ROMAN CIVILIZATION

Geography of Rome
● Rome is the capital city in Italy, located in South-Central Europe.
● Italy is surrounded by the Adriatic sea, Ionian sea, Tyrrhenian Sea, and Ligurian Sea.
● Which makes the Italian people delve into trading as one of their main livelihoods in
ancient times.
● The mountain ranges in Italy serve as natural barriers from invading enemies.
● The land in Appenis mountain is very fertile that enables Italians to cultivate crops such
as wheat, corn, potatoes, and sugar beets.
● Italy is rich in minerals like copper and iron.

FOUNDING OF ROME
● According to a poem written by a Roman Author Virgil, when Greeks captured Troy,
some Trojans managed to escape including Aeneas, together with his father and son.
● They found Latinuim a place wherein King Latinus ruled the place. The daughter of the
King married Aeneas.
● Together they founded a new town called Lavinium. When Aeneas died his son Ascanius
left Lavinium and built a city called Alba Longa.
● Several years after Aeneas' descendants, Numitor became the King of Alba Longa.
● His daughter Rhea Silva bore twins Romulus and Remus.
● The brother of Numitor, Amulius seized his throne and became king. To eliminate threats
to his power, Amulius ordered a servant to kill the twins.
● The servant placed the twins in a basket and abandoned them at the Tiber river.
● The twins were saved by the god of the river, Tibernus. A she-wolf discovered the twins,
and nurtured them.
● Eventually, a shepherd adopted the twins. Romulus and Remus became shepherds.
● One day the twins got into a fight against King Amulius shepherds.
● As a result, Remus was imprisoned by King Amulius. Romulus rescued his brother with
the help of local shepherds and killed King Amulius.
● Numitor was reinstated as ruler.
● The twins separately looked for a place to establish a city. Romulus wanted the new city
to be at Palatine Hill, while Remus in the Avantine Hill.
● They quarreled and Romulus killed his own brother.
● Thus, the location chosen by Romuls became the new city called ROME.

EMERGENCE OF ETRUSCANS
● In a place called Etruria, between Tiber and Arno rivers in Italy, lived the Tyrrhenians,
from which the Etruscans originated.
● The Etruscans developed a distinct culture.
● They ruled over the northern part of Italy including Rome.
● Romans learned a lot of practical things like using the alphabet, building roads, and
sanitation from the Etruscans.
● Etruscans males are dominant in politics, religion, and justice, while women were given
more freedom.
● Etruscans ruled Rome for a century under a REX or KING.
● The family TARQUIN was considered to be the most powerful clan. However, in 509
 BCE, the last Etruscan king, Tarquin Superbus, was ousted for being an abusive king.

ROMAN REPUBLIC
● The Romans established a government without a king as a ruler after ousting the last
Etruscans king.
● They called the new government a REPUBLIC.
● There were two social classes at that time: the PATRICIANS, who belong to the upper
class; and the PLEBEIANS from the lower class.
PATRICIANS
● The Patricians were usually rich landowners, they held positions in the government.
● There were two officials called SENATE and CONSULS.
● The SENATE is the institution in charge of drafting laws, and controlling the finance and
foreign affairs.
● It is composed of 300 council members, all of them are patricians.
● Compared to Consuls, their position is permanent.
● CONSULS the one who directed the daily affairs of the senate and led the army.
● To avoid the risk of giving them too much power they can only serve for a year.
● The consuls have the power to veto or nullify each other’s decision.
● In terms of a military crisis, consuls could nominate a dictator as recommended by the
senate, the dictator serves only for 6 months.
PLEBEIANS
● Plebeians were common people.
● The laws then discriminated against the Plebeians.
● They could not hold high government positions or even marry patricians.
● The plebeians threatened the government that they would stop serving the army and
paying taxes.
● This threat left the government with no choice but to give them the right to form their
own assembly.
● The assembly was headed by a tribune whom they elected.
● The law of the Twelve Tables was instituted, which was considered the earliest written
legislation during ancient Roman times.
● The posting of these laws allowed the protection of the rights of the Plebeians.
ROMAN ARMY
● The Roman army was famous for their organization, discipline, and military tactics.
● All men aged 18 to 20 were obliged to serve the army. These men signed up to fight for
20 years.
● After which they will receive a huge amount of money for retirement.
● A large group of army was called a LEGION. Usually, a legion was composed of
3000-6000 legionaries or Roman soldiers.
● Each legion was divided into smaller groups called century/centuries.
● The Roman army was provided with good armor and strong weapons. Their weapons
included dagger, sword, spear, javelin, bows, and arrows.
● TESTUDO is one of their famous military formations or tactics during battle or wars.

ROMAN EXPANSION
● The Romans continued to expand their territory.
 ● Around 200 BCE, the Roman ruled most of Italy.
● They were able to expand their territory due to their strong army.
● However, the government had a problem protecting its territories from invaders.
● The expansion brought them conflict with another Mediterranean power, the
Carthaginians
● Carthage is located in North Africa (present-day Tunisia).
● It was founded by Phoenicians around 800 BCE. Just like their founders, Carthaginians
were known to be great seafarers, and traders.
● They controlled trade in North Africa, Iberian Peninsula, and the West Mediterranean.
● They established settlements in Sicily, Sardinia, and Corsia.
● Rome found Carthage a threat to its allies and territories in the south of Italy.
● They declared war against the Carthaginians, thus resulting in the PUNIC WARS.

PUNIC WARS
The word punic derived from the Latin term punici which means “Phoenician”. There were three
wars in the conflict which started in 264 BCE and ended in 146 BCE.

First Punic War (264-241 BCE).

● The war began on the island of Sicily, where both Rome and Carthage had interests.
● When a group called the Mamertines (Italian mercenaries) captured the city of Messana
in northeastern Sicily.
● They sought help from both Rome and Carthage to hold their position.
● Carthage initially helped them, but the Mamertines also asked for Rome’s support,
sparking tensions between the two powers.
● Rome and Carthage both wanted influence over Sicily, and when Rome intervened, it led
to a prolonged and brutal conflict.
● The war was mainly fought at the sea.
● The Carthaginians had an advantage as seafarers but the Romans quickly built a navy.
● The Romans also invented a boarding device called CORVUS, which allowed them to
board the vessel of the enemy.
● Rome defeated Carthage and Sicily became Rome’s first overseas province.
Second Punic War (219-202 BCE)
● Started when the Carthaginian general, Hannibal, conquered Saguntum, which is an ally
of Rome. The Romans demanded Hannibal to withdraw, but Carthaginians refused.
● Rome declared war.
● Hannibal traveled northeast through Spain with his entire army and number of war
elephants.
● They crossed southern France and reached the Alps.
● They passed the Gaul and the people living there joined the Carthaginians in fighting
Rome.
● In 216 BCE, Hannibal’s forces met the Roman army in the Battle of Cannae led by Scipo
Africanus.
● Four legions of Roman soldiers were killed in this battle.
● This was a costly defeat on the part of Romans, they started to fear that Hannibal’s forces
would march to Rome.
● Hannibal won several battles against the Romans, but the closer he was to Rome, the
 harder it was for him to invade, due to the loyalty of the Roman cities near it.
● Instead of launching a direct attack on Hannibal’s forces coming to Rome, Roman
general Scipio Africanus decided to attack the Carthaginians in Spain.
● Preventing them to dispatch additional troops to Hannibal’s forces.
● To protect his homeland, Hannibal went back to Carthage, and his forces were defeated
by the Romans, in the battle of Zama.
Third Punic War (149-146 BCE)
● Several years after the Romans defeated the Carthagnians, Carthage slowly recovered and
became the center of trade in North Africa.
● The revival of Carthage alarmed Roman senator, Cato.
● He was scared of a possible Carthaginian attack so he convinced the government to
destroy Carthage.
● Carthage was still weak due to the damages brought by the previous wars.
● However, they were able to defend themselves for a few years.
● The Romans eventually destroyed Carthage and sold the survivors as slaves.
CRISIS IN THE REPUBLIC
● Despite the Romans' victories and expansion, the republic faced an economic and social
crisis.
● A huge agricultural downturn due to the destruction and neglect of the farmlands brought
by the battles.
● Farmers who did not have enough money to rebuild their farms sold their lands and
moved to the city to find a job.
● Because of the crisis, unemployment and slavery became widespread, violence escalated,
and corruption among officials became rampants.
● Some officials tried to solve the problems, including Gracchus Brothers, Tiberius and
Gaius.
● They were aristocrats, elected as Tribunes.
● In 133 BCE, Tiberius passed a law limiting land ownership of a person, distributing
public lands to farmers who were landless.
● These proposals earned him enemies, mostly from the Senate.
● When he sought re-election as a tribune, a riot broke out, Tiberius and 300 of his
followers were killed.
● Gauis followed his brothers’ footsteps in helping the poor when he became a Tribune.
● He continued the distribution of lands to landless farmers, and worked on the rights of the
middle class.
● During his time, the Tribune was given the right to use public funds to buy grains.
● A riot broke out between his supporters and those who opposed his policies.
● Thousands were killed including Gaius.
● Due to violent events, it's proof that the Senate could not provide leadership and was
more concerned in keeping their power and wealth rather than the welfare of Rome.
● The civil wars in Rome led to various generals to assume political roles. Gaius Marius
who is a Consul and elected for seven times, recruited an army from the jobless
population and promised them money.
● While another general became a Consul named Lucius Conelia Sulla. Marius and Sulla
were rivals, and so their armies engaged in war. Sulla emerged victorious and became
dictator for 2 years.
FIRST TRIUMVIRATE
● Three military men formed an alliance, called the First Triumvirate, to run the state from
60 BCE to 53 BCE.
● They were Gnaeus Pompey, Marcus Linius Crassus, and Julius Caesar.
● Pompey was tagged as “the great” for his victories in his campaigns in the east.
● Crassus was a rich man who triumphed against the revolt of Spartacus.
● Caesar was a military hero, and nephew of Gauis Marius.
● Upon the creation of the alliance, they appointed themselves to rule lands.
● CRASSUS took Syria, as governor of Syria, Crassus attempted to gain military glory by
invading Parthia, he was defeated and killed at the battle.
● Pompey became the governor of Spain.
● Caesar became the governor of Gaul.
● Caesar’s conquest of the entire Gaul earned him the respect and honor of his army.
● Politicians and Pompey, resented his popularity.
● Caesar announced that he would run again as consul, but the senators told him to give up
his army first and go back to Rome, yet Caesar refused.
● Civil war took place between Caesar and Pompeys’ armies.
● Caesar defeated Pompey in battles in Italy, Greece and several other places.
● Caesar returned to Rome and assumed the roles of a dictator and a consul.
● He implemented several reforms, mostly favoring the plebeians.
● Appointed some plebeians in high positions in the government. Increased the numbers of
senators.
● Gave land to loyal soldiers, and improved the taxation system.
● However, some patrician senators were jealous and threatened by his popularity. Hence, a
plot to kill him was hatched by Marcus Brutus and Gaius Crassus.
● Caesar was assassinated on 15 March 44 BCE at the Roman Senate, where he was
brutally stabbed 23 times.
● A civil war broke out again upon his death.

SECOND TRIUMVIRATE
● Three followers of Caesar formed the Second Triumvirate.
● They were Marcus Lepidus, Mark Antony, and Octavian ( Caesars’ nephew and adopted
son).
● They controlled and maintained peace in Rome for almost 10 years.
● They hunted down the assassin of Caesar and emerged victorious.
● They divided Rome into three provinces.
● Lepidus took Spain and Africa, Octavian took the west and Mark Antonoy took the east.
● Lepidus was ousted in the triumvirate when Octavian forced him to retire.
● When Mark Antony was in the East, he had an affair with Cleopatra, the queen of Egypt.
● Previously, Cleopatra had a relationship with Julius Caesar, and bore him a son,
Caesarion.
● Ocatavian found out about the affair of Mark Antony and Cleopatra, and heard about a
rumor that Mark Antony planned to rule both Rome and Egypt.
● This angered Octavian and declared war against the combined forces of Mark Antony
and Cleopatra.
● Octavian won the battle, to avoid being caught Mark Antony and Cleopatra committed
 suicide separately.
● Egypt then was annexed by Rome as a province.
● Octavian’s triumph marked the end of the Roman Republic.

THE RISE OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE

● Octavian's triumphant return made him the unchallenged leader of Rome. He was given
the title of Augustus which means “ his highness” or “majesty” and emperor and he took
the honorary title CAESAR.
● Octavian became known as Augustus Caesar.
● He took control of the army because he thinks that the chaos in the Republic was due to
an ambitious military leader.
● Gave the soldiers large bonuses and lands in the province. Which led to soldiers to pledge
their loyalty to him and the state.
● Gave benefits to former soldiers and their families.
● Augustus worked hard to bring back the Romans characteristics such as hardworking,
disciplined, family oriented, and loyal to the state.
● Augustus ordered the construction of roads, water systems, repair buildings, and other
infrastructures.
● Augustus's efforts bring back the peace and prosperity of Rome.
● This period was known as “PAX ROMANA” or Roman Peace which lasted for 200
years.
● Augustus died in 14 CE leaving Rome as a great empire.
FIVE GOOD EMPERORS
● Rome was ruled by so-called “good emperors” who made very valuable contributions in
the advancement of the empire.
● The period of the Five Good Emperors (96–180 CE) is considered a golden age of the
Roman Empire, characterized by relative peace, prosperity, and good governance.
● NERVA (96-98 CE), he improved the lives of the poor, purchased lands from the
wealthy landlords, and distributed them to the poor. Also set funds for the children's
education whose parents cannot afford sending them to school.
● TRAJAN (98-117 CE), Trajan expanded the Roman territories in the east of Euphrates
and Dacia, north of Danube. He gained the title OPTIMUS as recognition of his efforts.
● HADRIAN (117-138), he was a patron of literature and arts, and became known for his
toleration towards the Christians. He believed that Rome’s mission was to improve the
empire not to enlarge it. He compiled the best Roman laws in the Edictum Perpetuum or
perpetual edict, done by his jurist, Salvius Julianus. To protect the empire he ordered the
building of fortifications such as the Hadrian’s wall in Great Britain.
● ANTONINUS PIUS(138-161 CE), adopted son of Hadrian, during his reign the empire
continued to be peaceful and prosperous. He was kind to his people and Christians,
possessing a high sense of justice, he laid down the principle that a person is innocent
until proven guilty.
● MARCUS AURELIUS (161-180 CE), adopted son of Antoninus, he was both a
philosopher and emperor. He did not favor war but with the threat of Parthian and
Germanic invaders, he had to wage war. He wrote a book entitled “ MEDITATIONS”,
which outlined his Stoic philosophy. He persuaded his readers to do what is right and not
just what is best for them.
THE FALL OF ROMAN EMPIRE

● During the 2nd century CE, Marcus Aurelius was succeeded by his son Commodus,
whose reign was marred with corruption.
● The succeeding emperors were weak, which resulted in the era of Pax Romana.ended.
● Civil war affected Roman politics and badly hurt the economy.
● Germanic tribes continued to attack the Roman boundaries.
● The empire could no longer hold out until Diocletian became the emperor in 284 CE.
● Emperor Diocletian's way to save Rome is to have absolute and unlimited power.
● He strengthened the army, he recognized that the immense size of the empire is one of
reasons why it is difficult to govern.
● He decided to split the empire into 2.
● The first part was Latin- Speaking west composed of Italy, Spain, Gaul, and Britain.
Other part was the Greek-speaking east comprising Greece, Anatolia, Syria, and Egypt.
● Deiocletian still had the power of the empire despite the division.
● Due to health issues he retired from his reign, which caused another civil war between
who wanted the position.
● Constantine emerged victorious and assumed emperorship, he continued the
administrative reforms of Deiocletians. He also accepted Christianity , and was
considered to be the first christian emperor of the Roman World.
● He was succeeded by Theodosius I who was the last emperor of unified Rome, upon his
death his sons assumed leadership but their leadership was separated, one settled in the
east while the other was in the west.
ROMAN CONTRIBUTIONS
LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE
● Latin- early Roman language that influence the development of other language namely,
Spanish, French, Romanian and Italian,
● Virgil- wrote the epic story of Aeneid
● Cicero- master of orator and Roman senator
● Ovid- poet during the time of Augustus and wrote METAMORPHOSES, a collection of
verses in Greek Mythology.

ARTS & ARCHITECTURE

● Colosseum- roman amphitheater built by Flavian as an entertainment venue of the
Romans.
● Circus Maximus- constructed for chariot racing
● Patheon- temple built by Hadrian to honor Roman Gods.
● Aqueduct- a structure that channels or transports water from one place to another.
● Public Baths- huge bath complex which is a place for relaxation, reading, and
socialization.
● Arch- a curved masonry structure used to support or strengthen buildings.