Chapter 2: Current and Voltage Transformers 2015

Chapter 2

Current and Voltage Transformers

Objectives:
In this chapter, we will introduce CT, derive equivalent circuit of CT, and discuss
classifications of CTs. We will solve some tutorial problems on CT and analyse. The
performance of a class C CT based on standard excitation curve, maximum limit for
secondary burden of a CT, and accuracy limit of a class C CT based on IEEE standards.
We will discuss, origin of DC offset current, CT saturation due to DC offset current,
and cautions for CT selection. Also, in this chapter we will learn derive the equivalent
circuit of a CCVT, application of CCVT in power line communication, transient
response of a CCVT, classification of CCVT, and design of CCVT. We will solve
tutorial problems to design a CCVT, find out the value of tuning inductance, find out
ratio error and phase angle error, and performance analysis of VT.

2.1 Introduction:
Practically all electrical measurements and relaying decisions are derived from current
and voltage signals. Since relaying hardware works with smaller range of current (in
amperes and not kA) and voltage (volts and not kV), real life signals (feeder or
transmission line currents) and bus voltages have to be scaled to lower levels and then
fed to the relays. This job is done by current and voltage transformers (CTs and VTs).
CTs and VTs also electrically isolate the relaying system from the actual power
apparatus. The electrical isolation from the primary voltage also provides safety of both
human personnel and the equipment. Thus,
 CT and VTs are the sensors for the relay.
 CT and VT function like ‘ears' and the ‘eyes' of the protection system.

They listen to and observe all happening in the external world. Relay itself is the brain
which processes these signals and issues decision commands implemented by circuit
breakers, alarms etc. Clearly, quality of the relaying decision depends upon ‘faithful'
reproduction on the secondary side of the transformer. In this module, we will learn a
lot more about these devices. In particular, we will answer the following questions:
 How is a CT different from the normal transformer?
 How to decide the CT specifications?
 How to ascertain that CT is functioning as desired i.e., performance analysis?

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2.2 Equivalent Circuit of CT:

To begin with, equivalent circuit of a CT is not much different from that of a regular
transformer (fig 2.1). However, a fundamental difference is that while regular power
transformers are excited by a voltage source, a current transformer has current source
excitation. Primary winding of the CT is connected in series with the transmission line.
The load on the secondary side is the relaying burden and the lead wire resistance. Total
load in ohms that is introduced by CT in series with the transmission line is insignificant
and hence, the connection of the CT does not alter current in the feeder or the power
apparatus at all. Hence from modeling perspectives it is reasonable to assume that CT
primary is connected to a current source. Therefore, the CT equivalent circuit will look
as shown in fig 2.2.

Fig. 2.1 Equivalent circuit of transformer

Fig. 2.2 Modelling of the current transformer

The remaining steps in modeling are as follows:

 As impedance in series with the current source can be neglected, we can neglect
the primary winding resistance and leakage reactance in CT modeling.
 For the convenience in analysis, we can shift the magnetizing impedance from
the primary side to the secondary side of the ideal transformer.

After application of the above steps, the CT equivalent circuit is as shown in the fig 2.3.
Note that the secondary winding resistance and leakage reactance is not neglected as it
will affect the performance of CT. The total impedance on the secondary side is the sum
of relay burden, lead wire resistance and leakage impedance of secondary winding.
Therefore, the voltage developed in the secondary winding depends upon these
parameters directly.

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Fig. 2.3 Shifting magnetizing impedance to secondary

The secondary voltage developed by the CT has to be monitored because as per the
transformer emf equation, the flux level in the core depends upon it. The transformer
emf equation is given by: E2=4.44fN2ϕm, where ϕm is the peak sinusoidal flux developed
in the core. If Bm corresponding to this flux is above the knee point, it is more or less
obvious that the CT will saturate. During saturation, CT secondary winding cannot
replicate the primary current accurately and hence, the performance of the CT
deteriorates. Thus, we conclude that in practice, while selecting a CT we should
ascertain that it should not saturate on the sinusoidal currents that it would be subjected
to. Use of numerical relays due to their very small burden vis-a-vis solid state and
electromechanical relays, improves the CT performance. CT is to be operated always
in closed condition. If the CT is open circuited, all the current Ip/N, would flow through
Xm. This will lead to the development of dangerously high level of voltage in secondary
winding which can even burn out the CT. We can further, simplify the equivalent circuit
of a CT by transferring the current source (through the ideal transformer) to the
secondary side. Thus, the equivalent circuit of the CT is as shown in fig 2.4.

Fig. 2.4 Final equivalent circuit of CT

2.2.1 Equivalent circuit of saturated CT:

One of the major problems faced by the protection systems engineer is the saturation of
CT on large ac currents and dc offset current present during the transient. When the CT
is saturated, primary current source cannot be faithfully reflected to the secondary side.
In other words, we can open circuit the current source in fig 2.4. Also, the magnetizing
impedance falls down during saturation. Then the transformer behaves more like an air
core device, with negligible coupling between the primary and secondary winding. The

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high reluctance due to the air path implies that the magnetizing impedance (inductance)
falls down. The corresponding equivalent circuit is shown in fig 2.5.

Fig. 2.5 CT equivalent circuit during saturation

2.3 Classification of CTs:

The CTs can be classified into following types:
 Measurement CTs
 Protection CTs
A measurement grade CT has much lower VA capacity than a protection grade CT. A
measurement CT has to be accurate over its complete range e.g. from 5% to 125% of
normal current. In other words, its magnetizing impedance at low current levels. (and
hence low flux levels) should be very high. Note that due to non-linear nature of B-H
curve, magnetizing impedance is not constant but varies over the CT's operating range.
It is not expected to give linear response (secondary current a scaled replica of the
primary current) during large fault currents.
In contrast, for a protection grade CT, linear response is expected up to 20 times the
rated current. Its performance has to be accurate in the range of normal currents and up
to fault currents. Specifically, for protection grade CT's magnetizing impedance should
be maintained to a large value in the range of the currents of the order of fault currents.
When a CT is used for both the purposes, it has to be of required accuracy class to
satisfy both accuracy conditions of measurement CTs and protection CTs. In other
words, it has to be accurate for both very small and very large values of current.
Typically, CT secondary rated current is standardized to 1A or 5A (more common).
However, it would be unreasonable to assume that the linear response will be
independent of the net burden on the CT secondary. For simplicity, we refer to the net
impedance on the secondary side (neglecting magnetizing impedance) as the CT
burden. It is quite obvious that the driving force E2 required to drive the primary current
replica will increase as this burden increases. If this voltage exceeds the designer's set
limits, then the CT core will saturate and hence linear response will be lost. Hence,
when we say that a CT will give linear response up to 20 times the rated current, there
is also an implicit constraint that the CT burden will be kept to a low value. In general,
name-plate rating specifies a voltage limit on the secondary (e.g., 100 V) up to which
linear response is expected. If the CT burden causes this voltage to be exceeded, CT
saturation results.
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2.3.1 ANSI / IEEE classification:

ANSI/IEEE standards classify CTs into two types:
 Class T CT
 Class C CT

Class T CTs: Typically, a class T CT is a wound type CT with one or more primary
turns wound on a core. It is associated with high leakage flux in the core. Because of
this, the only way to determine it's performance is by test. In other words, standardized
performance curves cannot be used with this types of CTs. Figure 2.6 shows one such
experimentally calibrated curve for a CT. The letter ‘B' indicates the burden in ohms to
which the CT is subjected. It is seen that when burden is less than say 0.1 ohms, CT
meets the linear performance criterion. However, as the burden increases to 0.5 ohms,
the corresponding linearity criteria is not met till the end. At 4 ohms burden, there is
significant deviation from the linear response. A general rule of thumb is that, one
should try to keep the CT burden as low as possible.

Fig. 2.6 Performance of curve for Class T 200:5 CT

Ratio Error: CT performance is usually gauged from the ratio error. The ratio error is
the percentage deviation in the current magnitude in the secondary from the desired
value. In other words, if the current measured in the secondary is Is, true or actual value
is Ip/N, where N is nominal ratio (e.g. N for a 100:5 CT is 20) and Ip is the primary
current then ratio error is given by (|Ip/N|-|Is|)×100/Is. When the CT is not saturated ratio
error (Ip/N-Is)×100/Is is a consequence of magnetizing current IE since Ip/N-Is=IE.
Therefore, % ratio error is equal to IE×100/Is. When the CT is saturated, coupling
between primary and secondary is reduced. Hence large ratio errors are expected in
saturation. The current in the secondary is also phase shifted. For measurement grade
CTs, there are strict performance requirements on phase angle errors also. Error in phase
angle measurement affects power factor calculation and ultimately real and reactive
power measurements. It is expected that the ratio error for protection grade CTs will be
maintained within ±10%.

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Class C CT: Letter designation 'C' indicates that the leakeage flux is negligible. Class
C CTs are the more accurate bar type CTs. In such CTs, the leakage flux from the core
is kept very small. For such CTs, the performance can be evaluated from the standard
exciting curves. Also, the ratio error is maintained within ±10% for standard operating
conditions. For such CTs, voltage rating on the secondary is specified up to which linear
response is guaranteed. For example, a class C CT specification could be as follows:
200:5 C 100. The labeling scheme indicates that we are dealing with a 200:5 class C CT
which will provide linear response up to 20 times rated current provided the burden on
the secondary is kept below (100/(5×20)=1) ohm. Similarly, a corresponding class T
CT may be labeled as 200:5 T 100. For class C CTs, standard chart for E2 versus
excitation current Ie on the secondary side is available. This provides the protection
engineer data to do more exact calculations (refer fig 2.7). e.g., in determining relaying
sensitivity.

Fig. 2.7 Typical excitation curves for multi-ratio C class CT (IEEE std C37-110, 1996)

Example 2.1:
A 1200/5, C400 CT with excitation curves shown on above fig 2.7, is connected to a
2.0Ω burden. Based on the accuracy classification, what is the maximum symmetrical
fault current that may be applied to this CT without exceeding a 10% ratio error?
Answer:
CT ratio = 1200/5, Secondary resistance = 0.61Ω, Relay burden = 2Ω, For 20 times
rated secondary current, i.e., 100A
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Secondary voltage = 100×(2 + 0.61) = 261 Volts which is less than knee point of the
CT. Since this voltage is less than 400V, from electrical perspective, linearity will not
be lost at even higher currents.
Approximate limit on secondary current is given by Imax=400/2.61=153.4A. Hence
maximum symmetrical fault current = 153×(1200/5)=36720A.
More exact calculation requires usage of fig 2.7. This would involve 'cut and try'
approach.

Example 2.2:
A 1200/5, C400 CT is connected on the 1000/5 tap. What is the maximum secondary
burden that can be used and we can maintain rated accuracy at 20 times rated
symmetrical secondary current?
Answer:
The secondary voltage corresponding to the tap 1000/5, VS = 1000×400/1200=333V
Secondary current IS=20×5=100A, and VS=IS(RS+RB), RS=0.51Ω from calibration
curve. Then: 333 = 100(0.51+RB)
Secondary burden RB = 3.33 - 0.51 = 2.72Ω

Example 2.3:
Assume that secondary burden of a 300:5 class C CT is 5Ω. The relay setting is 2A and
the CT ratio is 300/5. Using fig 2.7, calculate the primary current required to operate
the relay?
Answer:
Secondary burden = 5Ω, Secondary resistance for 300/5 CT = 0.15Ω, and Relay setting
IS=2A, then, Vs = 2×(5 + 0.15) = 10.3V
Corresponding exciting current = 0.04A, and Total secondary current=2+0.04=2.04A
Note that, strictly, phasor addition of currents has to be done. However, algebraic
addition simplifies work and usually leads to conservative estimate of voltages. Hence,
this practice is considered acceptable.
Primary current to operate the relay = 300×2.04/5= 122A

Example 2.4:
A relay is expected to operate for 7000A primary current. The class C CT ratio is 600/5
(see fig 2.7). Secondary burden is 3.5Ω. Will the CT saturate at this burden? Also,
comment on the ratio error.

Answer:
Secondary current IS=7000×5/600=58.33A, and Vs = 58.33 (3.5 + 0.31) = 222.25V.
From the excitation curve (fig. 2.7) of 600/5 CT, we can see that the CT will be in deep
saturation and % ratio error will exceed the limits.

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Example 2.5:
What will be the approximate % error if a 500:5 class C CT is connected to a secondary
burden of 2.5Ω and the secondary current is 68A.
Answer:
For a 500/5 CT, secondary resistance Rs = 0.25Ω, Secondary burden RB = 2.5Ω
Vs=Is(Rs+RB)= 187V, Corresponding exciting current IE = 6A (fig 2.7) (approximate)
% ratio error = IE×100/Is=600/68=8.82%

Example 2.6:
If a 300:5 class C CT (fig 2.8) is connected to a meter with resistance R1=1Ω, and
secondary current in the CT is 4.5A find out the primary current, voltage developed
across the meter and % ratio error. Lead wire resistance RL=0.02Ω secondary resistance
RS of a 300:5 CT = 0.15Ω.
Answer:
Total secondary resistance RT=1.17Ω
Secondary voltage VS=4.5×1.17 = 5.0265V
From Fig 2.7,
Fig. 2.8 Example 2.6
Exciting current IE for 5.265V = 0.03A (approximate)
Turns ratio N = 300/5 = 60
IP=60(4.5 + 0.03)= 271.8A, Voltage across meter = ISR1 = 4.5V, and Ratio error =
0.03×100/4.5 = 0.67%

2.4 CT Saturation and DC Offset Current:

2.4.1 Origin of DC Off-set Current:

Typically, fault current consists of symmetrical ac component and a dc offset current.
To understand this issue, consider an unloaded transmission line excited by a voltage
source. The fault strikes at time t=t0. This can be simulated by closing the switch at in
fig 7.1. If Rline+jωLline or Zline/θ models the line impedance, then the fault current in the
line is given by the following expressions.
𝑖 (𝑡 ) = 0 0 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 𝑡0
𝑡−𝑡0
𝑉𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜔𝑡+∅−𝜃)
𝑖 (𝑡 ) = |𝑍𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒|
+ 𝐼0 𝑒 −( 𝜏
)
, 𝑡 ≥ 𝑡0
Where τ is the time constant of the line τ = Lline/Rline. Fig 2.9 shows a typical wave form
of fault current containing DC offset current. The fault current can be decomposed into
two components. The first component models the steady state sinusoidal ac response
while the second component is the dc offset current due to the presence of inductance
in the circuit. Recall that current in an inductance can not change instantaneously. DC
offset current is a consequence of maintaining initial condition 𝑖(𝑡0− ) = 𝑖 (𝑡0+ ). While

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the dc offset current in theory, would persist till infinity, it's trace in the actual wave
form would not be seen beyond a few time constants. Table 2.1illustrates the values of
𝑡
𝑒 −𝜏 up to 10 time constants.

Fig. 2.9 Circuit model to simulate fault

Time t=0 t=τ t=2τ t=4τ t=6τ t=8τ t=10τ

𝑡 1 0.3678 0.1353 0.0183 0.0024 0.0003 0.00004
𝑒 −𝜏

It is more or less obvious that, dc offset is not seen in the waveform after 5 time
constants. The peak value of dc offset current I0 can be worked out by setting the current
−𝑉𝑚
i(t0) to zero. This implies that: 𝐼0 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜔𝑡 + ∅ − 𝜃)
|𝑍𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 |
𝑡−𝑡0
𝑉𝑚 𝑉𝑚
Thus: 𝑖 (𝑡 ) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜔𝑡 + ∅ − 𝜃) − 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜔𝑡0 + ∅ − 𝜃)𝑒 −( 𝜏
)
(2.1)
|𝑍𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒| |𝑍𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 |
Clearly, the peak value of dc offset current depends upon the following parameters:
 Time at which fault strikes,
 Phase angle ϕ of ac voltage and
 |Zline| and θ of transmission line.
 Voltage Vm

Fig. 2.10 Typical wave form of fault current

It can be seen that severity of dc offset component in fault current is maximum when
from equation (2.1): ϕ=θ, and ωt0=±π/2. For example, if angle of transmission line is
80o, then with ϕ=80o, and t0=π/(2×2π×50)=0.005sec=5msec, the severity of dc offset
current would equal I0=Vm/|Zline|, which is also the peak value of symmetrical ac
component of the current. This leads us to an important conclusion. viz.,
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 Peak value of dc offset current can be as high as the symmetrical ac peak.

 Polarity wise the dc offset current can be positive or negative.
 Dc offset current may be totally absent eg. If ϕ=θ, t0=0.
While, in above analysis, we have considered a single phase current, a 3 phase fault on
a 3 phase transmission line would always induce dc offset current in at least two phases.
DC offset has adverse impact on the CT performance. In the remaining chapter, we
analyze effect of the dc offset current on CT performance.

Fig. 2.11 Ideal CT excited by DC offset current u(t) is the unit step function

We now plan to show that CT can saturate on dc offset current. Also, we plan to show
that the resulting distortions in the CT secondary current can be unacceptably high.
While doing this analysis, we will neglect ac symmetrical component. Note that when
a CT core is saturated, it cannot replicate the ac component as the strong mutual
coupling between primary and secondary is lost. First consider an ideal CT excited by
the dc offset current source. An ideal CT will faithfully replicate the primary current
waveform on the secondary side. Hence, the secondary current would be given by:
𝑁1 𝐼0 𝑡
𝑖2 = 𝑒 −𝜏 and the voltage developed across CT secondary would be given by:
𝑁2
𝑁1 𝑅𝐼0 𝑡
𝑣2𝑑𝑐 (𝑡 ) = 𝑒 −𝜏 Typical voltage waveform is shown in fig 2.12.
𝑁2

Fig. 2.12 Secondary voltage for ideal CT with resistive burden and exponential
Decaying current source

For simplicity, let us assume that the initial flux in the transformer core at t = 0 is ϕ(0)=0.
Then, we can compute the flux in the transformer core by using Faraday's law:

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𝑑∅
𝑣2 = 𝑁2 (2.2)
𝑑𝑡
1 𝑡 𝑁1 𝑅𝐼0 𝑡
−
∅(𝑡 ) − ∅(0) = ∫0 𝑣2 𝑑𝑡 = 𝜏 (1 − 𝑒 ) 𝜏
𝑁2 𝑁22
𝑁1 𝑅𝐼0 𝑡
∅(𝑡 ) = ∅(0) + 𝜏 (1 − 𝑒 −𝜏 ) (2.3)
𝑁22
Fig 2.13 shows the plot of the flux due to dc offset current as a function of time with
ϕ(0)=0. It can be seen that flux in the core increases exponentially to a peak value of
ϕdcmax=(N1RI0/N22)τ as t→∞, Since, maximum value of I0 is Vm/|Zline|, it implies that
ϕdcmax can be as high as =(N1RVm/|Zline|N22)τ.

Note that unlike ac voltage induced flux, which is sinusoidal in nature, this flux (2.2) is
unidirectional. AC voltage induced flux has zero average value. However, dc offset
induced flux does not have this nice feature. The total instantaneous flux in ideal CT
core is a summation of ac flux and dc flux (see fig 2.14). The voltage developed across
the CT secondary by the steady state i.e., sinusoidal component of the fault current is
given by:
𝑉𝑚 𝑁1
𝑣2𝑑𝑐 (𝑡 ) = 𝑅 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜔𝑡 + ∅ − 𝜃)
|𝑍𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 | 𝑁22
The sinusoidal ac flux in the CT core can be obtained by substituting operator d/dt by
⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑉2 𝑅𝑉𝑚 𝑁1 𝜋
jω in equation (2.2). Hence: ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
∅𝑎𝑐 = or ∅𝑎𝑐 (𝑡 ) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝜔𝑡 + ∅ − 𝜃 − )
𝑗𝜔𝑁2 𝜔|𝑍𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 | 𝑁22 2
Thus, the peak value of ac flux is given by the following relationship.
𝑅𝑉𝑚 𝑁1
∅𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑎𝑐 =
𝜔|𝑍𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 | 𝑁22
Hence, the peak value of instantaneous flux in the core is given by,
𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑅𝑉𝑚 𝑁1 𝑁1 𝑅𝑉𝑚 𝜏
∅𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑎𝑐 + ∅𝑑𝑐 = +
𝜔|𝑍𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 | 𝑁22 𝑁22 |𝑍𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 |
In practice, if this flux exceeds the knee-point flux in the core (see fig 2.15), then the
CT core will saturate.

2.13 Flux in CT core for Vdc in Fig. 2.12 Fig. 2.14

As a consequence of CT core saturation, the secondary current would not faithfully

replicate the primary current. In fact, in practice it is observed that CT secondary current
is clipped as shown in fig 2.16. The clipping of CT current leads to “blinding” of the

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relay which cannot function any further. Hence, CT saturation in presence of dc offset
current is a serious problem which relay designers have to face. Note that dc flux
accumulates gradually. In fact it depends upon the transmission line time constant (τ).
It is apparent that saturation should not occur immediately after the inception of the
fault. Thus, if the relay is fast enough in decision making, it is likely that a relaying
decision would be undertaken before the CT fully saturates. This is another important
reason for demanding speed from the relaying system. For bus-fault protection, where
the CT saturation due to dc offset current can be a significant contributing factor, quarter
cycle operations specification are imposed. Similarly, a distance relay is expected to
operate within 0.5-1 cycle time.

2.16 Experiential recorded CT secondary

Fig. 2.15 B-H curve of Iron current under saturation at IIT KSA

2.4.2 CT Oversizing Factor:

Typically, an efficient design of transformer would correspond to choosing the core
cross section such that ϕmac should be near the knee point of B - H curve. One obvious
way of avoiding CT saturation on dc flux is to oversize the core so that for flux (ϕacmax+
ϕdcmax), corresponding B is below the knee-point. Hence, the factor (ϕacmax+ ϕdcmax)/
ϕacmax is called core-oversizing factor.
Core-oversizing factor = 1+ (ϕdcmax/ ϕacmax)
𝑁1 𝑅𝑉𝑚 𝜏
𝑁22 |𝑍𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 | 𝜔𝐿𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑋
𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒 − 𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑧𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = 1 + 𝑅𝑉𝑚 𝑁1 = 1 + 𝜔𝜏 = 1 + =1+
𝑅𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑅
𝜔|𝑍𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 |𝑁22

Note that X/R in above equation is the transmission line X/R ratio. For a 220KV line
with X/R≈10, this would imply that transformer core should be oversized by a factor of
11. For a EHV line, with X/R≈20, this would imply an oversizing requirement of about
21 times the usual design. Clearly, this high amount of oversizing is not practical. Thus,
an important conclusion is that, protection engineers have to live with the saturation
problem. Under the situation one should try to quickly reach the decision, before CT
saturates. However, this brings in the picture, the well discussed 'speed vs accuracy
conflict'. We will have more to say on the accuracy aspect of relaying in later chapters.

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2.4.3 Cautions in CT Selection

While choosing a CT for a particular application, it is necessary to observe following
precautions.
 The CT rating and continuous load current should match. For example, if
maximum load current is 90A, a 100:5 CT may be acceptable but 50:5 is not
acceptable.
 The maximum fault current should be less than 20 times the CT rated current.
For example, 100:5 CT can be used, so long as burden on the CT is within the
rated values and maximum primary fault current is below 2000A.
 The voltage rating of CT should be compatible. For example, 100:5 C100 would
give linear response, up to 20 times rated current provided CT burden is kept
below(100/20×5=1Ω). With 2Ω burden, this CT can be used only if maximum
current is limited to 1000A.
 Paralleling of CT's e.g. in differential protection, or with SLG fault can create
significant errors in CT performance. One should generally ascertain that
magnetizing current is kept much below the pickup value.

2.4.4 Exercise Problems

1. If the current ratio is adequate for a protection, but CT burden is high; then the
performance of CT may deteriorate due to large magnetizing current and/or saturation
problem (see fig 7.17). The CT performance can be improved by connecting the CT's
in series (see fig 7.18).
 Show the dotted terminals for correct secondary series connection in fig 7.18.
 What is the VA of CT in fig 7.17 and 7.18 respectively?

Fig. 2.17 Fig. 2.18

2. Mark the following statements as true or false:
 Electromechanical relays tend to saturate at high currents. This reduces the relay
burden on CT, and so that the CT performance at moderately high currents may
be considered better than at relay's rated burden at 5A.
 Use of instantaneous over current relays has the potential to overcome this
problem of saturation of CT's.
 Differential protection can operate on external faults due to the unequal
saturation of CT's.

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2.5 Voltage Transformers:

Many relaying applications like distance relays, directional overcurrent relays require
measurement of voltages at a bus. This task is done by a voltage transformer (VT). The
principle of a voltage transformer is identical to the conventional transformer. Hence,
its equivalent circuit can be represented as shown in fig 2.19. Typically, the secondary
voltage of the VT is standardized to 110 V (ac). Hence, as the primary voltage increases,
the turns ratio N1:N2 increases and transformer becomes bulky. To cut down the VT
size and cost, a capacitance potential divider is used (fig 2.20). Thus, a reduced voltage
is fed to primary of the transformer. This reduces the size of VT. This leads to
development of coupling capacitor voltage transformers (CCVT).

Fig. 2.19 Equivalent circuit of a VT Fig. 2.20 A Coupling Capacitor VT

2.5.1 Role of Tuning Reactor:

Assuming, the transformer to be ideal, the Thevenin's equivalent circuit of CCVT is
shown in fig 2.21. It is now obvious that Zth due to the capacitance divider, affects the
voltage received by the relay. To achieve high level of accuracy, it is therefore necessary
to compensate for this voltage drop by connecting a tuning inductor. The tuning
inductor‘s value is so chosen that it compensates for the ‘net C' at power frequency
(60Hz in KSA). The phasor diagram across resistive load, is as shown in fig (2.22a).
(See fig 2.22).

Fig. 2.21Thevenin equivalent of CCVT Fig. 2.22 Rule of tuning inductor

As seen from primary side of VT

From the corresponding equivalent circuit, it is apparent that, if ωL=1/ω(C1+C2), then

voltage drop across C is neutralized and the relay sees the actual voltage to be measured.
(See fig 2.23).

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Fig. 2.23 Final equivalent circuit of CCVT

2.5.2 CCVT in Power Line Communication:

The capacitance potential divider also serves the dual purpose of providing a shunt path
to high frequency signal used in power line carrier communication. Normally, CCVT
is used in HV/EHV systems where carrier line communication is used. High frequency
i.e. Radio Frequency (RF) signals (50 - 400 kHz) can be coupled to power line for
communication. At high frequency, the capacitive shunt impedance is very small and
hence these signals can be tapped by the potential divider. To block the path to ground
for the RF signal, a small drainage reactor is connected in series with the capacitance
divider. At power frequencies, it has a very small impedance. Thus, the role of
capacitance potential divider at power frequency is not compromised. On the other
hand, at RF, the impedance of drainage reactor is large and it blocks the RF signal. Also,
compensating reactor and transformer leakage reactance by their inductive nature, block
the path of RF signal. This signal is then tapped by a tuning pack which provides low
impedance to the RF signal.

Ferro Resonance Problem in CCVT: The iron cores of the reactor and transformer
will not only introduce copper and core losses but it can also produce ferroresonance
caused by the nonlinearity of the iron cores. Hence a ferroresonance suppression circuit
is also included in the secondary of the transformer. The dangerous overvoltages caused
by ferroresonance are eliminated by this circuit. Unfortunately, it can aggravate CCVT
transients.

2.5.3 Transient Response of CCVT:

As can be seen in the fig 2.23, CCVT equivalent circuit is a R-L-C circuit. If transformer
is considered ideal, it can be described by integral differential equation of the type,
𝑑𝑖 1 𝑡
𝑣 (𝑡 ) = 𝑅𝑡 + 𝐿 + ∫−∞ 𝑖𝑑𝑡.
𝑑𝑡 𝐶𝑒𝑞
𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑖 𝑑2 𝑖 1
The corresponding differential equation is given by: =𝑅 +𝐿 + 𝑡.
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 2 𝐶𝑒𝑞
For a solid 3 - phase fault say near the CCVT bus at t=t0. v(t)=0 for 𝑡 ≥ 𝑡0 .
Thus, during fault the governing differential equation is given by:
𝑑2 𝑖 𝑅 𝑑𝑖 1
+ + 𝑖 = 0.
𝑑𝑡 2 𝐿 𝑑𝑡 𝐿𝐶𝑒𝑞

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This equation is expressed in standard form as follows:

𝑑2 𝑖 𝑑𝑖
+ 2𝜉𝜔𝑛 + 𝜔𝑛 2 𝑖 = 0
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡
where ωn is natural frequency in radians per second and ξ is the damping constant.
Thus, ωn2=1/LCeq and 2ξωn=R/L.
1
Because of the property of tuning reactor, 𝜔𝑛 = = 2𝜋𝑓0 f0=50 or 60 Hz.
√𝐿𝐶𝑒𝑞
We know from the background in network analysis that response of such a circuit to
step excitation, depends upon ξ. Because R is quite small, ξ<1. If ξ<1; then we expect
underdamped response. The response depends upon the damping ξ and ωn and point on
the voltage waveform where the fault strikes. Such transients are known as subsistence
transients. Fig 2.25 shows subsistence transients of CCVT. It can be seen that
subsistence transients can reduce the accuracy of distance relays.

Fig. 2.24 Schematic diagram of a CCVT with RF connection

Fig. 2.25 Typical CCVT schematic transient

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2.5.4 Classification of CCVTs:

CCVTs can be classified into following two types:
 Class 1
 Class 2
Table 8.1 shows the maximum limit for the ratio and phase angle errors. It can be seen
that errors of Class 2 type are double than that of class 1 type.

Table 2.2 Limits for Ratio and Phase Angle Errors

VT class Maximum ratio error Maximum phase angle error
Class 1 ±1% ±40 min
Class 2 ±2% ±80 min

Example 2.7:
Design a CCVT for a 132kV transmission line using the following data. Resistive
Burden 3-ϕ =150VA, frequency deviation to be subjected to Δf=3Hz, phase angle error
β=40 minutes. Consider four choices of V2 as 33 kV, 11 kV, 6.6 kV and 3.3 kV.
Transmission line voltage V = 132 kV. The standardized VT secondary voltage is 110
volts (L-L).

Fig. 2.26 Scheme diagram of CCVT, and Equivalent circuit of Fig. 2.26

Answer:
Let V2 (L-N) be the voltage to be produced by the capacitive potential divider with
capacitance values C1 and C2. Let L be the value of tuning inductor. Our first task is to
come up with a value of L. Here the specification for phase angle error β is 40 minutes.
Variation in frequency can be up to Δf=3Hz approximately. Phase angle error for
change in ω from ω0 by Δω in the above equivalent circuit can be calculated as follows:
𝑑 1 1
∆𝑉𝐿 − ∆𝑉𝐶 = 𝑗𝐼 (𝜔𝐿 − ) ∆𝜔 = 𝐼 (𝐿 + ) ∆𝜔
𝑑𝜔 𝜔𝐶𝑒𝑞 𝜔0 2 𝐶𝑒𝑞
1
At tuning frequency, 𝜔0 2 = , and Substituting ω02=1/LC
𝐿𝐶𝑒𝑞

∆𝑉𝐿 − ∆𝑉𝐶 = 𝐼(𝐿 + 𝐿)∆𝜔

|𝑉𝐿 −𝑉𝐶 | 2𝐿𝐼∆𝜔 2𝐿∆𝜔
From triangle, 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛽 = = = .
|𝑉𝑅 | 𝑎2 𝑅𝑏 𝐼 𝑎2 𝑅𝑏

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2𝐿∆𝜔
For small enough β, tanβ = β and hence from its % phase angle error 𝛽 ≈ × 100
𝑎2 𝑅𝑏
Using this equation the value L for different values of V2 is found out.
(1) Let V2 be 33kV (L-N):
3V22/Rb’=150, and Rb’=a2Rb=3×(33×103)2/150=21.78×106Ω, and Δω=2πΔf=6πHz
β=40 min = (40×π/180×60)=0.01164
2𝐿∆𝜔
From eqn. 𝛽 ≈ , L=(β×Rb’)/(2Δω)=(0.01164×21.78×106)/(2×6π)=6722.2H
𝑎2 𝑅𝑏
C1+C2=1/(ω2L)= 1/(3142×6722.2)=1.51×10-9F= 1.51×10-3 μF

(2) Let V2 be 11kV (L-N):

Rb’=a2Rb=3×(11×103)2/150=2.42×106Ω
L=(β×Rb’)/(2Δω)=(0.01164×2.42×106)/(2×6π)=747.2H
C1+C2=1/(ω2L)= 1/(3142×747.2)=13.6×10-3 μF

(3) Let V2 be 6.6kV (L-N):

Rb’=a2Rb=3×(6.6×103)2/150=0.8712×106Ω
L=(β×Rb’)/(2Δω)=(0.01164×0.8712×106)/(2×6π)=269H
C1+C2=1/(ω2L)= 1/(3142×269)=37.7×10-3 μF

(4) Let V2 be 3.3kV (L-N):

Rb’=a2Rb=3×(3.3×103)2/150=0.2178×106Ω
L=(β×Rb’)/(2Δω)=(0.01164×0.2178×106)/(2×6π)=67.25H
C1+C2=1/(ω2L)= 1/(3142×67.25)=0.151μF

The values of L, C1+C2 for different values of V2 are tabulated below.

V2 in kV L in H C1+C2 in μF
33 6722.2 0.00151
11 747.2 0.0136
6.6 269 0.0377
3.3 67.25 0.151

From the above table it is clear that smaller the value of V2, the smaller is the value of
L and higher the value of C1 and C2 for tuning condition. If we select too low value of
V2 and L then capacitance values will be beyond available limits, and if we select higher
value of V2 and L, then CCVT's inductor will become bulky. So a compromise solution
is necessary and let us select V2 = 6.6 kV
For V2 = 6.6 kV, L = 269 H, and C1+C2 =0.0377 in μF
Now, V/V2=(C1+C2)/C1 or 132/√3 × 66=0.0377/C1,
then C1=0.0033 μF, and C2=0.0344 μF
In this design, we have explained the basic concept for CCVT design and we assumed
the transformer to be ideal. However in real life design, the value of magnetizing
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impedance of transformer, resistance of reactor etc have to be taken into account, as the
ratio error α and the phase angle error β will also get affected by these values. The next
example brings out these issues.

Example 2.8:
The equivalent circuit of a CCVT is shown in fig 2.27. The values of C1 and C2 are
0.0018 μF and 0.0186 μF respectively. Tuning inductor has an inductance of 497H and
resistance of 4620Ω. Xm of the VT referred to 6.6 kV side is 1MΩ, core loss = 20 watts
per phase, VA burden = 150VA per phase. Value of Cm for compensating the current
drawn by Xm is equal to 3.183×10-9 F.
(a) Verify the appropriateness of choice of L and Cm.
(b) Find out the nominal value of V/V2
(c) If the frequency drops from 50Hz to 47Hz, what would be the values of ratio error
and phase angle error?

Fig. 2.27 Equivalent circuit of a CCVT

Answer:
(a) If C1 = 0.0018 μF and C2 = 0.0186 μF and then the value L of tuning inductor is
given by: L=1/ω2(C1+C2)= 496.7 H where ω=2πf and f = 50 Hz nominal frequency.
Thus, which is equal to the given value of L.
Now, Xm=1×106 Ω, Cm has to be in parallel resonance with Xm. Therefore, Xm=1/ωCm
Cm=3.183×10-9 F. The value is also same as the selected value of Cm. Hence, the
selection of both L and Cm is appropriate.

(b) V/V2=(C1+C2)/C1= (0.0018+0.0186)/0.0018=11.33

V=11.33×6.6=132/√3 kV, thus, this VT is connected to a 132 kV bus.

(c) Core loss = 20 W or V22/Rm=20, then Rm=66002/20=2.18×106 Ω

VA burden = 150VA (resistive) or V22/Rb=150, then Rb=66002/150=0.2904×106 Ω
The equivalent circuit can be represented as shown below.
Xm=106 Ω at f= 50 Hz, then, Lm=106/314=3184.7H
The frequency of interest is 47Hz. Hence values of Xm and other impedance can be
calculated at 47Hz. Figure 2.28, and simplified circuit.
Where: 1/Z=1/Rm-j/Xm+jωCm+1/Rb

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 Chapter 2: Current and Voltage Transformers 2015

1/Z=(1/2.18×106)-(j/ j2×π×47×3184.7)+(j2×π×47×3.183×10-9)+(1/0.2904×106)
1/Z=(3.902-j0.124) ×10-6 or Z=(256018.32+j8135.15)=256147.5/1.82o Ω
Ith=Vth/(R+jωL-j/ωCm+Z)
Ith=6600/0 / (4620+j2π×47×497-(j/2π×47×0.0204×10-6)+(256018.32+j8135.15))
Ith=6600/0 / 260874.14/-2.44o
VT=ZIth= 256147.5/1.82o × 6600/0 / 260874.14/-2.44o
VT=6480.42/4.26o
Amplitude or ratio error of a CCVT is equal to (Vth-VT)×100/Vth where Vth is the
Thevenin equivalent voltage source is nothing but open circuit emf. VT is the terminal
voltage on load. Hence % ratio error =1.81%, and Phase angle error = 4.26o. Clearly,
the phase angle error is on the higher side.

Fig. 2.28 Equivalent circuit Ex.2.8, and simplification

Review Questions
1. What are the functions of a CT?
2. Derive equivalent circuit of a CT.
3. What are the consequences of CT saturation on large AC current? How can it be
avoided?
4. What are the differences between:
a. Measurement CTs and Protection CTs.
b. Class T CTs and class C CTs.
5. By mistake someone has interchanged the terminals of measurement CT and
protection CT. Both CT are at the same place and having same current ratings.
What will happen in normal condition and abnormal condition?
Note: Use fig 2.7 wherever necessary.
6. A circuit has a 1200:5 C 400 CT with characteristics as shown in fig 2.7. The
maximum symmetrical fault for which the associated relays are to operate is
17,800 Amp. Find out the approximate % error if the secondary burden is: (a)
2Ω, and (b) 4Ω.
7. The secondary burden in a relay circuit is 4Ω. The overcurrent relay set to pick
up at 3 Amp and CT ratio is 400:5. Calculate the minimum primary current to
just operate the relay?

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8. Find out the maximum secondary burden that can be used and still maintain rated
accuracy at 20 times rated symmetrical secondary current if a 1200:5 C 400 CT
is connected on 800/5 tap.
9. If the secondary burden of 1200:5 C 400 CT connected to 300:5 tap is 2Ω, find
out. Find out the maximum symmetrical fault current that may be applied to this
CT without exceeding 10% ratio error.
10. Let the primary fault current in the primary side of a CT be given by:
𝑖𝑃 = (𝐼′ 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜔𝑡 + 𝛿 ) − 𝐼′ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛿𝑒 −𝛾𝑡 )𝑢(𝑡 )
(a) Show that this equation can be rearranged as follows.
𝑖𝑃 = (𝐼′ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛿 (𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑡 + 𝑒 −𝛾𝑡 ) + 𝐼′ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛿𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡 )𝑢(𝑡 )
For u(t) where u(t) is the unit step function.
(b) Consider the simplified equivalent circuit of CT as shown in fig 2.9
Let ψ be the angle as shown in fig 2.10 and 1/α=LM/r. Then show that secondary
reflected current components for the primary are given by:
Primary Fault current Secondary reflected current
1 𝐼 ′ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛿𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡 (Sine Component) ′
𝐼 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛿(−𝑒 −𝛼𝑡
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜓𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜓 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜓𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜓))
2 𝐼 ′ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛿𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑡 (Cosine Component) 𝐼′ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛿(−𝑒 −𝛼𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜓 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜓𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜓))
3 −𝐼 ′ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛿𝑒 −𝛾𝑡 (d c component) 𝐼′ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛿
(− (𝛼𝑒 −𝛼𝑡 − 𝛾𝑒 −𝛾𝑡 ))
𝛼−𝛾

Fig. 2.9 Simplified equivalent circuit Fig. 2.10

11. What are the factors on which the peak value of DC offset current depends?
12. How does the DC offset current affect the performance of a CT?
13. Derive the equation for peak value of total flux developed in a CT core.
14. What is meant by core oversizing factor?
15. What are the precautions to be taken while selecting CTs?
16. Review Questions
17. Derive the equivalent circuit of a CCVT.
18. What is the function of a tuning inductor?
19. How can CCVT be used in Pilot wire communication?
20. What is the function of ferroresonance suppression circuit?

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21. Assume that the primary voltage of a CCVT is 400 kV and the voltage to be
produced by the capacitive potential divider is 3.3 kV. If C2 is taken as 0.02μF,
determine the value of tuning inductance at frequency of 50Hz.
22. In figure 2.27 if V = 230 kV, V2 = 6.6 kV (L-N) C1 = 0.001 μF and Xm = 1.2
MΩ, then find out the values of tuning inductance and capacitance to be
connected across CCVT's secondary for compensating Xm. Standardized
secondary voltage of a VT is 110V (L-L).
23. Design a CCVT for a 400 kV transmission line using the following data.
Secondary resistive burden (3-ϕ) = 300VA. Core loss (3-ϕ) = 50W. Δf=±3Hz.
Consider 3 choices of V2 = 3.3 kV, 6.6 kV, 11 kV. Take phase angle error β= 40
min. and standard VT secondary voltage =110 V (L-L).

Recap
In this chapter we have learnt the following: Functions of CT and VT, Equivalent
circuits of CT, and Classifications of CTs. We have learnt the following by solving the
tutorial problems: Ratio error of a CT can be worked out from its excitation curve, the
ratio error in a class C CT should not exceed 10%, and Ratio error increases with
secondary burden and there is a maximum limit for secondary burden of a CT. Also, we
have learnt the DC offset current, CT saturation due to DC offset current, CT core
oversizing factor, and Cautions in CT selection. Finally, in this chapter we have learnt
the following: Role of VT, The equivalent circuit of a CCVT, Use of CCVT in Pilot
wire communication, and Ferroresonance problem in CCVTs by solving the tutorial
problems we have learnt the following: How to decide V2, How to choose, How to
decide C1 and C2, and How to evaluateperformance of VT.

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