Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering

Course Code: EEE208/ECE208

Course Name: Electronic Devices and Circuits II Laboratory
Laboratory Course Outline and CO/PO mapping
Objective: In this course, students will perform experiments to verify practically the theories and concepts
learned in ECE/EEE 207 and will design simple systems using operational amplifier. The students will also
make use of modern tools and software in designing these systems.
List of Experiment:
1. Study of Operational Amplifier as Amplifier
2. Study of Operational Amplifier as Comparator
3. Study of Operational Amplifier as Inverting Adder, Integrator and Differentiator
4. Study of Operational Amplifier as Precision Rectifier
5. Study of Operational Amplifier as active high pass filter.
6. Study of Operational Amplifier as active low pass filter
7. Study of Operational Amplifier as Wien Bridge Oscillator
8. Study of Operational Amplifier as RC phase shift oscillator
9. Study of Operational Amplifier as 555 timer.
Course Outcomes (CO):
CO1: Explain the operations of Op Amp based circuits such as amplifiers, comparators, rectifiers etc.
CO2: Design and analyse astable and monostable multi-vibrators using Op Amp.
CO3: Analyse the effect of physical parameters and circuit components on the output of Op Amp based
filter circuits.
CO4: Develop skills to investigate and compare outcomes of Op Amp based circuits with its simulation
using PSPICE software.

CO-PO Mapping:

CO/PO Mapping
(S/M/W indicates strength of correlation) S-Strong, M-Medium, W-Weak
COs Programme Outcomes (POs)
PO1 PO2 PO3 PO4 PO5 PO6 PO7 PO8 PO9 PO10 PO11 PO12
CO1 S
CO2 W S S
CO3 S S S
CO4 W S
Assessment Method:
COs Assessment Method
CO1 Report, Final, Midterm
CO2 Class Performance, Report
CO3 Class Performance, Report
CO4 Report & Final
 LAB 01
Experiment Title: Study of a 741 Operational Amplifier as Amplifier

Objective
To study op-amp as amplifier in both inverting and non-inverting configuration.

Equipment:
 IC: 741 1 Piece
 Resistor: 10k 2 Pieces
 Resistor: 100k 1 Piece
 AT-7000 Trainer Board 1 Unit
 DC Power Supply 1 Unit
+15 volts, -15 Volts
 Function Generator 1 Unit
 Oscilloscope 1 Unit
 Multimeter 1 Unit
 Wires

Component Pin-out

An amplifier is a circuit that receives a signal of some amplitude at its input and delivers an
undistorted larger amplitude of the signal at its output. The operational amplifier package is a high
gain amplifier to which feedback is added to control its overall response characteristic.

An Operational Amplifier, or op-amp for short, is fundamentally a voltage amplifying device

designed to be used with external feedback components such as resistors and capacitors between
its output and input terminals. These feedback components determine the resulting function or
“operation” of the amplifier and by virtue of the different feedback configurations whether
resistive, capacitive or both, the amplifier can perform a variety of different operations, giving rise
to its name of “Operational Amplifier”.

Equivalent Circuit of an Ideal Operational Amplifier

The Voltage Gain (AV) of the operational amplifier can be found using the following formula:

and in Decibels or (dB) is given as:

In this experiment we will be studying the closed-loop configuration of a typical op amp. In closed-
loop configuration, an external resistance is connected between the output and the inverting input
terminal as a negative feedback. Here, the gain can be controlled by changing the value of the
resistor.

Two widely used amplifier configuration using op amp are given below.
 Inverting Amplifier
 Non-inverting Amplifier

In both cases the closed-loop gain of the amplifier is determined by the input resistance Ri and the
feedback resistance Rf.
  Inverting Amplifier: In an inverting amplifier the input is applied to the inverting input
terminal. The output obtained here is inverted with respect to the input. The close-loop gain for
this type of amplifier is given below.

Vo Rf
ACL  
Ri
Ei

The minus sign indicates that the polarity of the output of the output is inverted with respect to the
input. That is why this circuit is called an inverting amplifier.

 Non-inverting Amplifier: In this type of amplifier the input is applied to the non-inverting input
terminal and the output is not inverted with respect to the input.

Vo  R 
ACL   1  f 
R
Ei  i

Since the gain is positive, this amplifier is called a non-inverting amplifier. The above equation
shows that the voltage gain of the amplifier is always greater than 1.
Inverting Amplifier

Procedure
1. Measure the resistance of the resistors by multimeter and record.
2. Set the ac voltage source to sinusoidal wave mode. Set the sinewave to 1.0 V amplitude and
500Hz frequency. Take readings for different frequencies e.g. 50Hz, 500Hz, 1KHz, 5KHz,
10KHz, 50KHz
3. Construct the following circuit. Set biasing voltages to +15V and –15V.
4. Fill in the table.
5. Draw the input and output wave.

Ei Vo Gain Ao =
Ri Rf ACL = - Rf / Ri
f (Hz) (pk-pk) (pk-pk) Vo / Ei

50 Hz 1V

500 Hz 1V

1 KHz 1V

5 KHz 1V

10 KHz 1V

20 KHz 1V

50 KHz 1V

Draw in a semi log paper (x –axis) the frequency response curve (f vs V0) and mark the – 3dB
point
Non-inverting Amplifier
Procedure
1.Measure the resistance of the resistors by multimeter and record.

2. Set the ac voltage source to sinusoidal wave mode. Set the sinewave to 1.0 V amplitude and
500Hz frequency and check if there is an output waveform. Take readings for different frequencies
e.g 50Hz, 500Hz, 1KHz, 5KHz, 10KHz, 50KHz
3.Construct the following circuit. Set biasing voltages to +15V and –15V.
4.Fill in the table.

5.Draw the input and output wave.

Ei Vo Gain Ao =
Ri Rf ACL = 1+ Rf / Ri
f (Hz) (Amplitude) (pk-pk) Vo / Ei

50 Hz 1V

500 Hz 1V

1 KHz 1V

5 KHz 1V

10 KHz 1V

20 KHz 1V

50 KHz 1V

Draw in a semi log paper (x –axis) the frequency response curve (f vs V0) and mark the – 3dB
point.

Questions
1. Derive the following closed-loop gain of the inverting and non-inverting amplifier of op amp.
Rf Rf
ACL   and
ACL 1 
Ri Ri

2. Between the two types of amplifiers which one will you prefer and why?
 LAB 02
Experiment Title: Study of a 741 Operational Amplifier as Comparator
The comparator is an electronic decision making circuit that makes use of an operational amplifiers
very high gain in its open-loop state, that is, there is no feedback resistor.

The Op-amp comparator compares one analogue voltage level with another analogue voltage
level, or some preset reference voltage, VREF and produces an output signal based on this voltage
comparison. In other words, the op-amp voltage comparator compares the magnitudes of two
voltage inputs and determines which is the largest of the two.

Op-amp Comparator Circuit

Objective
To study op-amp as comparator
Equipment

 IC: 741 1 Piece

 Resistor: 10k 1 Piece
 AT-7000 Trainer Board 1 Unit
 DC Power Supply 1 Unit
+15 volts, -15 Volts
 Function Generator 1 Unit
 Oscilloscope 1 Unit
 Multimeter 1 Unit
 Wires
Component Pin-out

E-
Vo
E+

In this experiment we will be studying the open loop connection of a typical op amp. In an open-
loop configuration, there is no feedback between the output and input terminal. The op amp has a
very high gain here. The output voltage Vo = Ed x A . Here, Ed = E + - E - , is the differential voltage
between the input terminals of the op amp. As the gain is very high, the maximum output voltage
is limited by the biasing voltages to + Vsat and – Vsat. Usually Vsat = Vbias - 2V .

Vo = + Vsat when E + > E -

= - Vsat when E + < E -
Procedure

1. Set biasing voltages to +15V and –15V

2. Set the function generator to triangular wave mode. Set the triangular wave to 5V amplitude
and 500Hz frequency.
3. Construct the above circuits.
4. Measure Vref as accurately as possible and observe polarity.
5. Draw the input and output wave.
6. Vary the triangular wave amplitude from 1 volts to 5 volts in 1 volts increment and observe
output voltage.
7. Put data in tabular form

For Non-Inverting Voltage Level Detector (Positive & Negative)

S/N Vin Vo = Output voltage Vref

5
For Inverting Voltage level Detector (Positive & Negative)
S/N Vin Vo = Output voltage Vref

5
 LAB 03
Experiment Title: Study of a 741 Operational Amplifier as Inverting Adder, Integrator and
Differentiator

Objectives
To study op-amp as inverting adder, integrator and differentiator

Equipment
 IC: 741 1 Piece
 Resistor: 820 Ohms 1 Piece
 Resistor: 10K 4 Pieces
 Resistor: 15K 1 Piece
 Capacitor: 0.22uF 1 Piece
 AT-7000 Trainer Board 1 Unit
 DC Power Supply 1 Unit
+15 volts, -15 Volts
 Oscilloscope 1 Unit
 Multimeter 1 Unit
 Wires

Pin out diagram of a 741 op-amp

Inverting Adder

Ri, 1 = Ri, 2 = Rf
Vo = - (V1 + V2)

Rf
Ri1

10K 10K
V1

5V

Ri2 -

10K +
V2 7V
RL 10K

Construct the above adder circuit using the 741 Op-Amp

Procedure

1. Construct the above circuits.

2. Set biasing voltages to +15V and -15V.
3. Set input voltages as accurately as possible to 5 volts and 7 volts DC
4. Calculate the output voltage of the inverting adder using a multimeter.
5. Vary one the voltages and check the output voltage (vary the 7 Volt supply through 3 Volts, 9
volts)
Op-Amp as an Integrator
Cf

Ti  Ri C f 0.22uF
1 820
v0 (t )  
Ri C f  vi (t )dt -
R1
+

RL 10K

Procedure for Integrator circuit

1. Construct the above circuits.

2. Set biasing voltages to +15V and -15V.
3. Set the function generator to square wave mode for the integrator. Set the sine wave to 5V
amplitude (10 Volts peak to peak) and 500Hz frequency.
4. Draw the input and output waveforms.
 Op-Amp as a Differentiator

10
R f Ci 
f h
dvi (t )
v0 (t )   R f Ci
dt

Rf

15K
0.22uF
-
Vi(t) Ci
+

RL 10K

Procedure for Differentiator Circuit

1. Construct the above circuits.

2. Set biasing voltages to +15V and -15V.

3. Set the function generator to triangular wave mode for the differentiator. Set the wave to
5V
amplitude and 500Hz frequency.
4. Draw the input and output waveforms.

Questions
Derive the expression of the output voltage for the inverting adder, integrator and differentiator.
 LAB 04
Experiment Title: Study of Operational Amplifier as Precision Rectifier
Objective:
To study a 741 Op-Amp as precision rectifier.
Equipment
 IC: 741 2 Pieces
 Resistor: 10k 6 Pieces
 Diode: 1N4148 2 Pieces
 AT-7000 1 Unit
 DC Power Supply 1 Unit
 AC Power Supply 1 Unit
 Oscilloscope 1 Unit
 Multimeter 1 Unit
 Wires

Pin Out Diagram of a 741 OP-Amp

Normally diode rectifiers rectify AC input signals which are greater than the forward threshold
voltage. Very small signal voltages cannot be rectified using normal rectifiers, and precision
rectifiers have to be used for rectifying small signal amplitudes. An op-amp is generally used when
small signal voltages have to be rectified. The precision full wave rectifier transmits one polarity
of the input signal and inverts the other. Thus both half cycles of an alternating voltage are
transmitted but are converted to a single polarity output. This can rectify input voltages with
millivolt amplitude. This type of circuit is useful to prepare signals for multiplication, averaging
or demodulation.

The precision rectifier is also called an absolute-value circuit. Its output equals the absolute value
of the input. In a precision rectifier the output is either negative or positive, depending on how the
diodes are installed.
 R2
R4 R5

10K 10K 10K

+15V +15V
R1 D1
- -
10K 741 741 Vo

AC
+ +
D2
Vi -15V -15V
RL
10K
R3 10K

Procedure

1. Measure the resistance of the resistors by a multimeter and record.

2. Set the function generator to sinusoidal wave mode. Set the wave to 10V peak to peak
amplitude and 500Hz frequency. To demonstrate rectifier action below the diode forward
voltage drop, set the signal voltage to less than the threshold forward voltage which is < 0.7
volts and observe the waveform.
Note: The function generator in its normal functional state generates waveform of minimum
1.2 Vpk-pk. To generate waveforms of smaller amplitudes, pull amplitude control knob out and
adjust for desired amplitude.
3. Construct the above circuit. Set biasing voltages to +15V and –15V.
4. Observe input and output waveform, measure values and draw the input and output wave. (Vi
vs Vo curve) for several Vi values including voltages less than 500 mVpk-pk
 LAB 05
Experiment Title: Study of a 741 Operational Amplifier as Active High Pass Filters
Objective: To study op-amp as High-pass Active filters

What is a high pass filter?

As the name implies, a high pass filter is a filter that passes the higher frequencies and rejects those
at lower frequencies.

This can be used in many instances, for example when needing to reject low frequency noise, hum,
etc. from signals. This may be useful in some audio applications to remove low frequency hum, or
within RF to remove low frequency signals that are not required.

Op amp high pass filters are very easy to design and have straightforward equations for the
Butterworth response

This first-order high pass filter, consists simply of a passive filter followed by a non-
inverting amplifier. The frequency response of the circuit is the same as that of the passive filter,
except that the amplitude of the signal is increased by the gain of the amplifier
Although any form of filter response can be chosen, the Butterworth response simplifies the
equations and it is possible to calculate the values required in seconds.

Despite the ease of design, op amp high pass filters are able to provide a high level of performance
from just a relatively small number of components. Op amp high pass filters are easy to implement
using a few components and they are required in a variety of different circuits to eliminate hum
and other noise.

High pass filter response curve

The shape of the curve is of importance. One of the most important features is the cut-off
frequency. This is normally taken as the point where the response has fallen by 3dB.

Another important feature is the final slope of the roll off. This is generally governed by the number
of 'poles' in the filter. Normally there is one pole for each capacitor inductor in a filter.

When plotted on a logarithmic scale the ultimate roll-off becomes a straight line, with the response
falling at the ultimate roll off rate. This is 6dB per pole within the filter.

Single pole op amp high pass filter

The simplest circuit high pass filter circuit using an operational amplifier can be achieved by
placing a capacitor in series with one of the resistors in the amplifier circuit as shown. The
capacitor reactance increases as the frequency falls, and as a result this forms a CR low pass filter
providing a roll off of 6 dB per octave.

The cut off frequency or break point of the filter can be calculated very easily by working out the
frequency at which the reactance of the capacitor equals the resistance of the resistor. This can be
achieved using the formula:

1
𝑋𝑐 =
2𝜋𝑓𝐶
Where:
Xc is the capacitive reactance in ohms
π is equal to 3.142
f is the frequency in Hertz
C is the capacitance in Farads
Rf

Single Pole High Pass Inverting

 -

Rf

Single Pole High

Pass Non-Inverting

Two pole active high pass filter (Second Order High Pass Filter)

Although it is possible to design a wide variety of filters with different levels of gain and different
roll off patterns using operational amplifiers, the filter described on this page will give a good sure-
fire solution. It offers unity gain and a Butterworth response (the flattest response in band, but not
the fastest to achieve ultimate roll off out of band).

Second-order Active High Pass Filter Circuit (Two-pole non-inverting)

Active high pass op amp filter circuit
The calculations for the circuit values are very straightforward for the Butterworth response and
unity gain scenario. Critical damping is required for the circuit and the ratio of the resistor vales
determines this.

R1 = R2

C1 = 2C2

√2
𝑓 =
4 𝜋 𝑅 𝐶2
When choosing the values, ensure that the resistor values fall in the region between 10 kΩ and
100kΩ. This is advisable because the output impedance of the circuit rises with increasing
frequency and values outside this region may affect the performance.

When using the op amp active high pass filter higher levels of attenuation and steeper roll-off
can be achieved by cascading a number of circuits. The design can also be altered to
accommodate different forms of filter, although the calculations do become more difficult.

ACTIVE HIGH PASS SECOND ORDER FILTER

40 dB/Decade High Pass Butterworth Filter
Equipment

 IC: 741 1 Piece

 Resistor: 10k 4 Pieces
 Resistor: 33k 1 Piece
 Capacitor: 0.22uF 2 Pieces
 AT-7000 Trainer Board 1 Unit
 DC Power Supply 1 Unit
 Oscilloscope 1 Unit
 Multimeter 1 Unit
 Wires

Component Pin-out
 R1

1.2K 2.2K

Rf
+15V
-
C1 C2 741

+
0.1uF 0.1uF -15V
Vi R2 2.2K Vo
10K
AC
RL

1. fc = 1Khz (Choice)
2. C = 0.1 uF (Choice 100 pF to 0.1 uF)
1.414
3. 𝑅2 = 2𝜋𝑓𝑐𝐶
𝑅2
4. 𝑅1 = 2 = 1.13K = 1.2K
5. 𝑅𝑓 = 𝑅2 = 2.2 𝐾

𝑉𝑜 𝑉𝑜,𝑎
A v,dB = 20 log ( ) = 20 Log ( )
𝑉𝑖 𝑉𝑖,𝑎

Vi = Sinusoidal Waveform, Amplitude = 1 Vpk-pk

Procedure
1. Measure the resistance of the resistors by multimeter and record values.
2. Adjust function generator frequencies as accurately as possible. Set Function generator to
Sine wave
with 1 Vpk-pk amplitude
3. Construct the above circuit. Set biasing voltages to +15V and –15V. (Do not exceed ± 15
volts DC
4. Draw the Gain vs Frequency curve of the high pass filter. Use semi log graph paper with
x –axis denoting
Frequency (log scale) and determine the lower cutoff or corner frequency, what is the value
of the
output voltage at the -3dB point
Draw the Frequency Response Plot for below data (Av – f) curve
S/N f (Hz) Vo,a (V) 𝑉𝑜,𝑎
Av,dB = 20 Log ( )
𝑉𝑖,𝑎

1 100
2 500
3 1K
4 5K
5 10K
6 50K
7 100K
 LAB 06
Experiment Title: Study of a 741 Operational Amplifier as Active Low Pass Filter

What is a low pass filter:

As the name implies, a low pass filter is a filter that passes the lower frequencies and rejects those
at higher frequencies. Operational amplifiers or op-amps provide a very effective means of
creating low pass filters without the need for inductors.

By incorporating the filter elements into the feedback loop of an op amp, high performance low
pass filters are easily created with a minimum number of components and without the need for
inductors.

Op amp low pass filters can be used in many areas power supplies to the outputs of digital to
analogue converters to remove alias signals and many more applications.

First Order Low Pass Filter

Active Low Pass Filter with Amplification

Gain of a first-order low pass filter

Where:
 AF = the pass band gain of the filter, (1 + R2/R1)
 ƒ = the frequency of the input signal in Hertz, (Hz)
 ƒc = the cut-off frequency in Hertz, (Hz)

Thus, the operation of a low pass active filter can be verified from the frequency gain equation
above as:
 1. At very low frequencies, ƒ < ƒc
 2. At the cut-off frequency, ƒ = ƒc
 3. At very high frequencies, ƒ > ƒc
Thus, the Active Low Pass Filter has a constant gain AF from 0Hz to the high frequency cut-off
point, ƒC. At ƒC the gain is 0.707AF, and after ƒC it decreases at a constant rate as the frequency
increases. That is, when the frequency is increased tenfold (one decade), the voltage gain is
divided by 10.
In other words, the gain decreases 20dB i.e. 20*log(10) each time the frequency is increased by
10. When dealing with filter circuits the magnitude of the pass band gain of the circuit is
generally expressed in decibels or dB as a function of the voltage gain, and this is defined as:

Magnitude of Voltage Gain in (dB)

Example of Frequency Response Curve

Response curve
The shape of the curve is of importance with features like the cut-off frequency and roll off being
key to the operation. The cut-off frequency is normally taken as the point where the response has
fallen by 3dB as shown.

Another important feature is the final slope of the roll off. This is generally governed by the number
of 'poles' in the filter. Normally there is one pole for each capacitor inductor in a filter. When
plotted on a logarithmic scale the ultimate roll-off becomes a straight line, with the response falling
at the ultimate roll off rate. This is 6dB per pole within the filter.

Single pole active low pass filter circuit

The simplest circuit low pass filter circuit using an operational amplifier simply places a capacitor
across the feedback resistor. This has the effect as the frequency rises of increasing the level of
feedback as the reactive impedance of the capacitor falls.

Non-inverting LP Filter Inverting LP Filter

The break point for this simple type of filter can be calculated very easily by working out the
frequency at which the reactance of the capacitor equals the resistance of the resistor. This can be
achieved using the formula:

1
𝑋𝑐 =
2𝜋𝑓𝐶

Where:
Xc is the capacitive reactance in ohms
π is equal to 3.142
f is the frequency in Hertz
C is the capacitance in Farads
The in-band gain for these circuits is calculated in the normal way ignoring the effect of the
capacitor.
While these operational amplifier circuits are useful to provide a reduction in gain at high
frequencies, they only provide an ultimate rate of roll off of 6 dB per octave, i.e. the output voltage
halves for every doubling in frequency. This type of filter is known as a one pole filter. Often a
much greater rate of rejection is required, and to achieve this it is possible to incorporate a higher
performance filter into the feedback circuitry.

Two pole low pass filter op-amp circuit

Although it is possible to design a wide variety of filters with different levels of gain and different
roll off patterns using operational amplifiers, the filter described on this page will give a good sure-
fire solution. It offers unity gain and a Butterworth response (the flattest response in band, but not
the fastest to achieve ultimate roll off out of band).

The calculations for the circuit values are very straightforward for the Butterworth response and
unity gain scenario. Critical damping is required for the circuit and the ratio of the resistor and
capacitor values determines this
R1 = R2

C1 = 2C2

√2
𝑓 =
4 𝜋 𝑅 𝐶2

When choosing the values, ensure that the resistor values fall in the region between 10 kΩ and 100
kΩ. This is advisable because the output impedance of the circuit rises with increasing frequency
and values outside this region may affect the performance.

Op amp low pass filters are easy to design, especially when a Butterworth filter type is used as
above. More sophisticated designs using different types of filter can also be developed, although
the mathematics does become more complicated and decisions need to be made about the optimum
type of filter to be used. For most applications, the basic Butterworth provides excellent filter
performance.
Second-order Low Pass Active Filter
As with the passive filter, a first-order low-pass active filter can be converted into a second-order
low pass filter simply by using an additional RC network in the input path. The frequency
response of the second-order low pass filter is identical to that of the first-order type except that
the stop band roll-off will be twice the first-order filters at 40dB/decade (12dB/octave).
Therefore, the design steps required of the second-order active low pass filter are the same.

Second-order Active Low Pass Filter Circuit

When cascading together filter circuits to form higher-order filters, the overall gain of the filter is
equal to the product of each stage. For example, the gain of one stage may be 10 and the gain of
the second stage may be 32 and the gain of a third stage may be 100. Then the overall gain will
be 32,000, (10 x 32 x 100) as shown below.
Second-order (two-pole) active filters are important because higher-order filters can be designed
using them. By cascading together first and second-order filters, filters with an order value, either
odd or even up to any value can be constructed. In the next tutorial about filters, we will see that
Active High Pass Filters, can be constructed by reversing the positions of the resistor and capacitor
in the circuit.
ACTIVE OP-AMP LOW PASS FILTER CIRCUIT:
40 dB/Decade Low Pass Butterworth Filter
Equipment
 IC: 741 1 Piece
 Resistor: 10k 4 Pieces
 Resistor: 33k 1 Piece
 Capacitor: 0.22uF 2 Pieces
 AT-7000 Trainer Board 1 Unit
 DC Power Supply 1 Unit
 Oscilloscope 1 Unit
 Multimeter 1 Unit
 Wires

Component Pin-out
 C1

2.2K
0.22uF

Rf
+15V
-
R1 R2 741

+
1.2K 1.2K
0.1uF -15V
+ C2
Vo
10K
AC Vi
RL

1. fc = 1KHz (Choice)
2. C2 = 0.1 uF (Choice 100 pF to 0.1 uF)

3. C1 = 0.2 uF (C1 = 2C2) = 0.22 uF

0.707
4. R = = 1.13 K = 1.2 K (R1 = R2 = R)
2𝜋𝐹𝑐𝐶2

5. Rf = 2.4 K = 2.2 K (Rf = 2R)

𝑽𝒐 𝑽𝒐,𝒂
6. 𝑨𝒗, 𝒅𝑩 = 𝟐𝟎 𝑳𝒐𝒈 ( 𝑽𝒊 ) = 𝟐𝟎 𝑳𝒐𝒈 ( 𝑽𝒊,𝒂 )

Input voltage Vi = Sine wave Amplitude = 1 Volt

Procedure
1. Measure the resistance of the resistors by multimeter and record values.
2. Adjust function generator frequencies as accurately as possible. Set Function generator to
Sine wave with 1 Vpk-pk amplitude
3. Construct the above circuit. Set biasing voltages to +15V and –15V.
4. Draw the Gain vs Frequency curve to the low pass filter. Use semi log graph paper with x
–axis denoting
Frequency (log scale) and determine the upper cutoff frequency, what is the value of the
output voltage
at the -3dB point
Draw the Frequency Response Plot for data in table in a semi log (x-axis log) graph paper

S/N f (Hz) Vo,a (V) 𝑉𝑜,𝑎

Av,dB = 20 Log ( 𝑉𝑖,𝑎 )

1 10
2 50
3 100
4 500
5 1K
6 5K
7 10K
 LAB 07
Experiment Title: Study of Operational Amplifier as a Phase Shift Oscillator using a 741 Op-
Amp
Objective:
To study op-amp as Phase Shift Oscillator

The main part of an RC phase shift oscillator is an op amp inverting amplifier with its output fed
back into its input using a regenerative feedback RC filter network, hence the name RC phase shift
oscillator. By varying the capacitor, the frequency of oscillations can be varied
RC phase shift oscillator is a sinusoidal oscillator used to produce sustained well shaped sine
wave oscillations. It is used for different applications such as local oscillator for synchronous
receivers, musical instruments, study purposes etc. By varying the capacitor, the frequency of
oscillations can be varied. The feedback RC network has a phase shift of 60 degrees each, hence
total phase shift provided by the three RC network is 180 degrees. The op amp is connected as
inverting amplifier hence the total phase shift around the loop will be 360 degrees. This
condition is essential for sustained oscillations.
Working of RC Phase shift oscillator
 The feedback network offers 180 degrees phase shift at the oscillation frequency and the
op amp is configured as an Inverting amplifier, it also provide 180 degrees phase shift.
Hence to total phase shift around the loop is 360=0degrees, it is essential for sustained
oscillations.
 At the oscillation frequency each of the resistor capacitor filter produces a phase shift of
60° so the whole filter circuit produces a phase shift of 180°.
 The energy storage capacity of capacitor in this circuit produces a noise voltage which is
similar to a small sine wave, it is then amplified using op amp inverting amplifier.
 By taking feedback, the output sine wave also attenuates 1/29 times while passing
through the RC network, so the gain of inverting amplifier should be 29 in order to keep
loop gain as unity.
 The unity loop gain and 360 degree phase shift are essential for the sustained oscillation.
 RC Oscillators are stable and provide a well-shaped sine wave output with the frequency
being proportional to 1/RC and therefore, a wider frequency range is possible when using
a variable capacitor.
 However, RC Oscillators are restricted to frequency applications because at high
frequency the reactance offered by the capacitor is very low so it acts as a short circuit.
Why it uses 3 RC stages?
 Number of RC stages help improve the frequency stability. The total phase shift
introduced by the feedback network is 180 degrees, if we are using N RC stages each RC
section provide 180/N degree phase shift.
 When 2 RC sections are cascaded, the frequency stability is low. For 3 sections cascaded
the phase change rate is high so there is improved frequency stability. However for 4 RC
sections there is an good phase change rate resulting in the most stable oscillator
configuration. But 4 RC sections increases cost and makes circuit complexity.
 Hence phase shift oscillators make use of 3 RC sections in which each section provides a
phase shift of 60 degree. The latter is generally used in high precision applications where
cost is not much regarded and only accuracy plays a major role.

Design
Frequency of oscillation (f) is given by:

1
f = where N=3
2πRC√2N

Gain of the Op Amp inverting amplifier (G):

Attenuation offered by the feedback RC network is 1/29, so the gain of inverting amplifier
should be 29
Use Ri = 1.5 KΩ
So, Rf = 43.5KΩ : use a 47K resistor

Or use a 50KΩ potentiometer and adjust its value to obtain output on CRO
Equipment
 IC: 741 1 Piece
 Resistor: 1.5k 3 Pieces
 Resistor: 47K 1 Piece
 Capacitor: 0.01uF 3 Pieces
 AT-7000 Trainer Board 1 Unit
 DC Power Supply 1 Unit
 Oscilloscope 1 Unit
 Multimeter 1 Unit
 Wires
Component Pin Out Diagram of a 741 op-amp

Any circuit that generates an alternating voltage is called an oscillator. Its frequency is found out
by the following formula.

RC Phase Shift Oscillator Schematic using a 741 IC (Construct circuit as shown in

schematic)

Rf

47K

+15V
- 0.01uF 0.01 uF 0.01uF
741

+ C C C

-15V Vo
R R 1.5K R 1.5K
1.5K
Rf = 29Ri

or Rf = 29 x 1.5K = 43.5 K

~= 47K

1
f = where N=3 (3 stages)
2πRC√2N

= 1/(2π ∗ 1.5 ∗ 103 ∗ .01 ∗ 10−6 √6

1
= 4.33KHz or T = 𝑓 = 0.23 mS

Check the waveform at the Op-Amp output and the output after the last Capacitor.
Draw the waveform, calculate time period and frequency of oscillation.
 LAB 08
Experiment Title: Study of a 741 Operational Amplifier as Wien Bridge Oscillator
Objective
To study op-amp as Wien bridge oscillator
Equipment

 IC: 741 1 Piece

 Resistor: 10k 4 Pieces
 Resistor: 33k 1 Piece
 Capacitor: 0.22uF 2 Pieces
 AT-7000 Trainer Board 1 Unit
 DC Power Supply 1 Unit
 Oscilloscope 1 Unit
 Multimeter 1 Unit
 Wires

Pin out Diagram of a 741 Op-Amp

Any circuit that generates an alternating voltage is called an oscillator. The Wien bridge oscillator
is used to generate voltage with frequency in the range of 10Hz to about 1MHz typically. It is used
in all commercial audio generators. If R2 > 2R4, then the output will be a square wave. Its
frequency is found out by the following formula.

1
f 
2 R1 R3 C1C 2

1
If R1 = R3 = R and C1 = C2 = C, then f 
2RC
 C1
0.02uF

R1 10K
R2 22K

R4 10K
+
R3 C2
RL 10K
10K
0.02uF

Circuit of a Wien Bridge Oscillator

Procedure

1. Measure accurately the value of the resistors with a multimeter and record.
2. Calculate the frequency of the square wave. From the observed square wave, calculate the
TR, TF and time period of the waveform and draw the waveform in linear graph paper and mark
TR, TF and Period of waveform
3. Construct the above circuit. Set biasing voltages to +15V and –15V.

Question:
Discuss how would you make a square wave generator with a continuously variable frequency?
Show with a diagram.
 LAB 09
Experiment Title: Study of Timer IC and waveform generation using 555 Timer
Objective
To study the 555 Timer IC
The 555 timer IC comes in two versions, the TTL version designated 555 and the CMOS version
designated as 7555. It comes in an 8-pin DIL package and also in SMT package. The 555 timer is
a highly stable device for generating accurate time delays or oscillation. The output circuit of a
555 timer can source or sink up to 200 mA or drive TTL circuits. The 555 timer can be operated
in astable, bistable and monostable modes.

Equipment

 IC: 555 PDIP 1 Piece

 Resistor: R1 = 1K 1 Piece
 Resistor: R2 = 1.8 K 1 Piece
 Capacitor: C = 10uF 1 Piece; C=1uF – 1 piece
 Capacitor : C1 = 0.01 uF 1 piece
 AT-7000 Trainer Board 1 Unit
 DC Power Supply 1 Unit
 Oscilloscope 1 Unit
 Multimeter 1 Unit
 Wires

Component Pin Out Diagram of a 555 PDIP package

Gnd 1 8 +Vcc
Trigger 2 7 Discharge
Output 3 6 Threshold
Reset 4 5 Control Voltage
555 in Astable Operation
If the circuit is connected as shown in Figure below (pins 2 and 6 connected) it will trigger itself
and free run as a multivibrator. The external capacitor charges through R1 + R2 and discharges
through R2. Thus the duty cycle may be precisely set by the ratio of these two resistors. In this
mode of operation, the capacitor charges and discharges between 1/3 VCC and 2/3 VCC. As in
the triggered mode, the charge and discharge times, and therefore the frequency are independent
of the supply voltage.

Construct the Circuit with the component values as given above: Use Vcc = 9 Volts

R3
R1 8
4
3
7
555
R2 2

6 1 R4
5
C

C1

The charge time (output high) is given by: t1 = 0.693 (R1+ R2) C ………………….. (1)

And the discharge time (output low) by: t2 = 0.693 (R2) C …………………….….(2)

Thus the total period is: T = t1 + t2 = 0.693 (R1 +2R2) C ………………………… (3)

The frequency of oscillation is:

1 1.44
f= = (𝑅1+2𝑅2)𝐶 …………………….. (4)
𝑡

𝑅1+𝑅2
The Duty Cycle is given by: Duty Cycle D = 𝑅1+2𝑅2 …………………..………………... (5)
Procedure:

1. Construct the circuit.

2. Use the dual trace oscilloscopes and observer the output and input waveform and
draw the waveforms. Verify theoretical calculated frequency of the astable
multivibrator and compute the time period of the waveform and calculate the
frequency of oscillation.
3. Change the value of the capacitor to 1 uF and observer the frequency

555 in Monostable Operation:

In this mode of operation, the timer functions as a one-shot. The external capacitor is initially
held discharged by a transistor inside the timer. Upon application of a negative trigger of less
than 1/3 Vcc to pin 2 (Trigger), the flip-flop is set which both releases the short circuit across the
capacitor and drives the output high. The voltage across the capacitor then increases
exponentially for a period of t = 1.1 R1C, at the end of which time the voltage equals 2/3 VCC.
The comparator then resets the flip-flop which in turn discharges the capacitor and drives the
output to its low state.

During the timing cycle when the output is high, the further application of a trigger pulse will not
effect the circuit so long as the trigger input is returned high at least 10 μs before the end of the
timing interval. However the circuit can be reset during this time by the application of a negative
pulse to the reset terminal (pin 4). The output will then remain in the low state until a trigger
pulse is again applied.
Equipment
 IC: 555 PDIP 1 Piece
 Resistor: R1 = 100K 1 Piece
 Resistor: R2 = 10K 1 Piece
 Capacitor: C = 10uF 1 Piece
 Capacitor : C1 = 0.01 uF 1 piece
 Resistor RL = 10 K 1 Piece
 Red LED 1 piece
 Resistor 330 Ohms 1 piece
 AT-7000 Trainer Board 1 Unit
 DC Power Supply 1 Unit
 Oscilloscope 1 Unit
 Multimeter 1 Unit
 Wires
Construct the circuit with the components, Use Vcc = 9 Volts. Use Red LED with a 330 Ohms
resistor for load.

+Vcc

RL
R2 R1 8 Normally
4
on load
3 X
7 X
555
2 330
Negative going RL
Trigger 6 1 5
C Normally
off load LED
C1 Normally
off

555 Timer in Monostable configuration with LED as load

t
1/3 Vcc
Negative Trigger

2/3 Vcc

Waveform of a Monostable Multivibrator

The time period of a monostable oscillator is given by t = 1.1 R1C

Procedure
Use a dual channel oscilloscope to observer the waveform at Pin 2 and Pin 3 and draw the
waveforms. Replace RL (10K) with the 330 ohms and a LED and observe the LED output for
both normally on and normally off load.
 Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering

Semester:
Lab Report
Course Code:
Course Title:
Lab Section:
Experiment no.

Name of the experiment:

Group No:
Prepared by:
Name: _____________________________ ID: _____________
Other Group members:
Sl. ID Name
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Date of Submission:
Objectives:

Apparatus:

Circuit / Block/ System Diagram:

Results/ Analysis:

a. Experimental

b. Theoretical

Question & Answers:

Discussion: