & CAM (Computer Aided
Manufacturing) refers to computer
software that is used to both design
and manufacture products.

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INTRODUCTION TO CAD

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 INTRODUCTION TO CAD
CAD is the integration of computer science
techniques for engineering design.

CAD is also defined as the use of computer systems

to assist in the
Creation
Modification
Analysis or optimization of a design.

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 INTRODUCTION TO CAD
CAM software uses the models and assemblies
created in CAD software to generate tool paths
that drive the machines that turn the designs into
physical parts.

CAD/CAM applications are used specifically for

CNC machining.

CAD/CAM software is used for machining of

prototypes and finished parts.

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 INTRODUCTION TO CAD
The CAD hardware includes
Workstations (Graphic display terminal, CPU)
Mouse, Keyboards, plot pen, printers, plotters
etc.,

The CAD software consists of

Computer programs to facilitate the
engineering functions
Examples - Autocad, Pro-E, Creo, Ansys &
Adams.

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 INTRODUCTON TO CAD
• 2 D Drafting

.
.

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 INTRODUCTION TO CAD

3D modelling
An aid to
visualization.
Represents curves
and surfaces
and solids

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 INTRODUCTION TO CAD

Three aspects of CAD

1. Modelling
2. Display/Visualization
3. Application
1. Stress analysis (FEA)
2. CAD/CAM integration

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 CAD- Interactive Computer Graphics
(ICG)
Modern CAD systems are based on ICG.

ICG denotes a user oriented system in which the computer

is employed to create, transform and display data in the
form of pictures or symbols.

The user in the design system is the designer who

communicates data and commands to the computer through
any of several input devices.

The computer communicates with the user via a Display

Screen.

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 CAD – Reason for Implementation

To increase the productivity of the designer

Reduces the time required to synthesize,
analyze and document the design.

To improve the quality of design

Thorough engineering analysis within a
short time.
Design errors are also reduced.

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 CAD - Implementation
To improve communications through
documentation:
Better Engineering drawings
More standardization in the drawings
Better documentation of the design
Fewer drawing errors.

To create a database for manufacturing:

Geometry and dimension of components
Bill of materials
Used in CNC programming, programming of
robots.

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 CAD - Design Process
Design is an original solution to a
problem.

Design process is the pattern of

activities that is followed by the
designer in arriving at the solution of
a technological problem.

Models of the design process

Shigley
Pahl
Beitz
Ohsuga
Earle

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 Shigley- Design Process

Shigley model involves six

basic steps:

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 DESIGN PROCESS
1. Recognition of need:
It involves the realization by someone that a problem
exists for which some feasible solution is to be found.
❑ Historical Information
▪ Collected from the
literature, marketing
surveys.
▪ This should be able to
answer questions like
❖ The current technology
❖ Existing solutions

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 DESIGN PROCESS
❑ Requirement Specification
▪ Clear definition of the requirements is
specified.
▪ This helps in understanding the product from
the current practices and manufacturing
resources of the plant.

❑ Market forces
▪ Consider the various market forces that will
affect the product in one way or the other.

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❑ General solutions
▪ Specify general solution, which will be broad and would not
contain too many details.
▪ This can be done by resorting to past designs, engineering
standards, technical reports, handbooks, patterns.
▪ This helps in its further evaluation and refinement at a later
stage.

2. Definition of problem
▪ It involves a thorough specification of the item to be
designed.
▪ The specification include functional and physical
characteristics, cost, quality, performance, etc.

3. Synthesis
▪ During this phase various preliminary ideas are developed
through research of similar products or designs in use.
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4. Analysis and optimization:
▪ The preliminary designs are subjected to the appropriate analysis
to determine their suitability for the specified design
constraints.

▪ If these designs fail to satisfy the constraints, they are then

redesigned or modified on the basis of the feedback from the
analysis.

5. Evaluation:
▪ The evaluation of the design against the specifications
established during the problem definition phase.

▪ This often requires the fabrication and testing of a prototype

model to evaluate operating performance quality, reliability, etc.

6. Presentation:
▪ It is the final phase, which includes documentation of the design
through drawings, material specifications, assembly lists and so
on. 18
Application of Computers to the Design Process

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Various Design Tasks by CAD
1. Geometric Modeling
2. Engineering Analysis
3. Design Review and Evaluation
4. Automated Drafting

1. Geometric modeling
It deals with the mathematical description of the geometry of
an object.

Using the description the image is displayed and

manipulated on a graphics terminal.

Softwares are used to provide the geometric modeling.

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Three types of commands in Geometric modeling

Basic Geometric elements generates from:

▪ Points, Lines, Circles.

▪ Scaling, Rotation, transformations.

▪ Assembly to join various elements.

Different methods of Representing the object in Geometric

modeling

Wire Frame Modeling

Displayed by interconnected lines.

Solid Modeling
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Three types wire frame modeling

2D representation flat object

21/2D no side wall details
3D more complex geometry.

Hidden line removal

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 Wire frame modeling

3D wire frame inadequate for

complicated shapes.

The CAD system have automatic

hidden line removal feature.

Solid Modeling
Advance method of geometric modeling
in three dimensions.

It can be seen from various directions

and in various views.

CAD systems provide colour graphics

capability.

Colour images useful in assembly,

dimensioning. 23
2. ENGINEERING ANALYSIS
Stress-strain calculations
Heat transfer computations

Commercial general purpose programs can be used to perform the

analysis.
Analysis of mass properties
▪ Surface area
▪ Weight
▪ Volume
▪ Centre of gravity and moment of inertia

Finite Element Analysis

Object is divided into a large number of finite elements.
Usually Rectangular or Triangular shapes
Determining the interrelating behaviors of all the nodes in the system,
the behaviour of the entire object can be assessed.
Stress strain analysis, heat transfer.

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Finite Element Analysis of a Component 25
3. DESIGN REVIEW AND EVALUATION

▪ The designer can check the accuracy of the design to reduce the
dimensioning errors.

▪ The designer can zoom in on part design details for close scrutiny.

▪ Checking the assembly of the components.

▪ Kinematics-Animate the motion of components and linkages.

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4. AUTOMATED DRAFTING
▪ Creation of hardcopy engineering drawings directly from CAD data
base.

▪ It increases productivity five times over manual drafting.

▪ Automatic dimensioning, crosshatched areas, scaling of the drawing

▪ Sectional views and enlarged views of particular part details.

▪ Rotating the part to view the image

Oblique Isometric Perspective 27

Engineering Drawing with four views
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CREATING THE MANUFACTURING DATA BASE

CAD system develops the data base needed to manufacture the

product.

In conventional manufacturing
Engineering drawing prepared by design draftsmen and used by
manufacturing engineer to develop the process plan.

In integrated CAD/CAM system

Direct link established between product design and manufacturing.

Manufacturing data base is an integrated CAD/CAM data base.

It includes all the data on the product generated during design

Geometry data, Bill of materials, Part lists, Material specifications
and additional data required for manufacturing.

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CAD/ CAM data base

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Benefits of computer aided design

1. Productivity improvement in design

2. Shorter lead time

3. Design Analysis

4. Fewer design errors

5. Greater accuracy in design calculations

6. Standardization of design, drafting and documentation

procedure

7. Drawings are more understandable

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 Improvement in visualization of images
8. Improved Procedures for engineering changes
Control and implementation of engineering changes is
significantly improved with CAD.
Data base can be checked against new information.
Easy to compare with the current design.

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Benefits in Manufacturing

Tool and fixture design for manufacturing

Numerical control part programming

Computer aided process planning

Assembly lists for production

Computer aided inspection

Robotics planning

Group Technology

Shorter manufacturing lead times through better scheduling

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 The Graphic Output Primitives
Graphics programming packages provide functions to describe a scene
in terms of the basic geometric structures, as referred to as output
primitives.

Complex structures formed by group set of output primitives.

Points and straight line segments are the simplest geometric

components of picture.

A drawing is created by an assembly of

Point
Line
Arc
Circle
Ellipse
Spline
Polygon

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 Pixels
In computer graphics, pictures or graphics objects are presented as a
collection of discrete picture elements (rows and columns) called pixels.

The pixel is the intersection area of the rows and columns (smallest
addressable screen element).

The control is achieved by setting the intensity and colour of the pixel.

To display point P1 (4.2, 3.8) and

point P2 (4.8, 3.1), P1 and P2 are
represented by only one pixel
(4,3) .

In general, a point is represented

by the integer part of X and
integer part of Y, i.e., (int (X), int
(Y)).

Pixel display area of 6 x 535

 Rasterization and Scan conversion
The special procedures determine which pixel will provide the best
approximation to the desired picture or graphics object.

The process of determining the appropriate pixels for representing

picture or graphics object is known as rasterization.

The process of representing continuous picture or graphics object as

a collection of discrete pixels is called scan conversion.
Converting a line vector into its
equivalent pixel positions involves a large
amount of computation.

Each drawing consists of a large amount of

vectors to be displayed.

Hence, there is a need to have a simplified

method by which these could be done at a
faster rate with little computing overhead.
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 Line Drawing
Line drawing is accomplished by calculating intermediate positions
along the line of path between two specified endpoint positions.

An output device is then directed to fill in these positions between the

endpoints.

For a raster display, the line colour (intensity) is then loaded into the
frame buffer at the corresponding pixel coordinates.

A computed line position of (10.48, 20.51) would be converted to pixel

position (10, 21).

This rounding of coordinate values to integers causes lines to be

displayed with a stairstep appearance.

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 Line - Slope
The slope of a line is the rise over the run, or the change in y divided by the
change in x . To find the slope of a line, pick any two points on the line.

Then subtract their x-coordinates and subtract their y-coordinates in the

same order.

Divide the difference of the y -coordinates by the difference of the x -

coordinates:

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Example : Find the slope of the line which passes through the points (2, 5)
and (0, 1) :

This means that every time x increases

by 1 (anywhere on the line), y increase
by 2 , and whenever x decreases by
1, y decreases by 2 .

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Positive Slope
If a line has a positive slope (i.e. m > 0 ), then y always increases
when x increases and y always decreases when x decreases. Thus, the graph
of the line starts at the bottom left and goes towards the top right.

Negative Slope
Negative slope implies that y always
decreases when x increases and y always
increases when x decreases.

Here is an example of a graph with

negative slope:

Thus, as x increases by 3 , y decreases by 4 , and

as x decreases by 3 , y increases by 4 .

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 Line Drawing Algorithm- Raster System
On raster systems, lines are plotted
with pixels and step sizes in the
horizontal and vertical directions are
constrained by pixel separations.

We must sample a line at discrete

positions and determine the nearest
pixel to the line at each sampled
positions.

Scan conversion line algorithms

1. Digital Differential Analyzer (DDA) algorithm

2. Bresenham’s algorithm

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Digital Differential Analyser (DDA) Algorithm/ Vector Algorithm
DDA is one of the incremental scan conversion methods.

This approach is characterized by calculating each step using the

results obtained in the previous step.

In DDA algorithm, either Δx or Δy, which ever is larger is chosen as

one raster unit.

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 Digital Differential Analyser (DDA) Algorithm/ Vector
Algorithm
DDA is a scan conversion line algorithm based
on calculating either Δx or Δy.
Case 1: Line with positive slope
If sample at unit x intervals (Δx = 1)

Where ‘k’ is integer starting from 1, for the

first point and increases by 1 until the final
endpoint is reached.
‘m’ can be any real number between 0 and 1
The calculated ‘y’ values must be rounded to the nearest integer.
If sample at unit ‘y’ intervals (Δy = 1)

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Case 2: Line with negative slope

If Δx = -1

If Δy = -1

The DDA algorithm is a faster method for calculating pixel

positions than the direct use of line equation.

Appropriate increments are applied in x and y direction to step to

pixel positions along the line path.

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To draw a straight line from connecting two points (2, 7) and (15,10)

X1 = 2, X2 = 15 Δx=X2 - X1 = 13
Y1 = 7, Y2 = 10 Δy= (Y2 - Y1) = 3
m= Δy/Δx = 3/13 =0.23

sample at unit x intervals (Δx = 1)

The initials values of X and Y are

X = 2.5 Y = 7.5

Pixel values

Plotting a line 45
 x1=0 x2=6 Δx = x2-x1= 6-0 = 6
y1=0 y2=7 Δy = y2-y1 = 7-0 = 7

m=Δy/ Δx=7/6=1.16, m>1

Therefore , Δy=1

x y
0.5 0.5
1.362 1.5
2.224 2.5
3.086 3.5
3.948 4.5
4.81 5.5
5.672 6.5
6.534 7.5 46
 x1=0 x2=-5 Δx = x2-x1= -5-0 = -5
y1=0 y2=5 Δy = y2-y1 = 5-0 = 5

m= Δy/ Δx = 5/-5 = -1, m<1

Therefore , Δx = -1

x y
-0.5 0.5
-1.5 1.5
-2.5 2.5
-3.5 3.5
-4.5 4.5
-5.5 5.5

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 Drawbacks of DDA Algorithm

Although DDA is fast, the accumulation of round off error in

successive additions of floating point increment, however can cause
the calculated pixel positions to drift away from the line path for
long line segments.

Floating point operations and rounding off in DDA is time

consuming.

These drawbacks have been overcome in Bresenham’s line drawing

algorithm.

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 Bresenham’s Line Algorithm
An accurate and efficient raster line
generating algorithm.

Scan converts lines using only incremental

integer calculations.

We need to decide which of two possible

pixel positions is closer to the line path at
each sample step.

Determine the next sample position whether

to plot the pixel at position (11,11) or the one
at (11,12).

This is decided by calculating the difference

between the separations of the two pixel
positions from the actual line path.
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 For Positive slope
Pixel positions along a line path are then
determined by sampling at unit x intervals.

Starting from the left end point (x0 , y0) of a

given line and step to each successive x position
and plot the pixel whose scan line y value is
closest to the line path.

Assuming that the pixel at (xk, yk) is determined,

we need to decide which pixel to plot in column
xk+1.

Our choices are the pixels at positions (xk+1, yk)

and (xk+1, yk+1).

At sampling position xk+1, we label vertical

separations from the line path as d1 and d2.

The y coordinate on the line at pixel column position xk+1 is calculated as

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The difference between these two separations is

A decision parameter pk for the kth step in the line algorithm can be obtained
by rearranging the above equation and substituting m= Δy/ Δx.

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 Where C is

Parameter c is constant and has the value which is

independent of pixel position and will be eliminated from the
calculations for pk.

If the pixel at yk is closer to the line path than the pixel at yk+1 (that is,
d1<d2), then decision parameter pk is negative.

In that case, we plot the lower pixel; otherwise we plot the upper pixel.

At step k+1, the decision parameter is evaluated from

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 But, xk+1 is the same as xk+1 so:

If pk value negative(lower pixel),

If pk value positive(upper pixel),

If |m|>1 then interchange x and y in the above equations. 53

 Bresenham’s Line Drawing Procedure
If

Input the two line endpoints and store the left endpoint in (x0,y0) .

Load (x0,y0) into the frame buffer; that is plot the first point.

Calculate constants Δx, Δy, 2Δy and 2Δy- 2Δx and obtain the starting value
for the initial decision parameter as

At each xk along the line, starting at k=0, perform the following test:
If pk<0, the next point to plot is (xk+1,yk) and

Otherwise, the next point to plot is (xk+1,yk+1) and

Repeat the above step for Δx times.

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Example
The end points of a line are (20,10) and (30,18). The line has a slope of 0.8 with
Δx = 10, Δy = 8.

The initial decision parameter has the value

p0 = 2Δy - Δx
= 16– 10 = 6
Pk >1 , therefore the next pixel position is
calculated from

When Pk <1 , the next pixel position is

calculated from

If pk value negative(lower
pixel).

If pk value positive(upper
pixel).
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Develop the pixel positions for the straight line joining P1 (10, 20) and
P2 (18, 25)

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Advantage of Bresenham’s Line Algorithm
In DDA both integer and floating point calculations are involved.

No floating point calculations involved in Bresenham’s Line ploting

Algorithm.

Low computational cost, better than DDA.

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 Circle Generating Algorithms
A circle is defined as the set of points that are all at a
given distance r from the center position (xc,yc).

It is expressed in Pythagorean theorem in Cartesian

coordinates as

This equation is used to calculate the position of points

on a circle circumference by stepping along the x axis
in unit steps from xc - r to xc + r and calculating the
corresponding y values at each position as

This is not the best method for generating a circle.

It involves considerable computation at each step.

The spacing between plotted pixel position is not

uniform.

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 Cont…
Another way to eliminate the unequal spacing is to calculate points
along the circular boundary using polar coordinates r and θ.

Expressing circle equation in parametric polar form yields the pair

of equations

Display is generated with these equations using a fixed angular step

size, a circle is plotted with equally spaced points along the
circumference.

The step size chosen for θ depends on the application and the display
device.

Larger angular separations along the circumference can be

connected with straight line segments to approximate the circular
path.
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Computation can be reduced by considering the symmetry of circles.

We can generate the circle section in second quadrant of the xy plane

by noting that the two circle sections are symmetric with respect to the y
axis.

Circle sections in the third and fourth quadrants can be obtained by

considering symmetry about the x axis.

There is also symmetry between octants. Circle sections in adjutant

octants are symmetric with respect to the 45 ° line dividing the two
octants.

The Cartesian equation contain multiplications and square root

calculations, while the parametric equations contain multiplications
and trigonometric calculations.

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 Bresenham’s Circle Algorithm

More efficient circle algorithms are based on incremental calculation of

decision parameters, as in the Bresenham line algorithm, which involves
only simple integer operations.

Bresenham’s line algorithm for raster display is adapted to circle

generation by setting up decision parameters for finding the closest pixel to
the circumference at each sampling step.

Bresenham’s circle algorithm avoids the

square-root calculations by comparing the
pixel separation distances.

A method for direct distance comparison is

to test the halfway position between two
pixels to determine if this midpoint is
inside or outside the circle boundary.

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 Mid Point Circle Algorithm
As in the raster line algorithm, sample at unit intervals and determine the
closest pixel position to the specified circle path at each step.

Radius ‘r’ and screen center position (xc,yc).

The each calculated position (x, y) is moved to its proper screen position by
adding xc to x and yc to y.

Take unit step in the positive x direction over the octant and use a decision
parameter to determine which of the two possible y positions is closer to the
circle path at each step.

Positions in the other seven octants are then obtained by symmetry.

Circle function for midpoint method is

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The circle function tests are performed for the
midpositions between pixels near the circle
path at each sampling step.

The circle function is the decision parameter

in the midpoint algorithm.

Figure shows the midpoint between the two pixels at sampling position xk+1.

Decision parameter at the midpoint between these two pixels

If pk < 0, this midpoint is inside the circle and the pixel on yk is closer to
the circle boundary.

Otherwise, the midpoint is outside or on the circle boundary and we select

the pixel on yk-1.
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Successive decision parameters are obtained using incremental calculations.

The difference between these two

The initial decision parameter is obtained by evaluating the circle function at

the start position (x0, y0) = (0, r)

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 Mid Point Circle Algorithm- Steps
1. Input radius ‘r’ and circle center (xc, yc), and obtain the first point on the
circumference of a circle centered on the origin as
(x0, y0) = (0, r)

2. Calculate the initial value of the decision parameter as

3. If pk < 0, the next point along the circle is (xk+1, yk) and

Otherwise, the next point along the circle is (xk+1, yk -1) and

4. Determine symmetry points in the other seven octants.

5. Move each calculated pixel position (x, y) onto the circular path centered on
(xc, yc) and plot the coordinate values.
x= x +xc, y = y +yc

6. Repeat steps 3 through 5 until x ≥ y.

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 Example-Midpoint circle algorithm
A circle radius is 10cm, demonstrate the midpoint circle algorithm by
determining positions along the circle in the first quadrant from x=0 to x=y.
The initial value of the decision parameter is
Initial point is (x0,y0) = (0,10), the initial increment terms for calculating the decision
parameters are 2x0 = 0, 2y0 =20.
Pk <0 – Upper pixel selected
Next position

If Pk > 0, Lower pixel selected

-3

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Given a circle of radius r=15cm, determine the pixel positions along the circle
octant using mid point algorithm in the first quadrant from x=0 to x=y

R=15

Initial point is (x0,y0) = (0,15), the initial increment terms for calculating the decision
parameters are 2x0 = 0, 2y0 =30.
Pk <0
Next position

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 Transformation

Plays a central role in model construction and viewing

Used to achieve the effect of different viewing positions and

directions

Used to create animated files of geometric models to study

their motion

Commonly used transformations are

TRANSLATION
ROTATION
SCALING

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 Cont..

Geometric Transformations are mappings from one coordinate

system onto itself.

The description of a geometric model of an object can change

within its own model coordinate system (MCS).

This would imply that the geometric model must undergo motion
relative to its MCS.

Relative distance between object particles remain constant; i.e.,

the object does not deform during the motion.

Transformations can be applied directly to the parametric

representations of objects such as points, curves, surfaces and
solids.

Concatenation or combination of transformations must be

possible 69
 Coordinate System

Cartesian coordinate system

Euclidean
Homogeneous

Polar coordinate system

Cartesian and polar systems are inter transformable.

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3D Euclidean transformation

3D Homogeneous transformation

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 Transformation of a point

Transformation can be applied directly to the parametric

representations of objects such as points, curves, surfaces and
solids.
A point P belongs to a geometric model undergoes a rigid-body
motion, find corresponding point P* in the new position such that
P* = f(P, transformation parameters)
To implement into graphics software it is expressed in matrix
notation as P*=[T]P
[T] is the transformation matrix whose elements are functions of
the given transformation parameters.
The transformation matrix is applicable to both 2D and 3D
graphics applications

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 Representation of points in matrix form
• In two dimensional coordinate system any point is represented in terms of x
and y coordinates.
• The point (x,y) can be converted into matrix in the following two ways:

• The above two matrices are frequently called position vectors.

• A series of points, each of which is a position vector relative to some
coordinate system, is stored in a computer as a matrix or array of numbers.
• The position of these points is controlled by manipulating the matrix
which defines the points.
• Lines are drawn between the points to generate lines, curves or pictures.

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 Representation of points in matrix form
• Represent any rectangle in matrix form.
• Let (x1, y1) and (x2,y2) be the opposite vertices of a rectangle.
• Then , the four vertices of the rectangle will be: (x1,y1), (x2, y1),
(x2,y2), (x1,y2).
• Matrix form

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 TRANSLATION
• Every entity of the geometric model remains parallel to its initial
position, the rigid body transformation of the model is defined as translation.
• Every point on it moves an equal given distance in a given direction
• Translation can be specified by a vector, a unit vector and a distance or two
points that denote the initial and final positions of the model to be translated.

Final position vector P* of a point

P to its initial position vector P
after being translated by a vector d.

P* = P+d

Scalar form for 3-D case

• x* = x+xd
• y* = y+yd
• z* = z+zd

• Translating a curve does not change its tangent vector at any point
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 TRANSLATION OF A PLANE FIGURE

• This is normally the operation used in

CAD systems as the MOVE command.

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TRANSLATION- EXAMPLE

77
(1,1) & (2,4) 2units x and 3 units y.

(3,4) & (4,&)

78
 TRANSLATION- EXAMPLE
Translate the outline of a house by (3, -4)

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 SCALING
Scaling is used to change, increase or decrease the size of an entity or a
model.
Point wise scaling can be performed by

Where [S] is a diagonal scaling matrix.

In three dimension it is given by

Can be expanded to give

The elements sx, sy, sz of the scaling matrix [S] are the scaling factors in
the X, Y, Z directions respectively.
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 UNIFORM SCALING

Scaling factors are always positive.

If the scaling factor are smaller than
1, the geometric model or entity to
which scaling is applied is compressed.
If the factors are greater than 1, the
model is stretched.
If the scale factors are equal, that is,
sx=sy=sz=s, the model changes in size
only not in shape. This is the case of
uniform scaling.

Uniform scaling does not change the slope at

any point.

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 DIFFERENTIAL SCALING
Differential scaling occurs when

Different scaling are applied in

different directions.
Differential scaling changes
both the size and shape of a
geometric model.

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 SCALING OF A PLANE FIGURE

X1 Y1
P* = X2 Y2

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84
85
86
 ROTATION
Rotation is an important form of geometrical transformation.
It enables the users to view geometric models from different angles.
Rotation of a point through an angle θ about x or y or z is sometimes
referred to as rotation about the origin.
A rotation in the counter clockwise direction is considered as positive.

The final position of P after

rotation is shown as point P*.

87
 The coordinates of P* are given by:

where

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(1,1) & (2,4) Rotate 30 degree CCW.

89
Homogeneous Transformation

90
 Concatenated Transformation
A series of transformations is applied to a geometric model.
It is also called as combination of transformations.
Concatenated transformations are simply obtained by multiplying the
[T] matrices of the corresponding individual transformations.

Where [Ti] are any combination of

▪ Translation
▪ Scaling
▪ Rotation
▪ Reflection

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The line has to be rotated 45 degree ccw about point A.

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93
94
 3D -Transformations
A 3D object has a three dimensional geometry and therefore it requires
a three dimensional coordinate transformation.
The scaling and translation transformations are essentially the same as
two dimensional transformations.
However, the matrix will have a non zero third column.

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96
97
END

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