CAD/CAM

UNIT -1
INTRODUCTION
 In engineering practice, CAD/CAM has been utilized in different ways by
different people.
 Some utilize it to produce drawings and document designs.
 Others may employ it as a visual tool by generating shaded images and
animated displays.
 A third group may perform engineering analysis of some sort on geometric
models such as finite element analysis.
 A fourth group may use it to perform process planning an generate NC part
programs. In order to establish the scope and definition of CAD/CAM in an
engineering environment and identify existing and future related tools, a study of a
typical product cycle is necessary. Figure 1.1 shows a flowchart of such a cycle.

Fig. 1.1 Typical Product Cycle

 CAD tools can be defined as the intersection of three sets: geometrical modeling,
computer graphics and the design tools.
 Figure 1.2 shows such definition. As can be perceived from this figure, the
abstracted concepts of geometric modeling and computer graphics must be applied
innovatively to serve the design process.

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 Based on implementation in a design environment, CAD tools can be defined as the

design tools (analysis codes, heuristic procedures, design practices, etc.) being
improved by computer hardware and software throughout its various phases to
achieve the design goal efficiently and competitively as shown in Fig. 1.2.

Fig. 1.2 Definition of CAD tools based on their Constituents

 Designers will always require tools that provide them with fast and reliable
solutions to design situations that involve iterations and testings of more than one
alternative.
 CAD tools can vary from geometric tools, such as manipulations of graphics entities
and interference checking, on one extreme, to customized applications programs,
such as developing analysis and optimization routines, on the other extreme.
 In between these two extremes, typical tools currently available include tolerance
analysis, mass property calculations and finite element modeling and analysis.

Fig. 1.3 Definition of CAD tools based on their implementation in a design environment

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 CAD tools, as defined above, resemble guidance to the user of CAD technology.
 The definition should not and is not intended to, represent a restriction on utilizing it
in engineering design and applications. The principal purposes of this definition are
the following:
1. To extend the utilization of current CAD/CAM systems beyond just
drafting and visualization.
2. To customize current CAD/CAM systems to meet special design and
analysis needs.
3. To influence the development of the next generation of CAD/CAM
systems to better serve the design and manufacturing processes.

Reasons for Implementing a CAD System

1. To increase in the productivity of the designer
The CAD improves the productivity of the designer to visualize the product and
its components, parts and reduces time required in synthesizing, analyzing and
documenting the design.
2. To improve the quality of design
o CAD system permits a more detailed engineering analysis and a large no. of
design alternatives can be investigated.
o The design errors are also reduced because of the greater accuracy
provided by system.
3. To improve communication in design
The use of a CAD system provides better engineering drawings, more
standardization in drawing, better documentation of design, few drawing errors.
4. To create a data base for manufacturing
In the process of creating the documentation for the product design, much of the
required data base to manufacture the product can be created.
5. Improves the efficiency of design
It improves the efficiency of design process and the wastages at the design stage can
be reduced.

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Conventional Design Process

Fig. 1.4. Conventional Design process

There are six steps involved in the conventional design process as discussed
below:
1. Recognition of need
• The first step in the designing process is to recognize necessity of
that particular design.
• The condition under which the part is going to operate and the
operation of part in that particular environment.
• The real problem is identified by knowing the history and difficulties
faced in system.

2. Definition of problem
• The design involves type of shape of part, its space requirement, the
material restrictions and the condition under which the part has to
operate.
• The basic purpose of design process has to be known before starting
the design.
• A problem may be design of a simple part or complex part.
• It may be problem on optimizing certain parameters.

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3. Synthesis of design
• In this, it may be necessary to prepare a rough drawing of design part.
• The type of loading conditions imposed on the parts.
• The type of shapes which the part section can require and
approximate dimension at which the different forces are located has to
be provided on the sketch of part.
• The stresses to which the part is likely to be subjected must be
analyzed and relevant formulas should be prepared.
• A mathematical model of design may be prepared to synthesize the
parts of design.

4. Analysis and optimization

• The design can be analyzed for the type of loading condition as well as
the geometric shape of the part.
• In the first stage it will be necessary to check the design of the part for
safe stresses.
• If it is not satisfactory, then the dimensions of the part can be
recalculated.
• The part can further be optimized for acquiring minimum dimensions,
weight, volume, efficiency of the material and cost.
• The optimization depends on the definition of the problem and
importance of a parameter.
• It may be sometimes necessary to optimize the part for certain
operating parameters like efficiency, torque, etc.

5. Evaluation
• It is concerned with measuring the design against the specifications
established in the problem definition phase.
• The evaluation often requires the fabrication and testing of model to
assess operating performance, quality and reliability.

6. Presentation
• The design of component must be presented along with necessary
drawings in an attractive format.

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1.4 Conventional Design vs CAD

Fig. 1.5 Computer Aided Design

1. Geometric modeling
• Geometric modeling is concerned with the computer compatible
mathematical description of the geometry of an object.
• The mathematical description allows the image of the object to be
displayed and manipulated on a graphics terminal through signals
from the CPU of CAD system.
• The software that provides geometric modeling capabilities must be
designed for efficient use both by the computer and human designer.
• The basic form uses wire frames to represent the object.
• The most advanced method of geometric modeling is solid modeling
in three dimensions.
2. Engineering Analysis
• The analysis may involve stress-strain calculations, heat transfer
computation etc.
• The analysis of mass properties is the analysis feature of CAD system
that has probably the widest application.

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• It provides properties of solid object being analyzed, such as surface

area, weight, volume, center of gravity and moment of inertia.
• The most powerful analysis feature of CAD system is the finite
element method.
3. Design Review & Analysis
• A procedure for design review is interference checking.
• This involves the analysis of an assembled structure in which there is
a risk that the components of the assembly may occupy same space.
• Most interesting evaluation features available on some CAD systems
is kinematics.
• The available kinematics packages provide the capabilities to animate
the motion of simple designed mechanisms such as hinged
components and linkages.
4. Automated Drafting
• This feature includes automatic dimensioning, generation of cross-
hatched areas, scaling of the drawing and the capability to develop
sectional views and enlarged views of particular part details.
Benefits of CAD
• Improved engineering productivity
• Reduced manpower required
• More efficient operation
• Customer modification are easier to make
• Low wastages
• Improved accuracy of design
• Better design can be evolved
• Saving of materials and machining time by optimization
• Colors can be used to customize the product
Limitations of CAD
• The system requires large memory and speed.
• The size of the software package is large.
• It requires highly skilled personal to perform the work.
• It has huge investment.

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CAD/CAM Systems Evaluation Criteria

 The various types of CAD/CAM systems are Mainframe-Based Systems,
Minicomputer-Based Systems, Microcomputer-Based Systems and Workstation
Based Systems.
 The implementation of these types by various vendors, software developers and
hardware manufacturers result in a wide variety of systems, thus making the
selection process of one rather difficult. CAD/CAM selection committees find
themselves developing long lists of guidelines to screen available choices.
 These lists typically begin with cost criteria and end with sample models or
benchmarks chosen to test system performance and capabilities. In between comes
other factors such as compatibility requirements with in-house existing computers,
prospective departments that plan to use the systems and credibility of CAD/CAM
systems' suppliers.
 In contrast to many selection guidelines that may vary sharply from one
organization to another, the technical evaluation criteria are largely the same. They
are usually based on and are limited by the existing CAD/CAM theory and
technology. These criteria can be listed as follows.
System Considerations
(i) Hardware
Each workstation is connected to a central computer, called the server, which has
enough large disk and memory to store users' files and applications programs as
well as executing these programs.
(ii) Software
Three major contributing factors are the type of operating system the software runs
under, the type of user interface (syntax) and the quality of documentation.
(iii) Maintenance
Repair of hardware components and software updates comprise the majority of
typical maintenance contracts. The annual cost of these contracts is substantial
(about 5 to 10 percent of the initial system cost) and should be considered in
deciding on the cost of a system in addition to the initial capital investment.
(iv) Vendor Support and Service
Vendor support typically includes training, field services and technical support. Most
vendors provide training courses, sometimes on-site if necessary.

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Geometric Modeling Capabilities

(i) Representation Techniques
The geometric modeling module of a CAD/CAM system is its heart. The
applications module of the system is directly related to and limited by the various
representations it supports. Wireframes, surfaces and solids are the three types of
modeling available.
(ii) Coordinate Systems and Inputs
In order to provide the designer with the proper flexibility to generate geometric
models, various types of coordinate systems and coordinate inputs ought to be
provided. Coordinate inputs can take the form of cartesian (x, y, z), cylindrical (r, θ,
z) and spherical (θ, φ, z).
(iii) Modeling Entities
The fact that a system supports a representation scheme is not enough. It is important
to know the specific entities provided by the scheme. The ease to generate, verify
and edit these entities should be considered during evaluation.
(iv) Geometric Editing and Manipulation
It is essential to ensure that these geometric functions exist for the three types of
representations. Editing functions include intersection, trimming and projection and
manipulations include translation, rotation, copy, mirror, offset, scaling and changing
attributes.
(v) Graphics Standards Support
If geometric models' databases are to be transferred from one system to another,
both systems must support exchange standards.
Design Documentation
(i) Generation of Engineering Drawings
After a geometric model is created, standard drafting practices are usually applied to
it to generate the engineering drawings or the blueprints. Various views (usually top,
front and right side) are generated in the proper drawing layout. Then dimensions are
added, hidden lines are eliminated and/or dashed, tolerances are specified, general
notes and labels are added, etc.

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Applications
(i) Assemblies or Model Merging
Generating assemblies and assembly drawings from individual parts is an essential
process.
(ii) Design Applications
There are design packages available to perform applications such as mass property
calculations, tolerance analysis, finite element modeling and analysis, injection
modeling analysis and mechanism analysis and simulation.
(iii) Manufacturing Applications
The common packages available are tool path generation and verification, NC part
programming, postprocessing, computer aided process planning, group technology,
CIM applications and robot simulation.
(iv) Programming Languages Supported
It is vital to look into the various levels of programming languages a system
supports. Attention should be paid to the syntax of graphics commands when they
are used inside and outside the programming languages. If this syntax changes
significantly between the two cases, user confusion and panic should be expected.
CAD Hardware
The hardware of the CAD system consists of the following:
• CPU
• Secondary memory
• Workstation
• Input unit
• Output unit
• Graphics display terminal

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1. Central Processing Unit (CPU)

The CPU is the brain of the entire system.
Functions of CPU
• To receive information from the work station and display the output on the CRT screen.
• To read the data stored in the secondary memory storage unit.

Fig. 1.6 Components of CPU

Functions of secondary memory
• To store files related to engineering drawing
• To store programs required to give instruction to output devices like plotters.
• To store CAD software
• The secondary storage unit consists of magnetic tapes and discs.
2. Work Station

Fig. 1.7 Design Workstation

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• The workstation is a visible part of the CAD system which provides interaction
between the operator and the system.
• Among these advantages offered by work station are their availability, portability,
the availability to dedicate them to a single task without affecting other users, and their
consistency of time response.
• A workstation can be defined as a station of work with its own computing power to
support major software packages, multitasking capabilities demanded by increased usage,
complex tasks, and networking potential with other computing environments.
3. Input Devices
o A no. of input devices is available. These devices are used to input two
possible types of information: text and graphics.
o Text-input devices and the alphanumeric keyboards.
o There are two classes of graphics input devices: Locating devices and image
input devices.
o Locating devices, or locators, provide a position or location on the screen.
o These include light pens, mouse, digitizing tablets, joysticks, trackballs,
thumbwheels, touchscreen and touchpads.
o Locating devices typically operate by controlling the position of a cursor on
screen. Thus, they are also referred to as cursor-control devices.
I. Scanners
• Scanners comprise other class of graphics-input device.
• There are four relevant parameters to measure the performance of
graphics input devices. These are resolution, accuracy, repeatability,
and linearity.
• Some may be more significant to some devices than others.
II. Keyboards
• Keyboards are typically employed to create/edit programs or to
perform word processing functions.
• CAD/CAM systems, information entered through keyboards should
be displayed back to the user on a screen for verification.
III. Digitizing Tablets
• A digitizing tablet is considered to be a locating as well as pointing
device. It is a small, low-resolution digitizing board often used in

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conjunction with a graphics display.

• The tablet is a flat surface over which a stylus can be moved by the
user.
• A tablet’s typical resolution is 200 dots per inch
• The tablet operation is based on sensitizing its surface area to be able
to track the pointing element motion on the surface.
• Several sensing methods and technologies are used in tablets. The
most common sensing technology is electromagnetic, where the
pointing element generates an out of phase magnetic field sensed by
wire grid in tablet surface.

Fig. 1.8 Digitizer

IV. Mouse

Fig. 1.9 Mouse

• • There are two basic types of mouse available mechanical and
optical.
• The mechanical mouse has roller in order to record the mouse motion
in X and Y directions.

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• In optical mouse, movements over the surface are measured by a light

beam modulation technique.
• The light source is located at the bottom and the mouse must be in
contact with the surface for screen cursor to follow its movement.
V. Joy sticks & Trackballs

Fig. 1.10 Joy stick & Track ball

• The joystick works by pushing its stick backwards or forward or to
left or right. The extreme positions of these directions correspond to
the four corners of the screen.
• A trackball is similar in principal to a joystick but allows more precise
fingertip control. The ball rotates freely within its mount.
• Both the joystick and trackball are used to navigate the screen display
cursor. The user of a trackball can learn quickly how to adjust to any
nonlinearity in its performance.

CLASSIFICATION OF HARDWARE CONFIGURATIONS

The classification hardware configuration is as follows:

(a) Mainframe-based systems
(b) Minicomputer-based systems
(c) Microcomputer-based systems
(d) Workstation-based systems

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Mainframe-based Systems

Mainframe-based CAD/CAM systems are used in large organizations for handling

massive amounts of data and a multitude of concurrent activities of remote separate software
applications. Mainframes often host hundreds of remote workstations operating and
communicating over a vast network (sometimes covering thousands of kilometers and
crossing international boundaries).
Below Figure shows a schematic of the mainframe-based CAD system components
and details of a workstation. The computer environment is divided into:
• The user environment
• The system environment
The user environment signifies the components and the area which the user can access.
These components include primarily workstations and peripherals. The mainframe can
support as many workstations as possible to avoid degradation of the response time between
the users and the system. A typical workstation consists of input and output devices. The
input devices may include cursor control devices for graphics input and text input devices.
The cursor can be controlled via a light pen, joystick, mouse, electronic pen with a digital
tablet, thumbwheel, or trackball. Text input can be input through a keyboard, which may have
programmed function keys. Output devices consist of a graphics display with a hardcopy
printer to provide convenient raster plots of full screen contents.

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Minicomputer-based Systems

The development of VLSI (very large scale integrated) circuits has changed the basic
principles of computer architecture and has directly led to the proliferation of minicomputers.
Early versions on minis were 16-bit word, slow and limited-storage computers.

The DEC (Digital Equipment Corporation) PDP series offers a typical example. In the
late 1970s, the arrival of super 32-bit word and virtual memory operating systems, boosted
CAD/CAM applications and facilitated decentralization from mainframes. Minicomputers
have enabled the rapid growth of the CAD/CAM industry. The 32-bit minicomputer is
capable of handling complex geometric software and large quantities of data. The schematic
of minicomputer is shown in above figure.
Microcomputer-based Systems

The advent of the IBM Personal Computer (PC) provided the first significant impetus
for CAD on micros. Two main factors are responsible for the popularity and fast emergence
of micro-based CAD systems. First, the speed, size, and accuracy problems are being
reduced. Microcomputers of a 32-bit word length are available with enough memory size,
disk storage, and speed for CAD/CAM applications. Second, various application programs
have matured and cover most, if not all user needs.

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Workstation-based Systems

Graphics terminals attached to mainframes, minis, or PCs do not qualify as

workstations. These terminals may be referred to as work stations* (two words). A
workstation can be defined as a 'work station' with its own computing power to support major
software packages, multitasking capabilities demanded by increased usage and complex
tasks, and networking potential with other computing environments. The workstation concept
seems to form (he basis of the present generation of CAD/CAM systems.

The basic elements of a CAD workstation are:

• A graphics screen called the VISUAL DISPLAY UNIT (VDU)
• An ALPHA-NUMERIC DISPLAY (word and number screen)
• A workstation PROCESSOR
• An electronic COMMAND TABLET
• A MENU facility
• A CURSOR CONTROL device
• A KEYBOARD
• A PRINTER/PLOTTER device
GRAPHICAL DISPLAYS
The graphical display enables the user to view images and to communicate with the
displayed images by adding, deleting, blanking and moving graphics entities on the display
screen. Various display technologies are now available based on the concept of converting
the computer electrical signals into visible images at high speed. The graphics display can be
divided into two types based on the scan technology used to control the electron beam when
generating graphics on the screen. These are:

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 Random scan
 Raster scan
In random scan, graphics can be generated by drawing vectors or line segments on the
screen in a random order, which is controlled, by the user input and the software. The
principle of random scan is illustrated in below figure.

In raster scan, the screen is canned from left to right, top to bottom, all the time to
generate graphics. The principle of random scan is illustrated in below figure.

The graphic display technologies include:

 CRT (cathode ray tube)
 Liquid crystal display
 Plasma panel display
The CRT is basically an evacuated glass tube in which a beam of electrons is fired
from an electron gun onto a phosphor-coated screen, resulting in an illuminated trace being
displayed on the screen.

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Various types of CRT displays are broadly categorized into:

 Direct view storage tube (DVST)
 Vector refresh
 Raster refresh
The DVST (Direct View Storage Tube) has the standard CRT electron gun and
deflection system for location of the beam onto the screen. The picture is stored as a charge in
the phosphor mesh located behind the screen surface. Once displayed, the picture remains on
the screen until it is explicitly erased. Therefore, complex pictures can be drawn without
flicker at high resolution. One cannot alter a DVST picture except by erasing the entire screen
and drawing it again. The inability to erase and edit individual areas of the drawing is a major
drawback of the DVST system. Colored pictures are not usually available with a DVST. This
can be a distinct disadvantage, particularly for three-dimensional drawings. Animation is also
difficult to achieve, a factor that effectively disallows such vital facilities as tool-path
simulation, and dynamic analysis of mechanisms.

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In vector refresh display, the deflection system of the CRT is controlled and driven
by the vector and character generators and digital-to-analog converters. The refresh buffer
stores the display file that contains points, lines, characters, and other attributes of the picture
to be drawn. These commands are interpreted and processed by the display processor. The
electron beam accordingly excites the phosphor that glows for a short period. In order to
maintain a steady flicker-free image, the screen must be refreshed or re-drawn at least 30 or
60 times per second. Vector refresh displays are particularly noted for their bright, clear
image, and high drawing speed. The refresh operation is well-suited to fast moving animation
of the screen display in either 2D or 3D. The chief disadvantages of vector refresh displays
are their high cost, and their tendency to flicker on complex drawings if the refresh rate
becomes less than the flicker threshold of the eye. Color displays are possible, but again are
only available at high cost.

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Raster refresh display works on the principle of a domestic television set. In raster
display, the display screen area is divided horizontally and vertically into a matrix of small
elements called picture elements (pixels). A pixel is the smallest addressable area on a screen
as shown in Figure 2.25. A n N x M resolution defines a screen with N rows and M columns.
Each row defines a scan line. A typical resolution of a raster display is 1280 X 1204. The
pixels are controlled by the electron beam as it sweeps across the screen from one side to the
other. The beam always starts its sweep from the top left-hand corner of the screen,
regardless of what has been drawn, finishes on a horizontal line to the right, moves down one
row of pixels, returns, and starts again from the left. The display is completed when the beam
has reached the bottom right of the screen. It then refreshes by commencing the whole
procedure again at the top left. Each refresh operation takes about 0.02 seconds. Images are
displayed by converting geometric in format ion into pixel values, which arc then converted
into electron beam deflection through the display processor and the deflection system.
In a color raster display, there are three electron guns, one for each of the primary
colors, red, green and blue. The electron guns are frequently arranged in a triangular pattern
corresponding to a similar triangular pattern of red, green and blue phosphor dots on the face
of the CRT. In order to ensure that the individual electron guns excite the correct phosphor
dots (e.g., the red gun excites only the red phosphor dot), a perforated metal grid is placed
between the electron guns and the face of the CRT. The perforations in the shadow mask are
arranged in the same triangular pattern as the phosphor dots.

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The distance between perforations is called the pitch. The color guns are arranged so
that the individual beams converge and intersect at the shadow mask. Upon passing through
[he hole in the shadow mask, the red beam, for example, is prevented or masked from
intersecting either the green or blue phosphor dot; it can only intersect the red phosphor dot.
By varying the strength of the electron beam for each individual primary color, different
shades (intensities) are obtained. These primary color shades are combined into a number of
colors for each pixel.
In a liquid crystal display transmitted or blocked, depending upon the orientation of
molecules in the liquid crystal. The polarizing characteristics of certain organic compounds
are used to modify the characteristics of the incident light. The basic principles of polarized
light are shown in below figure. In figure (a) non-coherent light is passed through the first
(left) polarizer. The resulting transmitted light is polarized in the x-y plane. Since the
polarizing axis of the second polarizer is also aligned with the x-y plane, the light continues
through the second polarizer. In figure (b) the polarizing axis of the second polarizer is
rotated 90° to that of first. Consequently, the plane polarized light that passed through the
first polarizer is absorbed by the second.

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Color liquid crystal displays use colored filters or phosphors with twisted nematic
technology or use guest-host (dye) technology. Guest-host liquid crystal displays combine
dichromic-dye guest molecules with the host liquid crystal molecules. The spectral
characteristics of different guest molecules are used to produce different colors. The
application of an electric field realigns the orientation of both the guest and host molecules, lo
allow transmission of light. A typical guest-host transmissive liquid crystal display is shown
in below figure.

The plasma display contains a gas at low pressure sandwiched between horizontal and
vertical grids of fine wires. A tower voltage will not start aglow but will maintain a glow
once it is started. Normally, the wires have this low voltage between them. To see a pixel, the
voltage is increased momentarily on the wires that intersect the desired point. To extinguish a
pixel, the voltage on the corresponding wires is reduced until the glow cannot be maintained.
Plasma displays can be AC or DC or hybrid AC/DC activated. AC and DC plasma

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displays are shown in below Figure. The DC-activated display consists of a dielectric spacer
plate, which contains the gas cavities sandwiched between plates containing the row-column
conductors. The electric field is applied directly to the gas. A DC-activated plasma display
requires continuous refreshing.
In the AC-activated plasma display, a dielectric layer is placed between the conductors
and the gas. Thus, the only coupling between the gas and the conductors is capacitive. Hence,
an AC-voltage is required to dissociate the gas. AC-activated plasma displays have bistable
memory; thus, the necessity to continuously refresh the display is eliminated. Bistable
memory is obtained by using a low AC voltage to keep alive voltage. The characteristic
capacitive coupling provides enough voltage to maintain the activity in the conducting pixels,
but not enough to activate non-conducting pixels.
A hybrid AC/DC plasma display uses DC voltage lo prime the gas and make it more
easily activated by the AC voltage. The principal advantage of the hybrid AC/DC plasma
display is reduced driver circuitry

HARDCOPY PRINTERS AND PLOTTERS

Printers and plotters are used to create check plots for offline editing and producing final
drawings and documentation on paper. Printers usually provide hard copies of text as well as
graphics.

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Printers are classified as follows on the basis of three principal technologies used for their
operation:
 Impact dot matrix printer
 Ink jet printer
 Laser printer
Impact dot matrix printer: This is an electromechanical device, which creates
images on paper from thousands of tiny dots when thin wires create an impact on an ink
ribbon. The working principle of dot matrix printer is shown in Figure. Text characters and
graphics elements are not displayed as separate items. The complete display is built up from
reciprocating horizontal sweeps of the printing head as the paper winds around a rotating
drum. Thus, the hard copy is constructed from dots in a similar manner to a raster screen
display, with the resulting appearance being much the same. The resolutions that are
available vary but range from 60 dots per inch lo 240 dots per inch. Their cost is
comparatively low, but a major disadvantage is their noise because of the impact of the pins
on the paper. For example, the letter ‘A' is printed with 24 overlapping needles shown in
Figure.

Ink jet printer: This is a raster scan device. The basic principle is lo shoot tiny droplets of
ink onto a medium. There are two types of ink jet printers, continuous flow and drop-on-
demand. The continuous flow ink jet produces a stream of droplets by spraying ink out of the
nozzle. The stream of ink from the nozzle is broken up into droplets by ultrasonic waves. If
ink is desired on the medium, selected droplets are electrostatically charged. Deflection plates
are then used to direct the droplet onto the medium. If not, the droplet is deflected into a
gutter, from which the ink is returned to (he reservoir. Paper and transparency film are typical
media. This system is shown in Figure.

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CAD/CAM

A drop-on-demand printer fires ink at the medium only if a dot is required at a particular
location. Here, ink from a reservoir is supplied to a nozzle under pressure. The ink is fired on
demand by applying an electric voltage to a piezoelectric crystal as the head makes a pass
across the medium. When a voltage is applied, the piezoelectric crystal expands, decreasing
the volume of the ink chamber. These causes a drop of ink lo squirt out of the nozzle. Release
of the voltage causes the piezoelectric crystal lo contract, decreasing the volume of the
reservoir and sucking the link back onto the nozzle. The resolution of ink jet printers is
determined by the size of the droplet and hence by the size of the nozzle. Because of the
extremely small nozzle size required, nozzle clogging, ink contamination and air bubbles in
the ink can be significant problems.

Laser printer: This is essentially an electrostatic plain paper copier with the
difference that the drum surface is written by a laser beam. The working principle of a laser
printer is illustrated in below figure.The heart of the printer is a rotating precision drum. At
the start of each page cycle, it is charged up to about 1000 volts and coated with a
photosensitive material. Then light from a laser is scanned along the length of the drum much
like the electron beam in a CRT only instead of achieving the horizontal deflection using a
voltage, a rotating octagonal mirror is used to scan the length of the drum. The light beam is
modulated to produce a pattern of light and dark spots. The spots where the beam hits lose
their electrical charge. After a line of dots has been painted, the drum rotates a fraction of a

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degree to allow the next line to be painted. Eventually, the first line of dots reaches the toner,
a reservoir of an electroslatically sensitive black powder. The toner is attracted to those dots
that are still charged, thus forming a visual image of that line. A little later in the transport
path, the toner-coated drum is pressed against the paper, thus transferring the black powder to
the paper. The paper is then passed through heated rollers to bind the toner to the paper
permanently, fixing the image. Later in its rotation, the drum is discharged and scraped clean
of any residual toner, preparing it for being charged and coated again for the next page.

Plotter: This is a widely accepted output device for CAD/CAM applications. A large
range (A0-A4) of plotters of varying sizes and prices are available. The accuracies achievable
are very high and the plots can be made on all types of media such as paper, tracing paper and
acetate film. There are three common types of conventional pen plotters: flatbed, drum and
pinch roller. Pens may be-of wet ink, Ballpoint or felt-tip type. The basic mechanisms are
shown in below Figure.
In a moving-arm flatbed plotter, the medium is fixed in position on the bed of the
plotter. Two-dimensional motion of the plotting head is obtained by the movement of an arm
suspended across the width of the plotter bed. This provides motion in one direction. Motion
in the second direction is obtained by moving the plotting head along the suspended arm.
A moving head flatbed head plotter uses a plotting tool carriage suspended above the bed
by magnetic forces that are counter-balanced by an air bearing. This arrangement provides
nearly frictionless movement. Movement of the head in two dimensions is controlled
electromagnetically by using the Sawyer motor principle.

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In the drum plotter the paper is attached to a drum that rotates back and forth, thereby
providing movement in one axis. The pen mechanism moves in the transverse direction to
provide movement along the other axis.

ROLE OF COMPUTER IN MANUFACTURING

 Coordinate measuring machine (CMM)
 Rapid prototyping
 Standardization and Localization
 Conceptual modeling
 FMS (ASRS, AGV, CONVEYERS)
 CIM (Business data processing system)
 JIT, Kanban system
 Inspection
 Robots
 Machine vision
 Coefficient of thermal expansion
 Bill of material (MRP)
 PLM (product lifecycle management)
 Supply chain management
 Feed rotes, D.C, M/C speed
 Scheduling of parts
 Digital manufacturing

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UNIT-2
GEOMETRIC MODELING

INTRODUCTION

Geometric modeling is a branch of applied mathematical and computational geometry

that studies methods and algorithms for mathematical description of shapes
The shapes studied in Geometric modeling are mostly 2-Dimensional or 3-
Dimensional although many of its tools and principles can be applied to sets of any finite
dimension. Most Geometric modeling is done with computer and computer based
applications. 2-Dimensions models are important in computer typography (The art and
technique of arranging type in order to make language visible) and technical drawings. 3-
Dimensional models are central to CAD and CAD many applied technical fields. Such as
civil, mechanical, architecture, geology, medical image processing.

NEED OF GEOMETRIC MODELING

For manufacturing automobile engine it require around 10,000 drawings models in

various departments with different styles. Once models are prepared using any CAD
software, these models can be used in almost all departments of the organization which
includes-

1. Designing the parts and assemblies and then performing tolerance analysis of the
assemblies
2. Preparation of production drawings of individual parts, subassemblies, assemblies,
tooling and jig-fixtures
3. Making structural, thermal and kinetic analysis
4. Considering volume of parts and after extracting material properties from material
library, cost estimation can be easily done

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5. Process plans are also prepared for all the components

6. Using CAM software’s, we can model as input for CNC programming
7. Programming the movement of the components from one station to another is possible
using various material devices such as robots, conveyors, automated guided vehicles
8. Using coordinate measuring machine (CMM) dimensional and geometric accuracies are
checked by extracting various dimensions and parametric from the models only
9. Other supporting activities such as material requirement and procurement, preparation of
bill of materials, manufacturing resource requirement, planning and scheduling, analysis
With competitions products etc are also possible once geometric models are available
thus for all these activities, geometric models becomes the central that will be manipulate at
all these storages. While modeling, geometric models are prepared in such a way that the
other modules such as CAM, CAE, Mechanism systems are able to use this information in
the most optimal and efficient way.

REQUIREMENTS OF GEOMETRIC MODELING

The requirement of geometric modeling is manifold. The conceptual design is the

basis of the generation of geometric model. The choice of the geometric model depends on
the mechanical functions to be performed by it. A valid geometric model is created by CAD
system and its model database is stored. The database of geometric modeling is used for
engineering analysis and for design optimization. Design testing and evaluation may
necessitate changing the geometric model before finalizing it. When the final design is
achieved, it is documented and used for subsequent manufacturing applications, quality and
cost analysis.
Good geometric model is designed based in the following important guidelines-
1. Modeling method must be easy to use
2. Completeness of part representation
3. Representation should be able to represent a useful set of geometric objects
4. Model should not create any ambiguity (The ability to express more than one
interpretation) to users. A given representation should correspond to one and only one
solid
5. To represent the solid normally there should only unique way. With this one can compare
two identical solid representations
6. A geometric model must be very accurate. There should not be any approximation
7. Geometric modeling should not create any invalid or impossible models

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8. The various transformations such as move, rotation, scale etc and manipulations such as
union, intersect, subtract etc should able to be performed on geometric model
9. A good representation should be compact enough for saving space and allow for efficient
algorithms to determine desired physical characteristics
10. Geometric model should have shading and rendering (Generation an image for a model
by means of a computer program) capability to give realistic effect to the model

GEOMETRIC MODELS

The geometric models are broadly classified on the basis of geometric construction
into the following categories

1. Two Dimensional (2D)

2. Three Dimensional (3D)

Two Dimensional (2D)

The 2D modeling includes the construction of geometrical faces, plane drawings, 2D

views (Top, Front, Right, and Light views) of objects. Presently, the application of 2D model
is limited to drafting, sheet metal manufacturing, Spot welding, Laser cutting etc.

Three dimensional (3D)

The 3D modeling is widely used for engineering applications. It provides all the
information required for animation, design analysis and manufacturing. The 3D objects are
shown in below figure.

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The 3D models are further sub-divided into three groups:

1. Wireframe modeling

Wireframe modeling is the oldest and simplest methods of geometric modeling which
can be used to store model mathematically in the computer memory. It contains information
about the locations of all the points (vertices) and edges in space coordinates. Various
wireframe entities are points, lines, planer arcs, circle, curves etc. Each vertex is defined by x,
y, z coordinates. Edges are defined by a pair of vertices and faces are defined as three or more
edges. Thus wireframe is a collection of edges, there is no skin defining the area between the
edges. This is the lowest level of modeling and has serious limitations. But it some
applications such as tool path simulation it is very convenient to use wireframe models.
Advantages of wireframe models:
1. It is simple methods and requires less memory space
2. It forms the basis for surface and solid modeling
3. Manipulations in the model can be done easily and quickly

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Disadvantages:
1. One of the serious limitation in the ambiguity of orientation and viewing plane
2. Cannot model complex curve surfaces
3. Does not represent an actual solid (no surface and volume)
4. Physical properties such as mass, surface area, volume, centre of gravity etc are not
possible to calculate
5. Wireframe models has no knowledge of surface faces, therefore it will not detect interface
between two matting components and this is serious drawback especially in component
assembly, kinematic analysis, NC tool and robot arm simulation
2. Surface modeling

Surface modeling is the next stage of wireframe modeling. In wireframe modeling

models are unable to represent complex surfaces of objects like car, ship, aeroplane, wings,
castings etc. only a surface profile of these objects. A surface model represents the skin of an
object. These skins have no thickness or material type. Surface models define the surface
properties, as well as the edges of objects. These are often capable of clearly representing the
solid from the manufacturing. However, no information regarding the interior of the solid
model would be available which could be relevant for generating the NC cutter data. Further
the calculation of properties such as mass and inertia etc would be difficult. Surface modeling
facilities would be available as part of the modeling technique and would be used when such
surface is present in the product for design. For example this method is used mode for
specific non-analytical surfaces, called sculptures surfaces such as those used for modeling
the car bodies and ship-hulls. There are a number of mathematical techniques available for
handling these surfaces such as Bezier and B-splines.

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CAD/CAM

Advantage:
1. Eliminates much ambiguity and non-uniqueness present in wireframe models by hiding
lines not seen
2. Renders the model for better visualization and presentation, objects appear more realistic
3. Provides the surface geometry for CAM, NC machine
4. Provides the geometry needed by the manufacturing engineer for mould and die design
5. This can be used to design and analysis complex free-formed surfaces of ship hulls,
aeroplane fuselages and bodies
6. Surface properties such as roughness, color and reflectivity can be assigned and
demonstrated
Disadvantages:
1. Provides no information about the inside of an object
2. Curved surfaces need a fine mesh to be accurate
3. Provides wrong results if mesh is too coarse
4. Complicated computation, depending on the number of surfaces
3. Solid modeling
Solid modeling is the most powerful of 3D modeling technique. This includes vertices
(nodes), edges, surfaces, weight and volume. This model consisting of the complete
description of the solid in a certain form is the most ideal representation, as all the
information requires at every stage of product cycle can be obtained with technique. Defining
an object with a solid model is the easiest of the available three modeling techniques. The
model is a complete and unambiguous representation of a precisely enclosed and filled
volume. Solid model contain bath geometric and available to represent the solid, but
geometry two techniques are very famous, these are constructive solid geometry (CSG) and
boundary representation (B-rep)
Advantages:
1. Mass properties such as area, volume, weight, centre of gravity and moment of inertia can
be determined quickly
2. It allows the design engineer to develop and evaluate alternative concepts for parts and
assemblies while the design is still a theoretical model.
3. Solid models are non-ambiguous
4. Easily exported to different FEM programs for analysis
5. It can be used in newly manufacturing techniques; CIM, CAM, design for manufacturing
(DFM)

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6. 2D standard drawings, assembly drawings and exploded drawings are generated from the
model
Disadvantage:
1. More intensive computation than wireframe and surface modeling
2. Requires more powerful computers (faster with the more memory)

DIFFERENCE AMONG WIREFRAME, SURFACE AND SOLID MODELING

Parameter Wireframe model Surface model Solid model

1. Computer memory Less Moderate Large
Points, line, circle,
arc, ellipse, synthetic Plane, revolve, Solid primitives as
2. Entities used curves, such as ruled, tabulated, cone, cube, wedge,
Bezier, hermite, B- free form surfaces cylinder, sphere etc
spline etc.
3. Input data required More Moderate Less
4. Automatic orthographic,
perspective, isometric Impossible Impossible Easily possible
view generation
5. NC code generation Not possible Automatic possible Automatic possible
6. Interference between
Not possible to detect Can detect Can detect
matting parts
7. Rendering and shadow
Not possible possible possible
effect
Not possible done Possible done
8. Cross sectioning Not possible
manually automatically
9. Elimination of hidden
Done manually May be possible Possible
lines
10. Calculation of physical
properties such as Possible to calculate all
Possible to calculate
volume, surface area, Not possible properties required for
some properties
center of gravity, M.I analysis
etc
11. Design parameters
Not possible Not possible Possible
optimization
12. Generation of assembly
and detail drawings
Not possible Not possible Possible
from model and vice
versa
Drafting, design,
manufacturing,
13. CAD/CAM/CAE
Drafting Drafting, design analysis, assembly,
modules
mechanism,
optimization

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MODELING FACILITIES

The total modeling facilities that one would look for in any system can be broadly
categorized as follows:
 The geometric modeling features
 The editing or manipulation features
 The display control facilities
 The drafting facility
 The programming facility
 The analysis features
 The connecting features

Geometric Modeling Features

The various geometric modeling and construction facilities that one should
expect to have in any good system are as follows:
1. Various features to aid geometric construction methods, such as Cartesian and polar
coordinates, absolute and incremental dimensions, various types of units, grip, snap,
object snap, layer etc
2. All 2D analytical features, such as points, lines, arcs, circles, coins, splines, fillets,
chamfers etc. In each of these features, various constructional features including
interactive and dynamic dragging facilities
3. Majority of the 3D wireframe modeling facilities includes 3D lines, 3D faces, ruled
surfaces, linear sweep from 2D topology with any sweep direction, rotational sweep
and tapered sweep. General sweep with twist. Rotational about an axis or radial offset
for generating helical or spiral shapes
4. Solid modeling with various basic primitives such as block, cylinder, sphere, cone,
prism, torus, pyramid, quadrilateral, along with the ability to apply the Boolean
operation on any solid that can be constructed using the other techniques available in
the modeler
5. Skinning around regular and arbitrary surface. Profiles (cross-sections), both
analytical and arbitrary places across any 3D curve
6. Sculptured surfaces of the various types like Bezier, Coons and other free form
surfaces

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7. Comprehensive range of transformation facilities for interactively assembling the

various solid models generated by the modeler with features such as surfaces filling
and trimming

Editing or Manipulation Features

These set of facilities refer to the way the geometric data, once created, would be used
to advantage for further modeling. Using these facilities, it would be possible to use the
geometry created earlier to complete the modeling, thus improving the productivity of the
designer. The facilities designed in this category are:
1. Transformation such as move, copy, rotate, scale, elongate or compress, mirror or to
any arbitrary coordinate frame
2. The editing features used to alter the already drawn geometric entities, such as
stretching, trimming or trimming to any intersection, delete or erase, undo or redo
3. Symbols in drawing refer to often-repeated together set in number of drawings, which
may consist of a number of geometric entities that are grouped together and stored as
a symbol. This symbol can be recalled at any scale, at any angle or exploded if
necessary to treat all of them as separate entities. Symbols can also be of parametric
type so that a large variation in symbols can be done without much effort
4. Some of editing facilities are : resizing, relocating and duplicating, filleting and
chamfering, windowing, clipping and zooming, exploding, mirroring, lengthening and
shortening, renaming named objects, editing solid

Display Control Facilities

In this range of features are all the facilities needed for interacting with the modeling
system so as to obtain the necessary feedback at the right time during the modeling stage. The
facilities required are:
Window – to identify a set of entities for any possible display or editing function
Zoom – to change the scale of display of the image selected in the screen
Pan – to move the image on screen without changing the scale at which the drawing is
displayed on the screen
Hidden – to remove hidden lines or hidden surfaces for viewing the geometry in
proper form
Shading – to show the 3D view of the image on screen complete with the light source
location and the resulting light and shade as it appears on the image

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CAD/CAM

Animation – is the display of a number of images in sequence to imitate the actual

motion of the part
Clipping – helps in discarding the part of the geometry outside the viewing window,
such that all the transformations that are to be carries out for zooming and panning of
the image on the screen are applied only on the necessary geometry. This improves
the response of the system.
Some other facilities that are required are: isometric views, sectioning,
orthographic views, perspective views

Drafting Features

These facilities refer to the way the model developed can be utilized for purpose of
transmitting the information in hard copy form for other applications, such as par prints onto
the shop floor or maintenance manuals for the equipment. A really large range of facilities are
required in this particular category and it is sometimes treated as a separate module in the
modeling system
The ability to get various types of lines drawn and provide ample notes in the form of
text addition at various locations in the drawing. The text handling capability in terms of font
changing and different methods of text presentation should be available.
A large number of types of views should be obtained from the solid model of the
geometry stored in the database. The types of views required may be as for display functions,
such as perspective views, orthographic views (Shown in below figure), isolated views and
axonometric views.

It is necessary that the views being shown should be sectioned to get a better
appreciation of the model. For this purpose, the section planes may be simple or complex
orientations. After sectioning the system should have the automatic ability to show the
sectioning details (Shown in below figure) in the form of typical crosshatching depending

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CAD/CAM

upon the standard practice.

Programming Facility

Programming ability (MACRO programming) within a CAD system is going to be a

very useful feature. It is well known that not all kinds of facilities would be available in any
general-purpose CAD system. Therefore, it is necessary that the CAD system would have to
be customized for a given range of application process specific to the company. For this
purpose, if a programming facility exists in a CAD system, it is possible to program
specifically for an application, making use of all the features available in the system for either
modeling or for any specific application based on the information generated during the
modeling. Some such examples are the GRIP in unigraphics and GLUE in CAM-X. The
availability of such a program helps the user to input the least amount of information for any
required design, if the application programs are written well using the programming
language.
Analysis And Optimization Features

In this range, the kind of analysis facilities that are require to e carried on the product
models being generated should be considered. The simplest kind to the most sophisticated
features may be available under this category. The simplest facilities may be calculated
perimeter, area, volume, mass, centre of gravity, moment of inertia, radius of gyration etc.
Besides these simple features of analysis, a general-purpose analysis that is normally
carried is the Finite Element Analysis (FEA). The geometric model created as above could be
conveniently passed onto the FEA through an intermediate processor called a Finite Element
Methods (FEM), which converts the geometric data into the finite element mesh and
calculates all the data required for the analysis and then transmits it to the FEA program.
Examples are the SUPERTAB for GEOMOD and the GFEM for the unigraphics.

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CAD/CAM

Another important feature essential in the modeling system used by the mechanical
engineering industries is the assembly facility with the associated interference checking. By
this, products individually modeled can be assembly joints are analyzed. This would be
further used along with animation facility, if present, to see the performance of the assembly
in service. Along with the assembly facility, the other facility needed is the ability to explode
an assembly (Show in above figure) for the creation of technical illustrations for the user and
maintenance manual preparation.

Connecting Features

Modeling is only the start of the complete process of a product evolution and as such
the data generated is used directly by the other systems. It is therefore, necessary that the
internal data format in which the data is stores by the modeling system should be well
documented and should also have very good connectivity (data interfacing) with other allied
modules. Identically, an integrated data base structure would be useful where in all the
various modules share the common database. This would only be possible if all the modules
are developed at a single developer as in the case of ProEngineer or Unigrapchis for
CAD/CAM integration.

GEOMETRIC CONSTRUCTION METHODS

The three-dimensional construction methods are:

 Wireframe modeling
 Surface modeling
 Solid modeling
 Extrusion

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CAD/CAM

 Sweeping
 Feature modeling
 Lofting
 Tweaking

Wireframe Modeling

Wireframe modeling uses geometric primitives for the construction of models. The
geometric primitives are points, lines, arcs and circles, conies, cubic curve, Bezier curve and
B-spline curve.

Surface Modeling

Surface models are generated by using surface primitives such as plane surface, ruled
surface, surface of revolution, tabulated cylinder, fillet surface, offset surface, Bezier surface,
B-spline surface and coons patch.

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CAD/CAM

Solid Modeling

Solid models are constructed by the boundary representation (B-rep) method or by

constructive solid geometry (CSG). The solid entities of CSG modeling are box, cone,
sphere, cylinder, prism, wedge and torus. CSG modeling constructs solid models through
Boolean operations (union, subtraction and intersection) on solid entities.

Extrusion

In extrusion, a three-dimensional solid is created by extruding the face in a direction

perpendicular to it as shown in below figure.

Sweeping

Sweeping is based on the notation of moving a point, curve, or a surface along a given
path. A sweep may be linear or non-linear. The linear sweep may involve extrusion or
revolving.

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CAD/CAM

Feature Modeling

This creates solid models from a shape by an operation. The shape is a two-
dimensional sketch for example, ribs, bosses, cuts and holes. The operation may involve
extrusion, sweeping, revolving etc. Feature modeling is shown in below Figure.

Filleting

Filleting implies the rounding of a corner to eliminate its sharpness. The fillet radius
is the radius of the arc that connects filleted objects. Changing the fillet radius affects
subsequent fillets. If you set the fillet radius to 0, filleted objects are trimmed or extended
until they intersect, but no arc is created. Filleting is shown in below Figure.

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Tweaking

Tweaking uses several features to deform or alter (tweak) the surface of the part.
Tweaking is not applicable to CSG solid models, splitting sketch drafts is shown in below
Figure. This is because the CSG models retain the geometry and topology modeled from the
primitives. The tweak menu lists the following options:

Lofting

Lofting is used to create a model with a variant cross-section along a linear/non-linear

axis. The lofting procedure is illustrated in below figure.

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CURVATURE CONTINUITY

Mathematically, synthetic curves represented the problem of constructing a smooth

curve that passes through given data points. Therefore the typical form of these curves is a
polynomial. Various continuity requirements can be specified at the data points to impose
various degrees of smoothness upon the resulting curve. The order of continuity becomes
important when a complex curve is modeled by several curve segments pieced together end-
to-end.

Two boundary curve segments shown in above figure are meeting at a vertex X. let
these two curves be described as f(u) and g(v). Where u and v are values in intervals [a, b]
and [m, n] respectively. The problem is: how these curves join together in a ‘smooth’ way.
Consider the ‘endpoint’ of curve f(u) and the ‘start point’ of curve g(m). If f(b) and
g(m) are equal as shown in above figure a, say curves f() and g() are C0 continuity at f(b) =
g(m).
If for all i<=k, the i-th derivatives at f(b) and g(m) are equal, say that the curves are
Ck continuity at point f(b) = g(m). Intuitively,
 C0 continuity (point/ position continuity) – Continuity of end point only (or) continuity of
position
 C1 continuity (tangent continuity) – Tangent continuity or first derivate if position
 C2 continuity (curvature continuity) – Hydrodynamic character, light reflection curvature
continuity (or) second derivative of position

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Bezier Curve
A Bezier curve is defined by a set of data points. The curve may interpolate or
extrapolate the data points. Some CAD systems offer both options; others offer the
interpolation version only. In both cases, the data points are used to control the shape of the
resulting curves.
Bezier curves and surfaces are credited to P. Bezier of the French car firm Regie
Renault, who developed (about 1962) and used them in his software system called
UNISURF, which designers used to define the outer panels of several Renault cars. These
curves, known as Bezier curves, were also independently developed by P. DeCasteljau of the
French car company Citroen (about 1959), which used them as part of its CAD system. The
Bezier UNISURF system was soon published in the literature; this is the reason that the
curves now bear Beziers name.
As its mathematics show, the major characteristics of the Bezier curve are:
1. The shape of the Bezier curve is controlled by its defining points. Tangent vectors are not
used in the curve development as is the case with the cubic spline. This allows the
designer a much better feel for the relationship between input (points) and output (curve).
2. The order or the degree of Bezier curve is variable and is related to the number of
points defining it. n + 1 points define an nth degree curve, which permits higher-order
continuity. This is not the case for cubic splines, where the degree is always cubic for a
spline segment.
The data points of a Bezier curve are called control points. They form the vertices of
what is called the control or characteristic polygon, which uniquely defines the curve shape
as shown in Figure 6.30. Only the first and the last control points or vertices of the polygon
actually lie on the curve. The other vertices define the order, derivatives, and shape of the
curve. The curve is also always tangent to the first and last polygon segments. In addition, the
curve shape tends to follow the polygon shape.
These three observations should enable the user to sketch or predict the curve shape
once its control points are given as illustrated in below Figure. The figure shows that the
order of defining the control points changes the polygon definition, which changes the
resulting curve shape. The arrow shown on each curve shows its parameterization direction.

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CAD/CAM

Mathematically, for n + 1 control points, the Bezier curve is defined by the following
polynomial of degree n:

Where P(u) is a point on the curve and P j is a control point. Bi, n is the Bernstein
polynomials. Thus, the Bezier curve has a Bernstein basis. The Bernstein polynomial serves
as the blending or basis function for the Bezier curve and is given by

Where C(n, i) is the binomial coefficient

Utilizing above two Equations 2 and 3 and observing that C(n, 0) = C(n, n) = 1, Equation 1
can be expanded to give:

Following are the important characteristics of a Bezier curve:

1. The degree of a Bezier curve defined by n + 1 control points is n: In each basis function,
the exponent of U is i + (n - i) ~ n. Therefore, the degree of the curve is n.
2. P (u) passes through P0 and Pn: The curve passes though the first and the last control
points.
3. Non-negativity: All basis functions are non-negative.
4. Bezier curves are tangent to their first and last legs
5. Partition of unity: The sum of the basic functions at a fixed u is 1. It is not difficult to
verify that the basic functions are the coefficients in the binomial expansion of the
expression 1 = [u + (1 - u)] n. Hence, their sum is one. Moreover, since they are
non-negative, we conclude that the value of any basis function is in the range of 0 and 1.

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CAD/CAM

Since all basis functions are in the range of 0 and 1 and add to one, they can be
considered as weights in the computation of a weighted average. More precisely, we
could say "to compute P(u), one takes the weight B n , i (u) for control point Pi and sum
them together."
6. Convex hull property: This means that the Bezier curve defined by the given n + 1 control
points lays completely in the convex hull of the given control points. The convex hull of a
set of points is the smallest convex set that contains all points. In below Figure, the
convex hull of the 11 control points is shown. Note that not all control points are on the
boundary of the convex hull. For example, control points 3, 4, 5, 8 and 9 are in the
interior. The curve, except for the first two end points, lies completely in the convex hull.
This property is important because we are guaranteed that the generated curve will be in
an understood and computable region and will not go outside of it.

7. Variation diminishing property: If the curve is in a plane, this means that no straight line
intersects a Bezier curve more times than it intersects the characteristics polygon. Line 1
intersects the curve three times and the polyline seven times; line 2 intersects the curve
and its polyline twice; the line 3-intersects the curve four times and the polyline seven
times. You can draw other straight lines to verify this property. So, what is the meaning
of this characteristic? It tells us that the complexity (i.e., turning and twisting) of the
curve is no more complex than the characteristic polygon. In other words, the
characteristic polygon twists and turns more frequently than the Bezier curve does,
because an arbitrary line hits the control polyline more often than it hits the curve.

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8. Affine invariance: If an affine transformation is applied to a Bezier curve, the result can
be constructed from the affine images of its control points. This is a nice property. When
we want to apply a geometric or even affine transformation to a Bezier curve, this
property states that we can apply the transformation to control points, which is quite easy,
and once the transformed control points are obtained the transformed Bezier curve is the
one defined by these new points. Therefore, we do not have to transform the curve.
9. Moving control points: Changing the position of a control point will change the shape of
the defined Bezier curve. Suppose a control point Pk is moved to a new position P k + v,
where vector v gives both the direction and length of this move.

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51