Chapter

Archaeology, Prehistory, and

Evolution of Indian Civilisation

Consists of the Topics

1.8 * (a) Principles of Prehistoric Archaeology. Chronology: Relative and Absolute Dating
methods.

(b) Cultural Evolution - Broad Outlines of Prehistoric cultures:

(i) Palaeolithic

(ii) Mesolithic
(iii) Neolithic

(iv) Chalcolithic
Copper-Bronze Age
(vi) Iron Age
1.1. Evolution of the Indian Culture and Civilisation Prehistoric (Palaeolithic, Mesolithic,
Neolithic and Neolithic-Chalcolithic). Protohistoric (Indus Civilisation):PreHarappan,
Harappan and post-Harappan cultures. Contributions of tribal cultures to Indian civilisation.
1.2. Palaeoanthropological evidences from India with special reference to Siwaliks and Narmada

basin (Ramapithecus, Sivapithecus and Narmada Man)

1.3. Ethnoarchaeology in India: The concept of ethnoarchaeology; Survivals and Parallels among
the hunting, foraging, fishing, pastoral and peasant communities including arts and crafts
producing communities.
1
Note : Topic 1.8 is actually a part of Anthropology Paper 1 syllabus of UPSC CSE. It has been included here due
to its significant overlap with Paper 2.
 Anthropology Demystified

0.1 Deseribe absolute and relative dating. Discuss two methods of each, along with their limitations.
(20M)

and artefacts. It is of two types

Dating is technique in archaeology to ascertain the age and period of fossils

Absolute Dating

It determines age on a fixed chronology in relation to a geological time scale. Two of its methods are
nitrogen into
1. Carbon-14 (C-14) Dating Solar radiation in upper atmosphere converts small amount of
is acquired by living
radioactive C-14. It enters as trace component in atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO,), and
The half-life of C-14 is
organisms. When an organism dies, the trapped C-14 disintegrates back into nitrogen.
since its death can be
5730 years. By measuring the amount of C-14 left in a sample, the time elapsed
calculated.

Limitations-

1.1. Reliable upto 50,000 years only D asibnl to nomulova

1.2. Contamination of sample can lead to inaccurate results

Dendrochronology - It relies on the unique patterns of tree ring widths that are sensitive to climatic fluctuations.
By analysing and linking multiple tree samples of different ages, chronological sequences can be established,
are compared with these established
dating back thousands of years. The ring patterns of unknown samples
chronological sequences, and their date is then ascertained with high precision.
Limitation - Poor survival rates of the wood samples of prehistoric period.

Relative Dating

Two of its methods are

It is the process of determining the relative order of past events.
of layers. The lowest layer in any natural process of
1. Stratigraphy It studies the successive placement
deposition is the oldest.
considering Fig. 1, an object in layer will be older than that in layer 2
E.g. Object
Limitations -
Fig. 1 : Understanding
1.1. Reverse succession in case of terrace stratigraphy Stratigraphy

Mixing of deposits. For example, burial of a later date might intrude into
an older layer.
1.2.

2. Fluorine Dating - Bones and teeth of fossils buried under ground absorb fluorine from groundwater. The
fluorine reacts with hydroxyapatite in bones and forms fluorapatite. Greater the fluorine percentage in the

fluorapatite, older will be the sample.

Limitation - The rate of absorption of fluorine varies from site to site, and thus only same site fossils can be
analysed.
In order to overcome the limitations, archacologists use at least two dating techniques for clearer establishment of
facts.

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 Chapter - 1 : Archaeology, Prehistory, and Evolution of Indian Civilisation

Absolute dating is also called chronometric dating. In fact, the latter term is more scientific as the former
term is a misnomer. The term *absolute' makes it appear that a pinpoint date is being ascertained, which is
never the case.

In terrace stratigraphy, the uppermost layer is the oldest, and the lowermost is the youngest. It is
a thus

reverse of what is generally observed in stratigraphy.

Other methods of absolute dating -
ash. K-40
Potassium-Argon Dating : Potassium (K) is a common element found in rocks and volcanic
is known to constantly decay into the gas argon-40 (Ar-40). Ar-40 is a gas, and thus, escapes the molten
rock. However, when the rock cools (recrystallises), Ar-40 gets trapped. Time since recrystallisation is
measured by calculating the ratio of the amount of Ar-40 trapped to the amount of K-40 remaining. The
long half-life of K-40 (1.3 million years) makes this method more convenient to date older samples, as
or volcanic ash samples.
compared to C-14 dating. This method is however, only reliable on rock
Fission track dating Volcanic glass and some other minerals contain Uranium. Uranium atoms decay
These
by emitting alpha particles that cause fission track damage on the surface of such material.
damages can be seen under a microscope. If the total Uranium amount in the
sample and density of the
of the sample.
tracks can be counted, the ratio between the two gives the age

Carbon-14, Potassium-Argon and fission track dating can be grouped as radiometric or radio-isotopic methods.
This is because these methods date objects based on the known decay rate of radio-active isotopes.

(20M)
0.2 Examine the features of the Palaeolithic culture of the world.
Palaeolithic culture refers to the cultural debris recorded from the entire Pleistocene epoch. It is divided into three
to 36,000 BCE) and Upper (36,000
phases - Lower (2.5 million years ago to 100,000 BCE). Middle (100,000 BCE
BCE to 9000 BCE) Palaeolithic.

Climate
by three dry
The Pleistocene epoch witnessed following four phases of glaciation and pluviation (rain), separated
phases of inter-glaciation and inter-pluviation.
Southern Hemisphere
Northern Hemisphere

Pluvial Phase Inter-pluvial Phase

Glacial Phase Inter-glacial Phase

Kageran
Gunz
Gunz-Mindel Kageran-Kanjeran
Kamranton
Mindel
Kanjeram laranen
Kanjeran-Kamasian
Mindel-Riss

Riss
Kamasian-Gamblian
Riss-Wurm
Gamblian
Wurm

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 Anthropology Demystified

Material Culture

Period Tools
Material Used Preparation Technique

Lower Palaeolithic Quartzite Direct hammer technique Core tools characterised by two main
industries Abbevillian (chopper-
chopping tools and crude handaxes),
and Acheulian (cleavers and smaller
handaxes)

Middle Palaeolithic Crypto-crystalline Pecking and direct Flake tools like scrapers and points
silica types hammer technique became much frequent than core
tools.

Upper Palaeolithic Quartz and bone Core cylinder hammer Parallel-sided blade flakes and blade
technique tools, along with bone tools.

00
Chopper-Chopping Handaxe Cleaver Sidescraper Point Blade Harpoon Baton de
Tools commandement

Lower Palaeolithic Tools Middle Palaeolithic Tools Upper Palaeolithic Tools

Palaeolithic Tool Types

Regional Variations

Clacton-on-Sea
(UK)

Abbeville Denisova Cave

and St. Acheul (Russia)
(France)

Le Moustier
Soan Valley
(France)
Bhimbetka

Nevasa

Kortalayer
Uganda Kenya Valley

Olduvai Gorge A Lower Palaeolithic

(Tanzania)
F Middle Palaeolithic

Upper Palaeolithic

Important Palaeolithic Sites of the World

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 Chapter 1 : Archaeology, Prehistory, and Evolution of Indian Civilisation

1. Europe
Lower Palaeolithic sites include Abbeville and St. Acheul in France. From the sites of Levallois (France) and
Clacton-on-Sea (U.K.), flakes were discovered, subsequently named Levalloisian and Clactonian flakes. The
Middle Palaeolithic culture is best seen at the type site of Le Moustier(France), and thus referred to as
Mousterian culture. The Upper Palaeolithic culture is divided into four stages - Perigordian, Aurignacian,
Solutrean and Magdalenian.
2. Africa

Olduvai Gorge (Tanzania) is among the oldest Lower Palaeolithic sites in the world. Kenya and Uganda are

homes to sites representing Middle and Upper Palaeolithic tradition.

3. India

Soan valley in North and Madrasian industry in South are the main Lower Palaeolithic cultures. Nevasa was
the first Middle Palaeolithic site to be discovered. Belan valley has been key in establishing a distinct Upper
Palaeolithic tradition. Bhimbetka, meanwhile, shows a highly specialised Acheuliantradition.
Social Life

As can be deduced from the tools, the economy was based on hunting and gathering. Burials found with implements
at certain sites indicate the start of rites and rituals. Cave art and figures from the Upper Palaeolithic period,
especially found in European and Asian sites, depict a developing social organisation towards the end of this period.
The Palaelithic period represents the evolution of humans from Homo erectus (Lower Palaeolithic) to Neanderthal
(Middle Palaeolithc) and finally, Homo sapiens (Upper Palaeolithic). Thus, it is of immense significance in human
history.

UPSC CSE aspirants are to note that when question on archaeology is asked in Paper 1, unless specifically
stated, the student iS expected to write from a world perspective, and not just about India.

Rather than going into the details of European and African cultures, it is smarter to write general features of
the cultural period (be it Palacolithic, Mesolithic, and so on), and include just specific keywords (e.g. Mousterian,
Perigordian, Aurignacian etc.). This will significantly reduce your load of remembering things. However, it is
up to the student to go into the details, if h/she does not agree with the author's point of view.

The tool types, technology and materials have been properly elaborated in the individual questions on Lower,
Middle and Upper Palaeolithic.

0.3 Examine the features of the Palaeolithic culture of the world. (10M)

Palaeolithic culture refers to the cultural debris recorded from the entire Pleistocene epoch. It is divided into three
phases - Lower (2.5 million years ago to 100,000 BCE), Middle (100,000 BCE to 36,000 BCE) and Upper (36,000
BCE to 9000 BCE) Palacolithic.

Climate

The Pleistocene epoch witnessed following four phases of glaciation and pluviation, separated by three dry phases
of inter-glaciation and inter-pluviation.

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 Anthropology Demystified

Material Culture

Tools
Period Material Used Preparation Technique

Lower Palaeolithic Direct hammer technique Core tools characterised by two main
Quartzite
industries Abbevillian (chopper-

chopping tools and crude handaxes),

and Acheulian (cleavers and smaller
handaxes)

Middle Palaeolithic Crypto-crystalline Pecking and direct Flake tools like scrapers and points
silica types hammer technique became much frequent than core

tools.

Upper Palaeolithic Quartz and bone Core cylinder hammer Parallel-sided blade flakes and blade
technique tools, along with bone tools.

Handaxe Cleaver Sidescraper Point Blade Harpoon Baton de

Chopper-Chopping
commandement
Tools

Lower Palaeolithic Tools Middle Palaeolithic Tools Upper Palaeolithic Tools

Palaeolithic Tool Types

Regional Variations

Clacton-on-Sea
(UK)

Denisova Cave
Abbeville
and St. Acheul
(Russia)

(France)

Le Moustier Soan Valley

(France)
Bhimbetka

Nevasa

Kortalayer
Kenya Valley
Uganda
Olduvai Gorge Lower Palaeolithic
(Tanzania)
Middle Palaeolithic

Upper Palaeolithic

Important Palaeolithie Sites of the World

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 Chapter : Archaeology, Prehistory, and Evolution of Indian Civilisation

Social Life

The economy was based on hunting and gathering. Burials found with implements at certain sites indicate the start
of rites and rituals. Cave art and figures from the Upper Palaeolithic period depict : developing social organisation
towards the end of this period.

Q.4 Examine the features of the Lower Palaeolithic culture of India. (20M)

Palaeolithic culture refers to the cultural debris recorded from the entire
Pleistocene epoch. The Lower Palaeolithic
is the earliest sub-division of Palaeolithic culture, and spans from around 500,000 BCE to 100,000 BCE in the
Indian context.

Climate

The Northern mountainous regions witnessed successive

glacial and inter-glacial periods. The river valleys of
Peninsular India meanwhile, witnessed successive pluvial and inter-pluvial periods.

Material Culture

by chopper-chopping tools and large, crude handaxes. The technique used for removing flakes was the direct
hammer technique.
During the Acheulian stage, the frequency of chopper-chopping tools declined. Handaxes became smaller and
pear-shaped. A new tool appeared, called cleaver. Before the end of this period, the use of flake tools started, the
two types being Clactonian and Levalloisian flakes.

Chopper-Chopping Handaxe Cleaver

Tools

Lower Palaeolithic Tool Types

The material used was quartzite.

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 Anthropology Demystified

I0IEZl I0IS

The non-uniform Palaeolithic climate in the sub-continent gave rise to regional variations, as shown through the
following sites –

han

mbetka

moe,

Ia a L A1 Ae 0 I I E t 1na Su )-0Eent

Soan Valley (Pakistan)

It was excavated by De Terra and Paterson (1935). Ii shows a gradual refinement of tools from upper to
lower terraces, merging with another implement-containing zone called Chauntra.

n- Pre Samn
Early Soan

T2- Late Soan

" n l t dl

ransverse Section of Soan Valley

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 Chapter 1 : Archaeology, Prehistory, and Evolution of Indian Civilisation

2. Bhimbetka (Maharashtra)
It was discovered by V.S. Wakankar (1957). Between 1973-1976, V.N. Misra excavated one of its largest
cave
shelters, numbered III F-23. This shelter has yielded eight cultural formations, out of which the bottom
three have yielded a highly specialised Acheulian industry of Lower Palaeolithic.

Mesolithic

Upper Palaeolithic
Middle Palaeolithic

Lower Palaeolithic

Cultural Profile of Cave III F-23

3. Didwana (Rajasthan)

It was excavated by V.N. Misra (1980s), who found three depositional phases. Mostly, choppers with handaxes
have been found. Cleavers are notably absent.
4. Kuliana and Kamarpara (Odisha)
It was excavated by N.K. Bose and Dharani Sen (1939-42). Apart from the generic tools, cleavers, often
with pebble butts, have been found.

5. Madrasian Culture (Peninsular India)

It is dominated by handaxes and cleavers, prepared by the Vaal technique of thinning a biface. H.D. Sankalia
has claimed the presence of hafting on tools here, which if proved, would be one of the earliest known cases
in the world.

Social Life

From the available evidence, we can talk of only their economic pursuit. As can be deduced from the tools, the
economy was based on hunting and gathering.
To conclude, Indian Lower Palaeolithic, unlike its European and African counterpart, shows a high degree of

cultural variability.

As compared to African and European Lower Palaeolithic, Indian Lower Palaeolithic

Emerges around early Upper Pleistocene (compared to Lower Pleistocene in case of Africa and Europe)

Is characterised by significant regional variations due to the climatic differences across the northern and

peninsular regions
Is characterised by a tool industry wherein Abbevillian and Acheulian industries do not show a vertical
evolution (e.g. in Bhimbetka). Also, Acheulian industry of India is much younger, especially than that of
Europe.

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 Anthropology Demystified

Has been limited to only one human fossil discovery (Narmada Man)
Shows rare occurrences of sites with living floors.

Direct hammer technique involves flaking by striking directly with a hammer. It consists of various sub-
types, few of which are
and struck
Anvil technique or Block-on-block technique- A lump of stone (core) is held in the hands,
directly against the edge of a fixed huge block of stone, called the anvil. This leads to detachment of
thick flakes from the core. The flaked core is then used as a tool.

Stone hammer technique - A suitable shaped stone is used as hammer and struck at an inclined angle on
the surface of a lump of stone (core). The flaked core is then used as a tool.

Stepped or controlled flaking technique - The hammer is struck inward the core with a controlled blow

or force, rather than at an inclined angle to the surface. This results in short flakes. This technique is
mainly used for secondary flaking.

Choppers refer to core tools prepared by unifacial flaking of the terminal end of a stone piece. Chopping
tools are a variation of choppers, and they involve bifacial flaking.
Names of more Lower Palaeolithic sites in India

Central India - Narmada Valley (Madhya Pradesh), Adamgarh (Maharashtra)W1

Western India - Chittorgarh (Rajasthan), Saurashtra (Gujarat)
Eastern India - Mahanadi basin (Odisha), Paisra (Bihar), Bankura (West Bengal), Meghalayan Hill slopes

Uniqueness of Bhimbetka's Acheulian industry lies in its relatively greater sophisticated technique. The
thickness of the tools has never been above 25% of the length. There is a total absence of chopper-chopping
and Abbevillian tool type. Bhimbetka is thus, the only Indian Lower Palaeolithic site occurring without an
Abbevillian tradition.

0.5 Soan Valley (10M)

Soan valley is an archaeological site located in northern Punjab, Pakistan. It was excavated in 1935 by De Terra

and Paterson, and is dated around 500,000-125,000 BCE.

Climate

Being located near the Himalayas, Soan valley witnessed glaciation and inter-glaciation.

Material Culture
Tp - Pre Soan
The first three terraces yield tools dated to Lower Palaeolithic
Early Soan
1. Zone T. Pre Soan
T2 - Late Soan
The tools are mostly big flakes made of quartzite. They are heavily
wom out, and if authenticated as human creation, will represent one of
the oldest human cultures (two million years old). T4 - Evolved Soan

2. Zone T, Early Soan Historical

Mainly chopper-chopping tools, made by direct hammer technique.

Transverse Section of Soan Valley

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 Chapter - : Archaeology, Prehistory, and Evolution of Indian Civilisation

3. Zone T, - Late Soan

It is essentially a flake dominant industry indicated by the presence of Levalloisian and blade flakes. These
tools virtually merge with another implement-bearing zone called Chauntra.

Zone T, dates to Middle Palaeolithic, bearing few blades and blade tools.
Social Life

Based on the tools found, the economy was built on hunting-gathering. The social organisation remains unknown.
Recently, the Soan Garden Society has highlighted the need to preserve this site in the wake of the damage caused
by river pollution on the Soan remains.

Chauntra is a site in Pakistan. It shows a mixture of Late Soan with Abbevillo-Acheulian traditions.

For questions on individual sites, it is always recommended to adopt a smart approach. Write mostly generic
points of the period to which the site is dated, and mention a few specific points.

Q.6 Madrasian culture (10M)

The Lower Palaeolithic sites of peninsular India are collectively referred to as Madrasian culture. The first site

discovered here was Attirampakkam, near Madras (Chennai), in 1863 by R.B. Foote.

Hunsgi
Kurnool

Attirampakkam

Kasaragod
Kortalayer Valley

Important Sites of Madrasian Culture

Climate

The region, except for the central peninsular area, experienced pluvial climate.

Material Culture

Madrasian tool industry is dominated by sophisticated handaxes and cleavers. For instance, Krishnaswami (1938)
excavated Kortalayer Valley, and found that cleavers and handaxes were prepared by the Vaal Technique.

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 Anthropology Demystified

Controlled
Force

Core V-Shaped Tool

Vaal Technique

Andhra Pradesh, due to an abundance of tools, is called the 'treasure house of Lower Palaeolithic in India.'

H.D. Sankalia has claimed the presence of hafting of tools on wooden or bamboo frame. If proved, it will be one
of the oldest instances of hafting in the world.

Waist

Handaxe Cleaver Hafting of

Cleaver

Common Tools of Madrasian Industry

Social Life

Based on the tools found, the economy was built on hunting-gathering. The social organisation remains unknown.
In 2011, a team from Madras University claimed to have found 1.5 million years old microliths from Gudiyam caves
in Tamil Nadu. If this is verified, then it will be among the oldest such findings in the world.

The major difference between Madrasian and Soan culture lies in the tools. While Madrasian culture is
dominated by handaxes and cleavers, Soan culture is dominated by chopper-chopping tools. Also, Madrasian
tools are more neatly made and sophisticated compared to the rather crude Soan findings.
Vaal technique - Involves thinning a biface by a tranchet blow delivered along its length so that one of the
lateral borders of the biface becomes sharp-edged. Such specimens naturally develop a V-shaped cross-
section. In Africa, this technique was found near Vaal river, along Victoria West (town in South Africa).
Thus, the technique is called Vaal/Victoria West/Para-Levallois technique.

0.7 Examine the features of the Middle Palaeolithic culture of India. (20M)

Palaeolithic culture refers to the cultural debris recorded from the entire Pleistocene epoch. The Middle Palaeolithic
is the second sub-division of Palaeolithic culture, and spans from 100,000 BCE to 36,000 BCE.

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 and Evolution of Indian Civilisation
Chapter Archaeology, Prehistory,

Climate
The river valleys of
The Northern mountainous regions witnessed successive glacial and inter-glacial periods.
Peninsular India meanwhile, witnessed successive pluvial and inter-pluvial periods.

Material Culture
and handaxes and
As compared to Lower Palaeolithic, the use of chopper-chopping tools became infrequent,
cleavers became smaller. Flake tools like scrapers, points and borers became much more common. Besides direct
hammer, a new technique called pecking appeared.

Point Borer
Sidescraper

Middle Palaeolithic Tool Types

The material changed from quartzite to crypto-crystalline silica like quartz, flint and jasper.

Regional Variations

The non-uniform Palaeolithic climate in the sub-continent gave rise to regional variations, as shown through the
following sites .

Mahanadi
Bhimbetka
Valley

Nevasa

Ku

Important Middle Palaeolithic Sites of India

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 Anthropology Demystified

1. Nevasa (Maharashtra)
It was excavated by H.D. Sankalia (1956), near river Pravara in Nevasa. Nevasian culture also includes the
sites along river Godavari, Son and Krishna. Nevasa has yielded several Levallois-based flake tools prepared

on jasper.

2. Bhimbetka (Maharashtra)
It was discovered by V.S. Wakankar (1957). Between 1973-1976, V.N. Misra excavated one of its largest
cave shelters, numbered III F-23. This shelter has yielded eight cultural formations, out of which the fifth layer
from top represents Middle Palaeolithic. A notable feature here is the continued use of quartzite as raw material.

Mesolithic

Upper Palaeolithic
Middle Palaeolithic

Lower Palaeolithic

Cultural Profile of Cave III F-23

3. Luni (Rajasthan)
It was excavated by V. N. Misra. It is more varied and richer in tools than Nevasian industry. It contains
convex and concavo-convex sidescrapers, and points of various types.

4. Andhra/South Coastal Industry

It includes sites like Kurnool, Chittoor and Nalgonda. The tools, like in Bhimbetka, have been prepared on
quartzite.

5. Eastern Industry
Mohapatra has recorded Middle Palaeolithic sites from near almost all the rivers of Odisha.

Social Life

As can be deduced from the tools, the economy was based on hunting and gathering. Burials found with implements
al certain sites indicate the start of rites and rituals.

The nature and status of Indian Middle Palaeolithic remains to be adequately understood so far, primarily because
of the dearth of primary habitational sites.

For a long time (upto second half of the 20th Century), Middle Palaeolithic was not separately identified in
India. There was no stratigraphic evidence available from the then-discovered sites. This changed with
H.D. Sankalia's discovery of flake tools in Nevasa in 1956.

Presence of scraper and borer dominant tool industry in Middle Palaeolithic has confused scholars as to what

a hunting-gathering community was doing with such

tools. As per Sankalia, most of Middle Palaeolithic

industry was designed to shape ultimate weapons of hunting and trapping in wood, bone and antler.

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 Chapter 1: Archaeology, Prehistory, and Evolution of Indian Civilisation

Q.8 Nevasa (10M)

Nevasa is an archaeological site located in Maharashtra. It was excavated in 1956 by H.D. Sankalia along the
river Pravara.

The fine and less cemented gravel here has revealed cultural remains belonging to the Middle Palaeolithic period.
Climate

The region experienced pluvial and inter-pluvial climatic phases.

Material Culture

The most predominant tool type are the sidescrapers, prepared on Levallois flakes. Other types include leaf-
shaped points and borers. These have been made by pecking and direct hammer technique. The material used are
crypto-crystalline silica types, chiefly jasper. Overall, the industry here comes close to the Mousterian character of
European Middle Palaeolithic.

Levalloise Sidescraper Point

Flake
Tool Types At Nevasa
Social Life

Based on the tools found, the economy was built on hunting-gathering. The social organisation remains unknown.
Many sites with similar culture as of Nevasa were found near river valleys along Godavari, Son, Krishna and
others. This led Sankalia to conclude that the Nevasian culture was not a local feature, but a generalised one,
spanning several sites across Maharashtra and Karnataka.

0.9 Examine the features of the Upper Palaeolithic culture of India. (20M)

Palaeolithic culture refers to the cultural debris recorded from the entire Pleistocene epoch. The Upper Palaeolithic
IS the last sub-division of Palaeolithic culture, and spans from 36,000 BCE to 9,000 BCE.

Climate

Upper Palaeolithic period witnessed the last phases of glaciation and pluviation that characterised the Pleistocene
climate.

Material Culture

Upper Palaeolithic tool industry is characterised by the production of parallel-sided blade flakes and blade tools.
They were fabricated by core cylinder hammer technique.

Struck Struck

Cylinder
Hammer

Parallel-sided blake flake

Core Cylinder Hammer Technique

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 Anthropology Demystified

The material used was quartz, in order to give rise to smooth and sharp edges. Besides stone tools, bone tools
became common.

Blade Harpoon Shoulder

Point

Upper Palaeolithic Tool Types

Regional Variations

Belan Valley

Bhimbetka

Muchchatla Chintamani Gavil

Renigunta

Important Upper Palaeolithic Sites of India

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 Chapter - 1 Archaeology, Prehistory, and Evolution of Indian Civilisation

1. Belan Valley (Uttar Pradesh)

It was surveyed by G.R. Sharma (1980). Along with blade tools, the site is noted for the discovery of an
artificial stone structure referred as the shrine, as well as female figurine on bone.

2. Bhimbetka (Maharashtra)
It was discovered by V.S. Wakankar (1957). Between 1973-1976, V.N. Misra excavated one of its largest
cave shelters, numbered III F-23. This shelter has yielded eight cultural formations, out of which the fourth
layer from top represents Upper Palaeolithic.

Mesolithic

Upper Palaeolithic
Middle Palaeolithic

Lower Palaeolithic

Cultural Profile of Cave III F-23

3. Renigunta (Andhra Pradesh)

It was excavated by M.L.K. Murthy (1963-64). It has an overwhelming number of blades, of various types,
and is thus considered the finest Indian Upper Palaeolithic site.
Muchchatla Chintamani Gavi (Andhra Pradesh)

The caves here were excavated by Murthy (1970). They have yielded the richest bone tool industry of Upper
Palaeolithic in India.Common bone tools found here include shouldered points, scrapers and barbs.

Social Life

As can be deduced from the tools, the economy was based on hunting and gathering. Burials found with implements
at certain sites indicate the start of rites and rituals. The period marks the first clear evidence of cave art, as seen
at Bhimbetka and Lakhudiyar. The artdisplays linear representations of huge animal figures, along with drawings
of human groups. This indicates the development of social organisation.

Upper Palaeolithic culture shows significant advancement over the previous phases, as reflected from its much
shorter time span. End of this period signals the end of Pleistocene epoch as well.

Q.10 Belan Valley (10M)

Belan valley is an archaeological site located in Uttar Pradesh. It was excavated in 1980 by G.R. Sharma, along
the river Belan in Allahabad.

Four layers of depositions were mapped, out of which the second layer from the top has yielded Upper Palacolithic
culture.

Climate

The region experienced the last phase of pluvial and inter-pluvial climate associated with the Pleistocene epoch.
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 Anthropology Demystified

Material Culture

A variety of blade tools have been excavated, including micro and macro blades, backed blades, and shouldered blades.

Social Life

Based on the tools found, the economy was built on hunting-gathering.

Besides the tools, a small artificial stone structure has been unearthed. It has a circular platform of sand stone
blocks, in the centre of which is a natural concretion having a series of etched concentric triangles. This structure
has been referred as the 'shrine,' and indicates a religious element.

A female figurine made on bone has also been found. However, some believe it to be a fishing harpoon.

Belan valley's importance lies in the fact that it was among the first Indian sites to yield a clear Upper Palaeolithic
tradition, thus fixing the chronology of Indian Palaeolithic culture.

Q.11 Examine the features of the Palaeolithic culture of India. (20M)

Palaeolithic culture refers to the cultural debris recorded from the entire Pleistocene epoch. It is divided into three

phases - Lower (2.5 million years ago to 100,000 BCE), Middle (100,000 BCE to 36,000 BCE) and Upper (36,000
BCE to 9000 BCE) Palaeolithic.

Climate

The Northern mountainous regions witnessed successive glacial and inter-glacial periods. The river valleys of
Peninsular India meanwhile witnessed successive pluvial and inter-pluvial periods.

Material Culture

Period Material Used Preparation Technique Tools

Lower Palaeolithic Quartzite Direct hammer technique Core tools characterised by two main

shutani d batzot dlool

industries- Abbevillian (chopper-
chopping tools and crude handaxes),
and Acheulian (cleavers and smaller
handaxes)

Middle Palaeolithic Crypto-crystalline Pecking and direct Flake tools like scrapers and points

silica types hammer technique became much frequent than core

tools.

Upper Palaeolithic Quartz and bone Core cylinder hammer Parallel-sided blade flakes and blade
technique tools, along with bone tools.

Chopper-Chopping Handaxe Cleaver Sidescraper Point Blade Harpoon Shoulder

Tools Point

Lower Palaeolithic Tools Middle Palaeolithic Tools Upper Palaeolithic Tools

Palaeolithic Tool Types

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 Chapter Archaeology, Prehistory, and Evolution of Indian Civilisation

Regional Variations
The non-uniform Palaeolithic climate in the sub-continent
gave rise to regional variations, as shown through the
following sites
Mose siltim

Belan Valley
Didwana

enodims wratloda 9780

Bhimbetka Kuliana

Nevasa

Hunsgi

Muchchatla Chintamani Gavi

^ Lower Palaeolithic
Kortalayer Valley
Middle Palaeolithic

Upper Palaeolithic

Important Palaeolothic Sites of India

1. Soan Valley (Lower Palaeolithic)

It was excavated by De Terra and Patterson (1935). It shows a gradual refinement of tools from
upper to
lower terraces, merging with another implement-containing zone, Chauntra.
toomolqui dne bnuul elarva 8ew 7001009 9d Ploot adt motl boombab hd RuazA
Tp - Pre Soan
bonsq eit to hap os
Ty - Early Soan

T2 - Late Soan

T4 - Evolved Soan

T5 - Historical

Transverse Section of Soan Valley

339
 Anthropology Demystified

2. Madrasian Culture (Lower Palaeolithic)

It is dominated by handaxes and cleavers, prepared by the Vaal technique of thinning biface. H.D. Sankalia
has claimed the presence of hafting on tools here, which if proved, would be one of the earliest known cases
in the world.

3. Nevasa (Middle Palaeolithic)

Excavated by H.D. Sankalia (1956), Nevasa has yielded several Levallois-based flake tools prepared on
jasper.

4. Muchchatla Chintamani Gavi (Upper Palaeolithic)

It was excavated by Murthy (1970), and is the richest bone tool industry of Upper Palaeolithic in India.
Common bone tools found here include shouldered points, scrapers and barbs.'

5. Bhimbetka

It was discovered by V.S. Wakankar (1957). Between 1973-1976, V.N. Misra excavated one of its largest
cave shelters, numbered III F-23. This shelter has yielded eight cultural formations (below figure), and is
among the few Indian sites to yield all three phases of Palaeolithic period.

Mesolithic

Upper Palaeolithic
Middle Palaeolithic

Lower Palaeolithic

ale audiolovele" ineiunged

Cultural Profile of Cave III F-23

bidillessle1 1900.D) rollaV ased

Social Life

As can be deduced from the tools, the economy was based on hunting and gathering. Burials found with implements
indicate the existence of rituals. Cave art and figures from the Upper Palacolithic period depict a developing social
organisation towards the end of this period.
Due to the significant regional variations, it can be concluded that Palaeolithic in India is neither culturally uniform
nor chronologically homogenous.

0.12 Discuss the debate surrounding the chronology of Palaeolithic culture in India. (15M)

Palaeolithic culture refers to the cultural debris recorded from the entire Pleistocene epoch. Indian Palaeolithic
culture is accepted as emerging around the early Upper Pleistocene period, significantly late as compared to

European and African Palaeolithic culture.

In 1960,various seminars were organised concerning the chronology of Palaeolithic culture in India. Subbarao
and Bridget Allchin suggested that there is no possibility of naming Lower-Middle-Upper Palaeolithic in India,
like that in Europe, because:

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 Chapter - 1 Archaeology, Prehistory, and Evolution of Indian Civilisation

1. Majority of the river valleys surveyed till then maintained only two gravels of Pleistocene period first yielding
core tools; and second yielding flake and blade tools. As only two
stratigraphic units were present, a three-fold
division was not possible.
2. The bone tool and art objects which formed a major characteristic of European Upper Palacolithic, were more
or less absent in India.

They therefore suggested a two-fold nomenclature for Indian Palaeolithic - Early Stone Age and Middle Stone
Age. H.D. Sankalia, meanwhile, suggested a more expansive terminology - Early Stone Age, Middle Stone Age,
Later Stone Age, and New Stone Age.
However, from 1973, V.N. Misra started an excavation in shelter III F-23 of Bhimbetka. Four seasons (1973-

1976) of excavation here yielded a continuous sequence of Palacolithic culture. In 1980, G.R. Sharma described
three implement-bearing gravels from Belan valley. The third gravel was dated 19,000 BCE, confirming clear
Upper Palaeolithic tradition. Further discoveries and confirmations at different sites followed.
Thus, almost all archaeologists today agree that Indian Palaeolithic can be divided into the European pattern of
three-fold structure, that is, Lower-Middle-Upper Palaeolithic.

0.13 Indian Palaeolithic culture can neither be conceived chronologically homogenous nor as a
uniform cultural phase. Discuss. (20M)

Palaeolithic culture refers to the cultural debris recorded from the entire Pleistocene epoch. Indian Palaeolithic
culture is accepted as emerging around the early Upper Pleistocene period, significantly late as compared to
European and African Palaeolithic culture.
elillowlld supindoct smmudl
Chronological non-homogeneity

Majority of the river valleys surveyed in India maintained only two gravels of Pleistocene period. As only two
stratigraphic units were present, a three-fold division of Lower-Middle-Upper Palaeolithic was not possible in the
Indian context for a long time till the 1970s. Even till date, only few sites like Belan Valley and Bhimbetka have
yielded continuous sequence of Palaeolithic culture, from Lower to Middle to Upper Palaeolithic.

Cultural non-uniformity

The Indian sub-continent witnessed significant climatic variations. While the Northern mountainous regions witnessed
a glacial climate, the river valleys of Peninsular India witnessed a pluvial one. Thus, cultural differences arose
across Indian sites. These can be seen from the perspectives of -

1. Stratigraphy
North Indian sites show massive stratigraphy. For example, Soan valley has yielded six terraces. Central
Indian sites like Narmada valley show a complicated stratigraphy due to the rift valleys. Finally, South Indian
sites show simple stratigraphy.
2. Material Culture

2.1. North Indian sites like Soan valley show avery high frequency of chopper-chopping tools. However, this
frequency declines with southwards movement. South Indian industry (Madrasian industry) shows a high
frequency of handaxes and cleavers, which are neater and more sophisticated.
2.2. At some sites like Bhimbetka, there is no vertical evolution from Abbevillian to Acheulian industry.

341
 Anthropology Demystified

2.3. Material change from quartzite to crypto-crystalline silica types iS not seen at sites like Bhimbetka and
Kurnool.

2.4. With respect to Upper Palaeolithic culture, bone tools have been found only at Muchchatla Chintamani

Gavi.

3. Art

Cave art is found only at limited sites, like Bhimbetka and Lakhudiyar. Also, art objects are rare occurrences in

Indian Palaeolithic tradition, unlike European tradition.

Thus, Indian Palaeolithic culture can neither be conceived chronologically homogenous nor as a uniform cultural

Q.14 Examine the features of the Mesolithic culture of the world. (20M)

Mesolithic culture refers to the earliest Holocene culture prior to the advent of widescale food production. It spans
from around 10,000-4000 BCE.

Climate

The glacial climatic conditions of the Palaeolithic period gave way to a warmer climate. The melting ice corresponded
with clearing up of forests and water bodies.
941

Material Culture dsitingia boraa

Mesolithic tool culture is characterised by the use chipped stone pieces called microliths. These were
of small
in shape.
prepared by pressure flaking or fluting technique. Microliths were either geometric or non-geometric
They were used as composite tools, attached to arrows, harpoons and blades.

Removal
towed toa Microlith05214
Press 1ab stab 15t nov3.20701 5di iln attachedho amibnl
rofteV

0
nom ratitroM adf afinWanottenisy
Core Microlith Arrow

Pressure Flaking Technique

mnou
Composite Tool Pie caibal BrOIOR

Mesolithic Tool Tradition

omna avizesm wodle 89112 nstbal titrou
boblaty sad vollay
a vallev abennald odil estle osthnl

caulfoub goasupatt

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 Chapter - 1 : Archaeology, Prehistory, and Evolution of Indian Civilisation

Regional Variations

Ertebolle
(Germany) :

Mas d'Azil
(France)
Asturia
Wadi Natuf
(Spain)
(Jerusalem) Sarai Nahar Rai

Bhimbetka
Langhnaj

Teri
Uganda Gamble's Cave
(Kenya)

Important Mesolithic Sites of the World

1. Europe
Mesolithic traditions of Europe can be divided into two phases. The first phase includes Azilian, Tardenoisian
and Asturian cultures.
The second phase includes Maglemosean, Ertebolle, and Campignion cultures.Ecological
conditions made people habitat coastal regions and river banks.
2. Africa

African microlithic trend is further specialised into Elmenteitan and Wilton cultures of Kenya, and Magosan
and Lupemban cultures of Uganda. The tools were mainly prepared on black obsidian and are accompanied by
crudely baked hand-made pottery as well.
3. India

Sarai Nahar Rai is the oldest Indian Mesolithic site, dated around 8000 BCE. Langhnaj, meanwhile, is one of
the youngest sites, dated around 2400-2000 BCE. Most of the Indian sites show total adaptation to microliths,
and do not contain heavy duty tools. Bhimbetka is rich in cave paintings dating to Mesolithic period.
Social Life

As can be deduced from the tools and the cave paintings, the economy was based on small-game hunting and
fishing and fowling. Numerous burials found in specific postures indicate the existence of rituals. Towards the end
of this period, domestication of animals and wild seed collection began.
Thus, the Mesolithic period represents a transitional phase between Palaeolithic and Neolithic periods, with Homo
sapiens on the cusp of moving into a settled and productive economy.

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 Anthropology Demystified

The opening up of forests and water bodies corresponded to an increase in animal movement. Humans had
to cope up, and realised that their heavy Palaeolithic tools were now a disadvantage. Thus, they relied on
microliths attached to arrows, harpoons and blades.
Rather than going into the details of European and African cultures, it is smarter to write general features of
the cultural period (be it Palaeolithic, Mesolithic, and so on), and include just specific keywords (e.g. Azilian,

Asturian, Wilton etc.). This will significantly reduce your load of remembering things. However, it is up to the
student to go into the details, if h/she does not agree with the author's point of view.

Q.15 Examine the features of the Mesolithic culture of India. (20M)

Mesolithic culture refers to the earliest Holocene culture prior to the advent of widescale food production. It spans
from 9000-2000 BCE in the Indian context.

Climate

The glacial climatic conditions of the Palaeolithic period gave way to a warmer climate. The melting ice corresponded
with clearing up of forests and water bodies.

Material Culture

Mesolithic tool culture is characterised by the use of small chipped stone pieces called microliths. These were

prepared by pressure flaking or fluting technique. Microliths were either geometric or non-geometric in shape.
They were used as composite tools, attached to arrows, harpoons and blades.

Removal Microlith
Press
attached

0-0-0-1 Microlith Arrow

Core

Pressure Flaking Technique Composite Tool

Mesolithic Tool Tradition

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 Chapter Archaeology, Prehistory, and Evolution of Indian Civilisation

Regional Variations

Baghor
Langhnaj
Sarai Nahar Raj

Bhimbetka

Teri

Important Mesolithic Sites of India

1. Sarai Nahar Rai (Uttar Pradesh)

Dated around 8000 BCE, it is the oldest Indian Mesolithic site. Besides microliths, notable findings include a

living floor with fire hearths; human burials in specific posture; and domesticated animal bones.
2. Bagor (Rajasthan)
It was excavated by V.N. Misra (1967). It is considered the zenith of Indian microlith industry. Thousands of
microliths have been found, considered the smallest across Indian sites. Other features include stone-paved
habitational floors, human burials, and bones of wild animals.

3. Langhnaj (Gujarat)
It was excavated by H.D. Sankalia (1944-63). It shows presence of geometric microliths. Human skeletons
found buried in crouching posture indicate some ritual. The presence of both wild and domestic animal bones,
indicating some degree of pastoralism.
Bhimbetka (Maharashtra)
It was discovered by V.S. Wakankar (1957). Between 1973-1976, V.N. Misra excavated one of its largest
cave shelters, numbered IIl F-23. This shelter has yielded eight cultural formations, out of which the first three

345
 Anthropology Demystified

belong to Mesolithic period. A rich geometric microlith industry is present. Also, cave paintings have been
observed at several shelters.

Mesolithic

Upper Palaeolithic

Middle Palaeolithic

Lower Palaeolithic

Cultural Profile of Cave III F-23

5. Teri (Tamil Nadu)

It is a group of eleven sites, that show closeness to Sri Lankan microliths, especially in the tradition of bifacially
pressure flaked points.

Social Life

As can be deduced from the tools and the cave paintings, the economy was based on small-game hunting and
fishing and fowling. Numerous burials found in specific postures indicate the existence of rituals. Towards the end
of this period, domestication of animals and wild seed collection began.
Thus, the Mesolithic period represents transitional phase between Palaeolithic and Neolithic periods, with Homo
sapiens on the cusp of moving into a settled and productive economy.

The opening up of forests and water bodies corresponded to an increase in animal movement. Humans had
to cope up, and realised that their heavy Palaeolithic tools were now a disadvantage. Thus, they relied on
microliths attached to arrows, harpoons and blades.
Names of more Mesolithic sites in India -

Central India - Adamgarh (Madhya Pradesh)

• Western India - Tilwara (Rajasthan), Valasana (Gujarat), Hirpur (Gujarat)

Eastern India Chotanagpur Plateau (Jharkhand), Mayurbhanj (Odisha), Keonjhar(Odisha), Garo hills
(Meghalaya), Birbhanpur (West Bengal)

0.16 Langhnaj (10M)

Langhnaj is Mesolithic site located in Gujarat, dated around 2400-2000 BCE. It was excavated between 1944-
1963 by H.D. Sankalia, along the Sabarmati valley.

Climate

The region experienced warm and dry climatic conditions.

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 Chapter - 1: Archaeology, Prehistory, and Evolution of Indian Civilisation

Material Culture
Out of the microliths found, around 90% correspond to waste material, cores and chips. Only 10% are finished
types, and include blades and geometric microliths like lunates and trapezes.
Other notable findings include a soft haematite piece with rubbed surface, and rhino shoulder blade.

Trapeze Lunate Triangle

Geometric Microliths

Social Life

The findings of wild and domestic animal bones indicate hunting-gathering economy with varying degrees of
pastoralism.

Fourteen human skeletons have been found buried in a crouching posture, indicating some form of ritual.

Another remarkable feature is the dating of the site, making it contemporary to the Lothal civilisation of the
Harappan culture. There was possibly a trading relationship between the two

Forest Produce
Langhnaj Lothal
Cereals

Thus, Langhnaj remains one of the most perplexing prehistoric sites of India.

Q.17 Sahar Nahar Rai (10M)

Sarai Nahar Rai is a Mesolithic site located in Pratapgarh, Uttar Pradesh. It was discovered b the archaeologists
of Allahabad University (1969-70). It is dated around 8000 BCE, making it the oldest Indian Mesolithic site.

Climate

The region experienced warm and dry climatic conditions.

Material Culture

It is essentially a geometric tool industry along with several flake tool types. Geometric microliths found include
trapezes, lunates and triangles, among others.

Trapeze Lunate Triangle

Geometric Microliths

Social Life

A living floor with four pot-holes on the corners has been found. The floor is made of burnt clay lumps, and has
several fire hearths, some with charred bones near them. This is perhaps an evidence of communal cooking.

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 Anthropology Demystified

Thirteen human skeletons have been found buried, with their head facing the West. In one of them, a microlith has
been found, pierced in the rib. This perhaps indicates inter-group fighting or warfare.
There are also evidences of bones of domesticated animals.

Similar culture has been observed at nearby sites like Chopani Mando, Lekhania and Morhana Pahar. Some of
these sites contain rock shelters with paintings attributed to Mesolithic culture. All these sites are collectively
referred as Sarai Nahar Rai Group.

0.18 Examine the features of the Neolithic culture of the world. (20M)

Neolithic culture refers to the Holocene culture marking the advent of widescale food production, and preceding
the discovery of metal. It spans from around 9000-3500 BCE.

Climate

The period is marked by a warm and dry climate, favourable for settlements.

Material Culture

Neolithic tool culture is characterised by the use of celts. Their preparation involved large compact stones being
flaked into axes adzes, followed by grinding and polishing. These celts were attached to a wooden handle and
or

used to clear forests and bring land under cultivation. Other tool types include ring stones and mace-heads.

Adze
• Axe

Handle Handle

Neolithic celts Ring stone

Neolithic Tool Types

Another notable fe was the development of pottery for storing food grains. It was initially hand-made and ill-
ture

fired. Wheel-made pottery began at the end of this period.

Regional Variations

Vinca
(Serbia)

Abbot's Way
(England)
Otzi Aleppo
(Italy)
-(Syria) Mehrgarh Chirand

EI-Badari Daojali
(Egypt) Jericho Hading
(Israel)
Sanganakallu

Important Neolithic Sites of the World

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 Chapter 1 : Archaeology, Prehistory, and Evolution of Indian Civilisation

1. Near East

The
oldest records of Neolithic culture in the world appear in the Fertile Crescent, dated around 10,000 BCE.
The origin of agriculture is traced to the Natufian culture located in the Levant. Sites such as Aleppo (Syria)
and Jericho (Israel) are
home of the earliest known Neolithic settlements in the world.
2. Europe
The oldest records come from the river valleys in Greece and Balkans. A number of cultures have since been

reported, including Starcevo culture, Linear Pottery Culture and Horgen culture. Agriculture was introduced in
Europe from their contact with West Asia.

3. Africa

Neolithic culture reached Africa from West Asia.

Domestication of sheep and goats is first seen in Egypt,
along the Nile valley, around 5000 BCE. African Neolithic cultures include the Merimde and Badarian cultures.
4. India

The oldest Neolithic site is

Mehrgarh, dating to 7000 BCE. Mehrgarh represents one of the earliest evidences
of farming and herding in Southeast Asia. The South Indian culture shows a mix of Neolithic and Chalcolithic
traits, with a unique form of ritual seen here, that of Neolithic Ash Mounds.
Social Life

Economy shifted from a hunting-gathering to subsistence economy based on domesticated plants and animals. A
sedentary lifestyle required cooperative existence, and thus complex social organisations arose. Political organisation
was needed to
protect fields and crops, and resolve conflicts over them. Also, a clear-cut presence of magico-
religious practices is seen.
Thus, the large-scale changes in such a short span of time made V.G. Childe
term Neolithic period as the first
revolution in mankind.

In grinding and polishing technique, the flaked tool is rubbed on a hard rock with water and sand. This gives
a metal-like smooth finish and sharp edges.
Rather than going into the details of Near East, European and African cultures, it is smarter to write general
features of the cultural period (be it Palaeolithic, Mesolithic, and so on), and include just specific keywords
(e.g. Natufian, Starcevo etc.). This will significantly reduce your load of remembering things. However, it is
up to the student to go into the details, if h/she does not agree with the author's point of view.

Q.19 Examine the features of the Neolithic culture of India.

(20M)

Neolithic culture refers to the Holocene culture marking the advent of widescale food production, and preceding
the discovery of metal. It spans from around 7000-1500 BCE in the Indian context.

Climate

The period is marked by a warm and dry climate, favourable for settlements.

Material Culture

Neolithic tool culture is characterised by the use of celts.

Their preparation involved large compact stones being
flaked into axes adzes, followed by grinding and polishing. These celts were attached to a wooden handle and
or

used to clear forests and bring land under cultivation. Other tool types include
ring stones and mace-heads.

349
 Anthropology Demystified

Adze
Axe
t
t t
iaet
Handle Handle

ta

INe0numC CCIIS
t
Ring stoneua L
Neolithic Tool Types

Another notable feature was the development of pottery for storing food grains. It was initially hand-made and ill
fired. Wheel-made pottery began at the end of this period.
tL
Regional Yariations
aa at tii
entan
e3d
t
Burzahom
Jdeee rsi net)
Caaieai
ihueib bnisenih
Mehrgarh
il
iean saia u hat Daojali
v
Chirand
Handing
oe ts
teae

a aia hatthS
t 3 egtlte
tt
tao 4atia
so 2t
aa

galakallu

taaies l
shsth

Important Neolithic Sites of

. Burzahom (Jammu and Kashmir)b E

It was excavated in detail by the Archaeological Survey of India (1960-71). A variety of celts and bone tools
have been found, along with hand-made coarse pottery.
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 Chapter Archaeology, Prehistory, and Evolution of Indian Civilisation

2. Mehrgarh (Pakistan)
It was excavated by Jarrige (1974-86). Dated around 7000 BCE, evidence of wheat, barley and cattle mark
Mehrgarh as
one of the earliest evidences of farming and herding in South Asia. Features like properly-built
settlements, wheel-made pottery and trade-based items make Mehrgarh a precursor to the Indus Valley
Civilisation.

3. Chirand (Bihar)

Unlike most Neolithic sites, Chirand shows a greater frequency of bone and antler tools than celts. Chirand is
also noted for terracotta objects, especially snake figurines that indicates a serpent cult.
4. Daojali Hading (Assam)
It was excavated by T.C. Sharma (1967). The Neolithic celts found here are distinctively shouldered at butt
ends and have border ground sharp.
5. South Neolithic/Neolithic-Chalcolithic culture

A unique feature are the Neolithic ash mounds, that are basically burnt heaps of cow dung, indicating some
unique ritual.

Social Life

Economy shifted from a hunting-gathering to subsistence economy based on domesticated plants and animals. A
sedentary lifestyle required cooperative existence, and thus complex social organisations arose. Political organisation
was needed to protect fields and crops, and resolve conflicts over them. Also, a clear-cut presence of magico-
religious practices is seen.
Thus, the large-scale changes in such a short span of time made V.G. Childe term Neolithic period as the first
revolution in mankind.

Neolithic-chalcolithic culture of South India has been covered in detail as part of the
a questions based on
Chalcolithic culture.

0.20 Burzahom
(10M)

Burzahom is an archaeological site located in Kashmir Valley. It was excavated in detail by the Archaeological
Survey of India (1960-71), led by T.N. Khazanchi.
There are four cultural periods dated between 3000-1000 BCE. The first two represent the Neolithic period; the
third Megalithic; and the fourth is of Historical period.

Climate

The region experienced cool and dry climatic conditions.

Material Culture

Variety of celts have been found, prepared by polishing and grinding technique. There is an equally rich bone tool
industry. A unique tool found here are the harvesters, which are basically rectangular knives with two holes.

Pottery evolved from being hand-made in the Neolithic period, to wheel-made redware in the Megalithic period.

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 Anthropology Demystified

Adze
Axe

Handle Handle

Neolithic celts

Social Life

There is a transition from pit-dwellings in Period I to over-ground houses in Period II. Period II also reveals human
and animal skeletons, buried in deep pits filled with hand-made potsherds.

Period Ill is marked by Megalithic period menhirs, along with the presence of copper objects.
Presently, the site is included in the tentative list of UNESCO World Heritage Sites.

The pit-dwellings of Period I are circular or oval-shaped pits dug in compact natural Karewa soil formation.
They are regarded as dwelling units of the Burzahom people. Some of these pit-dwellings had steps and
ladder to access the bottom level.

Menhirs have been covered ahead in the questions based on Iron Age.

Q.21 Mehrgarh (10M)

Mehrgarh is an archaeological site located in Baluchistan, Pakistan. It was excavated by Jarrige (1974-86).

Excavations have revealed seven cultural periods here

1. Period I (7000-5500 BCE) - Aceramic Neolithic

2. Period II (5500-4500 BCE) - Neolithic-Chalcolithic and ceramic

3. Period III (4500-3500 BCE) - Early Chalcolithic

4. Period IV-VII (3500-2000 BCE) - Chalcolithic

Climate

The region experienced a semi-arid warm climate.

Material Culture

The tools show a progression from microlithic blades in Period I to more advanced stone and bone tools in Period

II. From Period III onwards, copper tools become common.

Evidence of pottery starts from Period II. Fine painted wheel-made pottery is abundant from Period III.

Social Life

Evidence of wheat, barley and cattle right from Period I mark Mehrgarh as one of the earliest evidences of
farming and herding in South Asia.
A transition is seen from the mud-brick settlements of Period I to the rectangular multi-room houses of Period II.

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 Chapter 1 : Archaeology, Prehistory, and Evolution of Indian Civilisation

Numerous burials have been found, many with elaborate goods. There is evidence of long-distance trade from
Period II onwards, indicated by trade items like beads and sea shells.

According to the famous Indologist Asko Parpola, around 2500 BCE, the Mehrgarh culture migrated into the
Indus Valley and became the Indus Valley Civilisation.

Some archaeologists believe that Mehrgarh culture arose due to contact with the Neolithic culture of the

Near East. However, Jarrige believed in an independent origin of Mehrgarh. He says despite the similarities
between the two, Mehrgarh displays enough originality to be treated as an independently-arisen culture.
Excavations of Period VII suggest that Mehrgarh had been largely abandoned around 2500 BCE. This supports
the assertion that Mehrgarh was precursor to the
Indus Valley Civilisation. The people are believed to have
migrated to the more fertile Indus Valley region.

Q.22 Gangetic Plain Neolithic Culture (10M)

The Neolithic sites of the Gangetic plain are collectively referred as the Gangetic Plain Neolithic culture. Most of
these sites are located today in the states of Uttar Pradesh
and Bihar. Prominent ones include Chirand, Waina,
Khairadih and Bhunadih.

Climate

The region experienced warm and dry climatic conditions.

Material Culture

Celts, prepared by polishing and grinding technique have been found. Bone and antler tools are also found in
abundance.

The ceramic industry is rich and varied. In early stages, handmade pottery was used. Subsequently, wheel-made
pottery became common. The cord-impressed ware has been reported from the Middle Gangetic plain.

Adze
Axe

Handle Handle

Neolithic celts

Social Life

The sedentary settlements were located near the flood plain of the Ganga river and its tributaries.
The evidence of cultivation of plants has been found in the form of rice husk and charred rice grains. Besides
agriculture and domestication, the Neolithic people of the Mid Ganga plain also practiced hunting, catching and
fishing.

Today, the Gangetic Plain is considered as one of the independent centres of origin of rice cultivation in India.

Individual question on Chirand will include chalcolithic and Iron Age phases as well. Thus, it has been
covered ahead in the questions based on Iron Age.

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 Anthropology Demystified

Q.23 Neolithic culture of North East India (10M)

North East India, being a contact zone of South Asia, Southeast Asia, and East Asian countries, shows a great
cultural diversity dating from prehistoric times. The Neolithic period in this region spans from around 4000-2000
BCE.

Important Sites

Sites have been reported from Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Meghalaya, Manipur and Nagaland. Prominent ones
include -

Mishmi
Hills

Kiphire

Ukhrul

Daojali
Garo Hading
Hills

Important archaeologists to have reported on these sites include T.C. Sharma, A.H. Dani and O.K. Singh.

Material Culture

The Neolithic culture of North East India is distinguished by the predominance of shouldered celts and the characteristic
cord-impressed han dmade pottery. However, there are little to no microlith and bone tools.

Shouldered Cord-impressed
celt ware

Social Life

basic subsistence economic pattern. There is only circumstantial

Neolithic Northeast India has not yet provided the
evidence of shifting cultivation (jhumming). Another interesting observation is the scant evidence of artificially
constructed habitations.

The distinctive characteristics of Neolithic North East India has led to scholars believe that a breakaway population
from China or Myanmar might have settled here.

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 Chapter 1 Archaeology, Prehistory, and Evolution of Indian Civilisation

0.24 "Neolithic is revolution.' Critically analyse. (15M)

Revolution is referred to as a change 'of' the system. The system can be social, economic or political.

V. G. Childe coined the term *Neolithic Revolution.' According to him, Neolithic period spanned about 4000 years
out of the total human existence of over a million years. Thus, it
represents roughly 0.4% of the total human
existence. Despite being only a small fraction of total human existence, the Neolithic period still experienced large-
scale socio-economic changes. Thus, Childe calls Neolithic a revolution.
The large-scale changes witnessed include
1. Complete shift from the use of microliths to large scale tools made of crypto-crystalline silica
2. Emergence of the Neolithic celt equipped with a handle
3. Domestication of animals and cultivation of plants, leading to a sedentary and subsistence economy
4. Rise of complex social and political organisation

5. Full use of pottery to store grains, which was initially handmade, but later the creation of potter's wheel took
place

Many anthropologists however, do not agree with Childe's contention. According to them, most of the changes
attributed to Neolithic came much earlier-

1. Change of material from quartzite to smooth crypto-crystalline silica types occurred in river valleys during
Middle Palaeolithic and during Upper Palaeolithic elsewhere
2. The use of handle started during Middle Palaeolithic
3. Bones of domesticated animals and evidences of wild seed collection have been reported from several Mesolithic
sites.

4. Making of crude form of pottery started in the Late Upper Palaeolithic period in China.

Thus, Neolithic should not be seen as a revolution, but a culminating stage where these cultural changes became
widespread.

If a question is asked on the contribution of Mesolithic culture to the rise of Neolithic culture, then use the
following content -
Tool - Mesolithic period saw refinement of tool symmetry and high craftsmanship, as compared to the
Palaeolithic period. The tool technology got further developed in Neolithic, with techniques like polishing
and grinding to refine tools.
Pottery - Crude pottery has been reported from several Mesolithic sites in Eastern Europe and North
Africa. This form got developed during the Neolithic period, making a transition from handmade, coarse,

ill-fired pottery to wheel-made, smooth pottery.

Social Life Bones of domesticated animals and evidences of wild seed collection have been reported
from Late Mesolithic sites. In India, such sites include Langhnaj and Sarai Nahar Rai. Further, significant
settlement structures have been reported. For instance, at the Indian Mesolithic site of Bagor, stone-
paved habitational floors have been excavated. All these changes became widespread and more evolved
in the Neolithic period.

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 Anthropology Demystified

0.25 Examine the features of the Chalcolithic culture of the world. (15M)

Chalcolithic culture refers to the period of human culture preceding the Bronze Age, characterised by the use of
copper and stone tools. It spans from around 5500-2000 BCE.
Climate

The period is marked by a warm and dry climate, favourable for settlements.
Material Culture

The technology was a mix of metals and stones. The metal technology is seen in the smelting of copper, and
manufacturing of copper tools and weapons. The lithic technology includes microliths, stone blades and axes.

Arrowhead Axe head Knife with handle

Copper Tool Types

Another identifying characteristic of the period is polychrome painted pottery.

Regional Variations

Rhine Valley Volga-Ural Region

(Germany)

Otzi
(Italy)
Mehrgarh
Chirand
Ahar

Naqada
(Egypt) Navdatoli

Inamgaon
Sanganakallu

Important Chalcolithic Sites of the World

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 Chapter : Archaeology, Prehistory, and Evolution of Indian Civilisation

1. Europe
European Chalcolithic period is characterised by Megaliths; significant economic stratification; and probably
the earliest presence of Indo-European speakers. Certain cultures include Yamna, Corded Ware and Kurgan
culture.

2. Africa

Chalcolithic culture first

reached Egypt, seen through the Nagada culture. But, for most of Africa, iron and
copper smelting appeared together, and thus, there was no distinct Chalcolithic
period.
3. India

Chalcolithic culture in India is not uniform. For convenience, it is divided into six cultural zones - Ahar-Banas,
Madhya Pradesh, Gangetic Doab, Eastern, Northern Deccan and Southern Chalcolithic culture. All zones are
chiefly distinguished by their ceramic industry.
Social Life

The period saw the emergence of full-fledged villages. The economy centred around cultivation of cereals and
domesticated animals. Societies engaged in long-distance trading. Mud-brick and thatched houses were common.
Religious life centred around the cults of Mother Goddess, sacred bull and a belief in afterlife.
Towards the end, copper got gradually replaced by the alloy bronze, giving rise to the Bronze Age.

Rather than going into the details of European and African cultures, it is smarter to write general features of
the cultural period (be it Palaeolithic, Mesolithic, and so on), and include just specific keywords (e.g. Corded
ware, Naqada etc.). This will significantly reduce your load of remembering things. However, it is up to the
student to go into the details, if h/she does not agree with the author's point of view.

Q.26 Examine the features of the Chalcolithic culture of India. (20M)

Chalcolithic culture refers to the period of human culture preceding the Bronze Age, characterised by the use of
copper and stone tools. It spans from around 4500-1000 BCE in the Indian context.

Climate

The period is marked by a warm and dry limate, favourable for settlements.

Material Culture

The technology was a mix of metals and stones. The metal technology is seen in the smelting of copper, and
manufacturing of copper tools and weapons. The lithic technology includes microliths, stone blades and axes.

Arrowhead Axe head Knife with handle

Copper Tool Types

Another identifying characteristic of the period is polychrome painted pottery.

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 Anthropology Demystified

Regional Variations

Hastinapur

Ahar Chirand

Kayatha

Navdatoli

Inamgaon

Sanganak:

Important Chalcolithic Sites of India

Chalcolithic culture in India is not uniform. For convenience, it is divided into six cultural zones

1. Ahar-Banas Zone (2600-1500 BCE)

Spreading over South East Rajasthan, this zone includes sites like Ahar, Banas valley,
Gilund and Ganeshwar. The pottery is marked by black and redware, painted in white on
exterior.

Ahar Ware

2. Madhya Pradesh Zone (2000-1100 BCE)

At Kayatha, the predominant pottery type is the thick, sturdy brown slipped ware, painted
violetor deep red. A neighbouring culture called the Malwa culture is marked by the Malwa
ware, a buff or orange slipped pottery painted black/dark brown.
Malwa Ware

3. Gangetic Doab (2500-1350 BCE)

Sites include Hastinapur, Bahadurabad and Saharanpur. A variety of copper-based artefacts like rings, celts
and swords have been found in abundance. Hence, this is called the Copper Hoard Culture. The associated
has a red slip, but rubbing it leaves an ochre colour on the fingers.
pottery is the Ochre Coloured Pottery. It

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 Chapter 1 : Archaeology, Prehistory, and Evolution of Indian Civilisation

4. Eastern Culture (1800-1400 BCE)

It isspread over Bihar, Odisha, West Bengal and Assam. The most important site is Chirand (Bihar). The

pottery IS of three types - handmade thick grey ware; wheel-thrown red ware; and black and redware.

5. Northern Deccan Chalcolithic Culture (1400-1300 BCE)

The most important culture here is the Jorwe culture of Maharashtra. The Jorwe ware has
a fine fabric, with red or orange matt surface painted with black geometric designs.
Jorwe Ware

6. Southern Chalcolithic Group (2400-1000 BCE)

South Indian sites like Tekkalakote, Sanganakallu and Piklihal show a mix of Neolithic and Chalcolithic traits.
A unique feature are the ash mounds, that are basically burnt heaps of cow dung, indicating some unique ritual.

Social Life

The period saw the emergence of full-fledged villages. The economy centred around cultivation of cereals and
domesticated animals. Mud-brick and thatched houses were common. Religious life centred around the cults of
Mother Goddess, sacred bull and a belief in afterlife.

Towards the end, copper got gradually replaced by the alloy bronze, giving rise to the Bronze Age.

With respect to the Ahar-Banas zone, except Ganeshwar, all other sites do not reveal any microlith tools.

At Kayatha, copper has been found in pots as bangles.

Important sites of the Malwa culture include Navadatoli, Eran and Nagda.

In the Eastern culture sites, a variety of terracotta objects have been found. Some are serpentine figures,
indicating the existence of serpent cult.
The Northern Deccan covers the three valleys, namely, the Tapi valley, the Godavari valley, and the Bhima
valley. The site of Inamgaon (Maharashtra) in Bhima valley shows the maximum cultural indications of the
Jorwe culture. Besides the pottery, significant discoveries associated with the Northern Deccan culture
include artificial irrigation, an earthen pan, female figurines, and different burial styles of children and adults.

Southern Chalcolithic group has been covered ahead in detail.

If question is of 10/15 marks, then the student can mark the six zones on the map, and describe 1-2 point of
each in the map itself.

0.27 Southern Chalcolithic Group/Neolithic-Chalcolithic Culture of South India (10M)

Chalcolithic culture refers to the period of human culture preceding the Bronze Age, characterised by the use of
copper and stone tools.
The Southern Chalcolithic Group is one of the six Chalcolithic cultural zones of India, and dates around 2400-1000
BCE.

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 Anthropology Demystified

Important Sites

Piklihal Nagarjunakonda

Tekkalakote

Sanganakallu
Paiyampalli

Edakkal

Chalcolithic Sites of Southern India

Climate

settlements.
The period is marked by a warm and dry climate, favourable for

Material Culture

There is a three-fold succession of phases seen

1. Phase I - Pure Neolithic phase with poor crude-surfaced pottery
There is an occasional metal intrusion
2. Phase II Pottery shows improvement and is similar to Jorwe ware.
observed. This probably implies an exchange with the North Deccan culture of Maharashtra.
is observed. But it is
3. Phase III Copper and bronze objects become common. Black and redware pottery
surprising to note that knowledge of metal had little impact on the cultural efficiency.

Social Life

The people were hill dwellers with peripheral cultivation, hunting and cattle keeping economy. They mainly lived in
huts. Burials occur under the living floor of these huts.

At some sites, ash mounds are observed, that are basically burnt heaps of cow dung. They indicate some periodic
the world.
ritual. These Neolithic Ash Mounds are unique to South India, and not found anywhere else in

If a question asks about the Chalcolithic culture of Deccan India, one must include both North Deccan
Chalcolithic and South Chalcolithic Group.

For individual questions on other zones of Chalcolithic period, just follow the format of this question. Use the
general information of Chalcolithic period, and combine with the specific information of each zone given in
Question #26 (including the information given in the box).

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 Chapter Archaeology, Prehistory, and Evolution of Indian Civilisation

0.28 Examine the features of the Bronze Age (Copper-Bronze Age) of the world. (20M)

Bronze age refers to the period preceding the Iron Age, characterised by bronze metallurgy as the dominant
metalworking technology. It spans from around 3300-1000 BCE.

Climate

The period is marked by a warm and dry climate, favourable for settlements.

Material Culture

Bronze was produced by smelting copper and alloying it with tin, arsenic or other metals. Compared to individual
metals, bronze was more durable and harder, thus giving a technological advantage.

Stone and clay moulds were used for shaping objects such as arrowheads and axes. Molten bronze was then
poured into the mould.

Arrowhead Axe head Knife with handle

Bronze Tool Types

Regional Variations

Anatolia
(Turkey)
Sumer
(Iraq) Harappa
Cyprus
Mohenjo-Daro
Memphis®
(Egypt)

Important Bronze Age Sites of the World

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 Anthropology Demystified

1. Near East
and
The first region to enter Bronze Age, the Near East saw the emergence of the Sumerian, Babylonian
Assyrian civilisations in Mesopotamia. These cultures practiced intensive year-round agriculture, developed a
writing system, and created complex political organisations.
2. Europe

The European Bronze Age started with the Aegean culture in Greece/Cyprus. It subsequently spread from the

Mediterranean to Central and Northern Europe.

3. Africa

Most African civilisations outside Egypt did not experience a distinct Bronze Age. The Ancient Egypt civilisation
thrived in the plains of the lower Nile valley, achieving advanced levels of agricultural and architectural techniques.
4. India

The Indian Bronze Age is linked with the emergence of the Indus Valley civilisation. The civilisation had a
remarkable uniform town planning. Bronze casting was done by the lost wax technique, and moulded to create
tools, weapons and sculptures. The civilisation had international and maritime trade links, extending to
Mesopotamia, Persia and the Arabian Gulf.

Social Life

The Bronze Age marks the onset of urbanisation, supported by large agricultural surplus. Planned towns were
established to support the increasing populations. As surplus and population increased so did the specialisation of
skills and need for long-distance trade. Writing was developed in Mesopotamia, Egypt and Indus Valley.
The Bronze Age ended abruptly around 1200 B.C. Major civilisations including Mycenaean Greece, Ancient Egypt
and Indus Valley fell. This is known as the Bronze Age collapse. The Bronze Age gave way to the Iron Age, which
thus began with a rural outlook again.

If a question is specifically on Indian Bronze Age, then the period of the Indus Valley Civilisation has to be

described in the above format. The Indus Valley civilisation has been covered in depth ahead.

Rather than going into the details of Near East, European and African cultures, it is smarter to write general
features of the cultural period (be it Palaeolithic, Mesolithic, and so on), and include just specific keywords
(e.g. Sumerian, Aegean etc.). This will significantly reduce your load of remembering things. However, it is
the author's point of view.
up to the student to go into the details, if h/she does not agree with

0.29 Examine the features of the Iron Age of the world. (15M)

Iron Age refers to the period of human culture succeeding the Bronze Age, characterised by ferrous metallurgy as
the dominant metalworking technology. It spans from around 1500-500 BCE.

Climate

The period is marked by a warm and dry climate, favourable for settlements.

Material Culture

Iron implements are found extensively, including axes, sickles and arrowheads. These were harnessed to clear
forests, work on farms, and settle permanent colonies.

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 Indian Civilisation
Chapter - 1 Archaeology, Prehistory, and Evolution of

Axe head Sickle Arrowhead

Iron Tool Types

Besides them, bone objects and beads are also found. Bone objects include bangles, needles, combs etc.
Regional Variations

Jastorf
(Germany)
Halstatt
(Austria)

Villanova
(Italy)

Mathura
Chirand

Lake Porkalam
Victoria

Important Iron Age Sites of the World

1. Europe
European Iron Age was primarily rural and agricultural in nature. Tribes such as Celts lived in small communities
or clans. They lived in mud houses inside guarded hill forts. Weapons, implements and utensils were elaborately
designed. Few European Iron Age cultures include Hallstatt, Nordic and Jastorf culture.
2. Africa

In most of Africa, except Egypt, the Iron Age is not preceded by Bronze Age. Iron and copper smelting
appeared together. African Iron Age cultures include Akan, Chifumbaze and Urewe.
3. India

Iron Age of India is divided into Northern (Gangetic region) and Southern zones. The Northern zone is
characterised by the Painted Grey Ware culture, while the Southern zone is distinguished by Megalithic traditions.

Social Life

Iron Age shows a village character with a large-scale colonisation and multiple specialised craft activities. People
lived in roundhouses, made of mud and wood, with thatched roofs. Rice, wheat and barley were the chief cultivated
cereals. Sheep, cattle and horse were the main domesticated animals.

it is the development of a complex management and social order that gave rise to the Iron Age.
To conclude,

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 Anthropology Demystified

Rather than going into the details of European and A frican cultures, it is smarter to write general features of
thecultural period (be it Palaeolithic, Mesolithic, and so on), and include just specific keywords (e.g. Hallstatt,
Jastorfetc.). This will significantly reduce your load of remembering things. However, it is up to the student
to go into the details, if h/she does not agree with the author's point of view.

0.30 Examine the features of the Iron Age of India. (15M)

Iron Age refers to the period of human culture succeeding the Bronze Age, characterised by ferrous metallurgy as
the dominant metalworking technology. It spans from around 1500-500 BCE.
Climate

The period is marked by a warm and dry climate, favourable for settlements.

Material Culture

Iron implements are found extensively, including axes, sickles and arrowheads. These were harnessed to clear
forests, work on farms, and settle permanent colonies.

Axe head Sickle Arrowhead

Iron Tool Types

Besides them, bone objects and beads are also found. Bone objects include bangles, needles, combs etc.

Regional Variations

Iron Age of India can be divided into Northern (Gangetic region) and Southern zones.

Panipat

Chirand
Mathura

Kaushambi

Nagarjunakonda
Hallur Chittor
Porkalam Chingleput

Important Iron Age sites of India

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 Chapter • 1 : Archaeology, Prehistory, and Evolution of Indian Civilisation

1. Northern Zone
The most distinctive feature here is the Painted Grey Ware. It has a thin fabric of very well levigated clay. It is
fired uniformly grey by heating in well oxygenated kilns, thus showing a high technological level. The shapes
are however limited in variety . straight sided bowls, dishes and lotas. Very few thick black lines are used for
decoration.

Black Lines

Straight-sided Lota
Bowl

Painted Grey Ware

Southern Zone

The Iron Age here corresponds with the Megalithic culture. As per R.E.M. Wheeler, megaliths refer to the
monuments built of rough, large, undressed blocks of stones, associated with burials to fulfil funerary or religious
functions. The burials found so far can be grouped as shown below .

00
Cairn Circle Cist Grave Menhir Dolmen

From all burial sites, black and redware pottery is found.

Social Life

Iron Age shows a village character with a large-scale colonisation and multiple specialised craft activities. People
lived in mud houses with thatched roofs. Rice, wheat and barley were the chief cultivated cereals. Sheep, cattle
and horse were the main domesticated animals.

To conclude, it is the development of a complex management and social order that gave rise to the Iron Age.

Q.31 Explain the features of the Painted Grey Ware Culture of the Iron Age in India. (15M)

The Painted Grey Ware (PGW) culture is associated with the Iron Age in the Gangetic region, dated around 1200-
600 BCE.

Important Sites

The culture spreads from Eastern Rajasthan, Haryana and Western Uttar Pradesh along the Yamuna-Ganga basin,
to the Mid-Ganga valley upto Bihar.

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 Anthropology Demystified

Panipat

Hastinapur
Chirand
Mathura

Kaushambi

Few Iron Age Sites of Gangetic Region

Climate

The period is marked by a warm and dry climate, favourable for settlements.

Material Culture

The most distinctive feature here is the Painted Grey Ware. It has a thin fabric of very well levigated clay. It is fired
are however
uniformly grey by heating in well oxygenated kilns, thus showing a high technological level. The shapes
for decoration.
limited in variety - straight sided bowls, dishes and lotas. Very few thick black lines are used

Black Lines

Straight-sided Lota

Bowl

Painted Grey Ware

Iron implements found include spearheads, arrowheads, sickles etc. Bone objects and beads are highly frequent. In
rare instances, glass and lapis lazuli beads are also known. Mesolithic tools are still found in the Mid-Ganga valley
during this period.

Axe head Sickle Arrowhead

Iron Tool Types

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 Chapter . : Archaeology, Prehistory, and Evolution of Indian Civilisation

Social Life

The culture shows a village character with a large-scale colonisation and multiple specialised craft activities. Most
sites show wattle and
dabble huts. In Jakhera (Uttar Pradesh), a bund, a moat and a road have been found. These
evidences however hardly compare to the city-development of the Harappan culture.
At present, commentaries on PGW phase remain rather simplistic. Further excavation is required for detailing this
culture.

Q.32 Explain the features of the Megalithic Culture of South India. (15M)

Megalithic culture of South India is associated with the Iron Age dated around 1500-500 BCE. As per R.E.M.
Wheeler, megaliths refer to the monuments built of rough, large, undressed blocks of stones, associated with
burials to fulfil funerary or religious functions.

Important Sites

According to R.K. Mohanty and V. Selvakumar, around 2200 megalithic sites can be found in South India.

Nagarjunakonda

Hallur
Chittor

Porkalam
Chingleput

Few Megalithic Sites of South India

Burial Types

The burials found can be grouped as

1. Cairn Circle

The body was buried first, and then rounded stones were fixed around the grave.
2. Cist Graves

The body was buried first, with small stones erected around it. Larger stone slabs were made to rest on the
pillars, thus providing a shade to the grave.
3. Menhirs

Large and tall memorial stones were used to indicate the presence of a grave. In ancient Sangam literature,
menhirs are referred as nadukal.

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 Anthropology Demystified

4. Dolmen

The body was placed on a slab of stone, covered from all sides with a flat stone slab resting on the four legs of
stone erected at the corners of the body.

Other secondary types include head stone graves, umbrella stone and rock-cut graves.

Cist Grave Menhir Dolmen

Cair Circle

Material Culture

Iron implements common to all Megalithic graves include flat axes, sickles, spearheads and arrows. Omaments
is the black and redware
used on the frontal region of horses have also been found. The most common pottery type
of different types.

Sickle Arrowhead Carinated Sprouted

Axe head
Vessel Dish

Iron Tool Types Pottery Types

Social Life

It is believed that this culture was brought along by Arab migrants. They maintained gypsy-like tented colonies, and
bred horses to be traded with Ganga valley civilisation.
Megalithic culture of South continued in the historic period, among many tribal communities.

Besides South India, archaeologists have revealed two further Megalithic cultures in India - North Indian
Megalithic culture (Burzahom, Dehradun, Allahabad etc. ); and Vidarbha Megalithic culture (Dhule, Amravati,
Nagpur etc.)

(10M)
0.33 Prehistoric Art

the rough drawings in sand, in earth and clay made by prehistoric

humans.
art refers to
As per Leakey, prehistoric

Rock Art

While the earliest evidence comes from Lower Palaeolithic, conclusive evidence is available only from Upper
Palacolithic onwards.

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 Chapter 1 : Archaeology, Prehistory, and Evolution of Indian Civilisation

It is associated with three main sources

a. Walls and ceilings of caves

b. Open rock shelters
C. Flat slabs of rock and the tops of boulders

Phase Features Material Used Important Sites

Upper Palaeolithic Paintings consisted of three subjects Red, white, Bhimbetka and

humans, animals and geometric patterns green and black Lakhudiyar

ochre (India), Altamira
(Spain), Chauvet
(France)

Mesolithic Red ochre Bhimbetka and

Smaller and multi-themed paintings. Group
hunting scenes predominate. There was Adamgarh (India),
probably ritual element involved, of killing Iberian

the animal in painting before the actual hunt. Mediterranean

Basin (Spain),
Tassili n'Ajjer
(Algeria)

Neolithic Marks a departure from depicting real-world Red and white

to an idealised super-world. ochre Tekkalakote(India),

Yunnan (China),
Pilbara (Australia)

Walking Hand In Hand Group Hunting Scene

Home Art

It ranges from beautification objects like necklace, bracelets and shells; to the polychrome pottery of the Neolithic
and Chalcolithic periods.
Summing up, prehistoric art, though scanty, is the sole window we have to the mind of the prehistoric human.

Q.34 Bhimbetka Rock Art (10M)

Bhimbetka is prehistoric site located in Raisen district of Madhya Pradesh. It was discovered in 1957 by V.S
Wakankar. It is the most notable rock shelter site of India. Out of the 800 plus caves numbered so far, around 500

contain paintings.

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 Anthropology Demystified

The art can be classified under seven different periods, with the first three dating to prehistoric age

Features Colours
Period

Green and dark

Upper Palaeolithic Mainly linear representations, of huge figures of animals such
red
as bison and tigers.

Red and white

Mesolithic largest number of paintings - smaller in size and
Contains the
multi-themed. Group hunting scenes predominate, giving a clear
idea of the weapons used. Unlike humans, animals are drawn in
a more naturalistic style.

this period were in contact Red and white

Chalcolithic Reveal that the cave dwellers of
with the agricultural communities of the Malwa plains, exchanging
goods.

Mathpal, there are four painting styles prevalent

here
As per Y.

1. Dry Colour
2. Wet transparent

3. Oil tempera

4. Spray colour
Due to the richness of this site, Bhimbetka was declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2003.

If the question is only about Bhimbetka, include the content given in the answers so far (questions 4, 7, 9,
15), along with this answer on its rock art.

(10M)
0.35 Pre Harappan Culture
the Harappan
The Pre Harappan period refers to the Chalcolithic cultures believed to be the historical antecedent to
Civilisation. It is said to be dated around 3300-2500 BCE.
originated near Mehrgarh in Baluchistan and spread to Amri,
Chalcolithic cultures in the Indian subcontinent
eastwards to Kalibangan and
Kot-Diji, Rehman Dheri and other places in Indus Valley. From there, it spread
Banawali, establishing and promoting the spread of farming communities.
Their common features are described as below-

1. A simple village with mudbrick dwellings and microliths with crude pottery
2. Subsequent phases show continuance of microliths despite emergence of metal. Ceramics show an emphasis
on colourful decorations.

3. With time, secular structures appear with evidence of a large population maintained within the system. Multi-
chrome artistic pottery is replaced with black-on-red bichrome styles. Mudbrick structures continue, but are
more compact and raised.'

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 Chapter Archaeology, Prehistory, and Evolution of Indian Civilisation

As per scholars, some of these farming communities, especially of Mehrgarh, moved to the flood plains of the
Indus, learnt bronze technology, and established the Urban or the Mature Phase of the Indus Valley Civilisation
(IVC).

This understanding has helped establish the whole sequence of the IVC, right from early settled village life, to the
urban metropolis.

Q.36 Throw light upon the urban planning in the Indus Valley (Harappan) Civilisation. (15M)

The Indus Valley Civilisation is an ancient civilisation, dated around 3300-1300 BCE. t emerged as major urban
centre around 2600-1900 BCE, flourishing along the plains of the Indus river system.

Ganweriwala

Mehrgarh
Harappa
•Rakhigarhi
Kalibangan

Mohenjo-D

Chanhudaro

Lothal
Dholavira
Surkotada

Sites of the Indus Valley Civilisation

The civilisation is distinguished by a uniform system of planning visible across all its major sites. The town plan for

the larger cities was divided into two sections - Citadel and Lower Town. In both the sections, Luildings were built
on mud-raised platforms. The burnt bricks used for construction show a standardised ratio at all sites. This remarkable

accuracy and uniformity form the core of the town planning.

an
00 100 000 100 100 Lower
Town
nobedlalage innabages0

- Fortified Wall
2 Granary
Citadel
- Bath
4 - Assembly hall
6 - Canal
6 - House

Town Plan of Indus Valley Sites

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 Anthropology Demystified

The Citadel was the core fortified area having important public buildings such as the bath, granary and assembly
hall.

two rooms, a courtyard,

The Lower Town meanwhile, had houses for the common people. Each house had at least
of these houses followed
a bathroom and a toilet. The arrangement system. The streets were planned at
the grid

right angles to each other. Lamp posts at regular intervals indicate the existence of street lighting. A paved drain
excellent
ran underground along the streets, and was linked with the chutes from individual houses, thus signalling an
the side of streets. In addition, every big
drainage system. Water supply was ensured by having public wells by
house had its own well.

Surrounding the entire complex was a defence wall. Evidences of reinforcements of the walls show a constant

architectural vigil.
Indus
Such a town planning suggests the existence of a centralised authority or administration. To conclude, the
Valley Civilisation was an architectural wonder, far ahead of its time.

be the earliest public water tank of the ancient world. It

The Great Bath of Mohenjo-Daro is considered to
is 12 metres long, 7 metres wide and reaches depth of 2.4 metres. It had well-defined channels connecting
it to a well. The boundaries were water-proofed by lining with bitumen. There were staircases leading into
the pool. A series of rooms were present alongside the tank. Periodic cleaning was ensured through a man-
hole at one end of the Bath. It is believed that the Bath served religious functions, used by the priests for

purification purposes.

0.37 Describe various aspects of the economy of the Indus Valley Civilisation. (10M)

The Indus Valley Civilisation is an ancient civilisation, dated around 3300-1300 BCE. It emerged as a major urban
centre around 2600-1900 BCE, flourishing along the plains of the Indus river system.
The economy of the civilisation can be seen from various aspects -
1. Economic activities

Agriculture was the chief occupation, supported by irrigation systems and canals. Wheat, barley and mustard
were the main crops. Rice and millets were grown in certain sites of Gujarat. Dairy products like ghee, along
with fruits were also consumed.

Craftsmanship, weaving and pottery were organised, and flourished during this period.
2. Occupational specialisation
There were different categories of people - the intellectual elites, warriors, traders and artisans, and manual
labourers.

3. Trade

The Harappans had established the sub-continent's first international and maritime trade links, extending to
Mesopotamia, Persia and the Arabian Gulf. Traded goods included beads, terracotta pots, gold, silver, coloured
gems like turquoise and lapis lazuli, seashells and pearls. The Harappan seals are believed to be integral part of
trading, as identifiers of property.

Thus, a structured economic organisation was a chief reason behind the emergence of the Indus Valley
Civilisation.

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 Chapter 1 : Archaeology, Prehistory, and Evolution of Indian Civilisation

0.38
Describe Harappan religion. Have some of its elements continued into later Hinduism?
Discuss.
(20M)

Durkheim, in his book, The Elementary Forms of Religious Life (1912),' has defined religion as a unified
system of belief and practices relative to sacred things.

The Harappan civilisation is an ancient civilisation, dated around 3300-1300 BCE. It emerged as major urban
centre around 2600-1900 BCE, flourishing along the plains of the Indus river system.
Harappan Religion

The cult of female worship was well established. This is evident from
the recovery of terracotta Mother Goddess
figurines from almost all sites.

Male worship is seen from a Mohenjo-Daro seal called the Pashupati Seal. It shows a horned male figure seated
in Yogic Padmasana posture, surrounded by several animals. Other seals containing deity like figures have also
been found.

Belief in fertility cult is seen from symbols such as round stones and cone-shaped objects resembling phallus.
Worship of flora and fauna is seen from the seals. Animals like unicorn bull and humped bull, along with trees like
peepal were probably worshipped. Further, symbols like swastika have been observed on these seals.
1 Brra

The Great Bath of Mohenjo-Daro is believed to have been used for religious bathing. Some scholars suggest that
the priest bathed in it twice a day.

The Harappans were perhaps familiar with yoga and meditation, as evident from the Pashupati seal, several
terracotta figures, and a statue called the Priest King. This statue shows a bearded male with elongated and half-
closed eyes, like in a meditative stance.

Finally, burials with objects suggest a belief in afterlife and soul.

Relation with Hinduism

Although it is debatable whether the Harappans were Hindu or not, it is clear some of their elements continued into
later Hinduism.

The aforementioned figure in the Pashupati seal is believed to be the great Hindu deity, Lord Shiva, in his Pashupati
form. The phallic-shaped cones show a link to
the Hindu worship of Sivalinga. The icon 'Swastika' in Hinduism is
a marker of goodness. The Great Bath was probably a precursor to the sacred tanks found in ancient temples of
Southern India, meant for purification bathing. The yoga positions of the Harappan figures are found to be closely
related to the yoga movements in Hinduism.

However, till date, no conclusive evidence of temple has been found across Harappan sites. Further, elements like
Pashupati seal and The Great Bath remain open to different interpretations.
Thus, while conclusive proof remains hidden, there are profound evidences that Harappan religion was a precursor
to Hinduism.

Q.39 The Indus Valley Civilisation marks a period when arts and crafts flourished in the sub-continent.
Discuss by highlighting the diversity of the arts and crafts present.
(20M)

The Indus Valley Civilisation is an ancient civilisation, dated around 3300-1300 BCE. It emerged as major urban
centre around 2600-1900 BCE, flourishing along the plains of the Indus river system.

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 Anthropology Demystified

Diversity of Arts and Crafts

1. Pottery

Harappans made very fine wheel-thrown pottery. There were two main types
plain and painted. The plain pottery was made of red clay, while the painted was
the black and redware, with geometric and animal designs. Polychrome and incised
ware were rare. Harappan pottery is seen in various shapes and sizes, but angular Harappan Painted Pottery
and straight shapes are missing.
2. Bronze Sculptures
Various human and animal bronze sculptures have been excavated from the major
most famous
Harappan sites. Bronze casting was done by the lost-wax technique. The
bronze piece is the Dancing Girl of Mohenjo-Daro. The girl is shown in the tribangha

posture. She is wearing several bangles and a necklace, and her hair is neatly tied in
a bun. The most striking observation is the girl's confidence and naturalistic pose.
Dancing Girl Sculpture
3. Stone statues

remarkable three-dimensional depth. This can be seen from the statues of the
Harappan stone statues show
of steatite, and depicts a bearded male with elongated
'Priest King' and 'Male Torso.' The Priest King is made
in a shawl decorated with floral patterns. The
and half-closed eyes, like in a meditative stance. He is draped
Male Torso is made of red sandstone, with well-baked shoulders, and slightly prominent abdomen.
4. Terracotta figures

Terracotta figures were made by fire-baked clay, using the pinching method. These are cruder as compared to
They depict a
the bronze and stone figures. Mother Goddess figurines have been recorded from various sites.
standing female, with prominent breasts, often wearing fan-shaped head-dress with cup-like projections on
each side. Other terracotta figures include masks, toys and animals.

5. Seals anhEScript
square in
Majority of Harappan seals were made on steatite carved intaglio, and were
The most famous
shape. They depict various animals, symbols and deity-like-figures. for
were most probably used
seal isthe Pashupati seal of Mohenjo-Daro. The seals Harappan Seal
trading purposes, as identifiers of property.

6. Bead and ornaments

or clay. The fabric was
These include beads, necklace, armlets and rings, made of precious metals, bone
often used as beads.
prepared by spinning of cotton and wool. Animal-models were
for arts and crafts.
To conclude, the Indus Valley Civilisation marks a period of flourish
Discuss. (15M)
0.40 Seals are an integral part of Harappan culture.
emerged as a major urban
Harappan Civilisation is an ancient civilisation, dated around 3300-1300 BCE
It
The
plains of the Indus river system.
centre around 2600-1900 BCE, flourishing along the
One of its most characteristic features are the seals, found abundantly across various sites.
Material and shape
these are square in shape. A minority are
The bulk of the seals are made
on steatite carved intaglio. Most of
even stone.
cylindrical or made on copper or

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 Chapter 1 : Archaeology, Prehistory, and Evolution of Indian Civilisation

Depiction on seals

A group of the seals show animals such as unicorn bulls, rhinos, elephants
A thE Script
and tigers. Surprisingly, no depiction of cow has been found. Another
Square plaque
group of seals contain mythical animal forms symbols like swastika or
cross. Finally, there are others which appear to be deity-like-figures. Animal
The most famous such seal is the Pashupati seal found at Mohenjo-

Daro. It shows a horned male figure seated in Yogic Padmasana posture, Fig. : Standard Harappan Seal
surrounded by several animals. It remains a profound evidence of

Harappan religion being precursor of Hinduism.

Almost all the seals carry pictographic scriptural inscriptions (fig.), which remain undeciphered.

Purpose

It is believed that the seals must have been an integral part of trade mechanisms. Some scholars point out that the
seals were used as identity cards. The copper tablets having animal/human figure on one side, and inscription on

the other, were probably used as amulets.

Thus, the seals are an integral part of Harappan culture. Once deciphered, they would provide great information in
unlocking the secrets of this civilisation.

Q.41 What is known of the Harappan script? Highlight. (15M)

The Harappan Civilisation is an ancient civilisation, dated around 3300-1300 BCE. It emerged as major urban
centre around 2600-1900 BCE, flourishing along the plains of the Indus river system.

Harappan culture is considered a of proto-history, as

part it reflects a period when knowledge of writing was
known, but the writing has not been deciphered yet.

Features Anher Script

The Harappan script is in the form of pictographic signs, inscribed on seals (adjacent
figure), tablets, pottery and stamps. The signs are in diverse shapes. They occur with
carved miniature animal or human figures. Harappan Seal
In contrast to Egypt and Mesopotamia, no long inscriptions have been found. Around
4000 signs/characters have been identified so far. As per studies, the characters occur in a series. Experts believe
that the script was written from right to left.
The script was probably used to mark and identify private property.

Decipherment

There are diverse opinions on the script. Some believe it to be an ancient form of Sanskrit or Indo-European
language. As per Asko Parpola, in his work, 'Deciphering the Indus Script (1994), the Harappan script is a
proto-Dravidian script. N.K. Verma opines that the Harappan script is still in use by Santhals as symbols in rituals.
However, no conclusive picture has emerged. Recently, a Chennai-based team has decided to use artificial intelligence
for deciphering the script through deep learning.

If any question is asked on the general features or on the socio-cultural life of Harappan Civilisation, explain
through the aspects of - *urban planning,' 'economic organisation,' 'arts and crafts," 'religion,' and 'seals
and script.' All these aspects have been covered in detail so far.

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 Anthropology Demystified

Q.42 Discuss the significance of the Indus Valley Civilisation sites from India. (15M)

The Indus Valley Civilisation is an ancient civilisation, dated around 3300-1300 BCE. It emerged as a major urban
centre around 2600-1900 BCE, flourishing along the plains of the Indus river system.

Ganweriwala

Mehrgarh
Harappa
•Rakhigarhi

Kalibangan

Mohenjo-Daro

Chanhudaro

Dholavira

Surkotada

Sites of The Indus Valley Civilisation

Although the most famous and well-excavated sites remain Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro in Pakistan, Indian sites
show a huge significance of their own.

Key Features

1. Lothal (Gujarat)
As per the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI), Lothal houses the world's oldest dockyard. It connected the
city to the trade route of Arabian Sea all the way upto Persian Gulf. It was the centre of Harappan trade with
Mesopotamia.

The evidence of rice husk here marks the discovery of rice crop in the Indus Valley Civilisation. Lothal was
also animportant bead-making centre.
2. Dholavira (Gujarat)
Firstly, the town plan is divided into three parts - Citadel, Middle Town
Dholavira is unique in its town structure.

and Lower Town. Secondly, the buildings are made of stone, not burnt bricks. This shows a break from the
traditional Harappan town planning.

The Dholavira signboard consisting of large pictographic inscriptions has been of huge value to Indologists like
Asko Parpola.
3. Surkotada (Gujarat)

The evidence of horse bones found here has reopened the debate on the presence of horse in the sub-continent
before the Iron Age.

4. Kalibangan (Rajasthan)
The significance lies in the site's agriculture with the evidence of ploughed field, and an excellent water storage
system of cylindrical pits and tanks.
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 Chapter - 1 : Archaeology, Prehistory, and Evolution of Indian Civilisation

5. Rakhigarhi (Haryana)
In 2014, ASI excavated two mounds here, making it the largest Indus Valley site discovered till date.
Thus, the significance of Indian sites Is seen in all aspects, including town planning, trade and agriculture.

If the question asks about the Indus Valley sites in Indian sub-continent, then the sites in Pakistan have to be
detailed -

Harappa - It is located in Punjab (Pakistan), along the banks of river Ravi. The site was excavated by
Daya Ram Sahni (1920-21). Since it was the first site to be discovered. Indus Valley Civilisation is
frequently referred to as the Harappan Civilisation.

Mohenjo-Daro - It is located in Sindh, on the banks of river Indus. The site was excavated by R.D.
Banerji (1922). It is among the largest settlements. Important findings here include The Great Bath, the
Bronze Girl, the Priest King and the Pashupati seal.

Q.43 Give the various theories behind the decline of the Indus Valley Civilisation. (20M)

The Indus Valley Civilisation emerged as major urban centre around 2600-1900 BCE, flourishing along the plains
of the Indus river system. However, around 1500 BCE, it suffered a massive decline, for which several theories
have been proposed

1. Foreign Invasion Theory

This theory has been independently contributed by Wheeler (1947), Piggott (1950) and Gordon (1958). It is
based on facts like the mention of an Aryan invasion in the Rig Veda; the presence of Indo-European weapons
at Harappan sites; and the damaged skeletons found at Mohenjo-Daro.
However, critics remark that the decline started much before the date mentioned in the Rig Veda. Further, no

signs of burning and destruction have been observed at Mohenjo-Daro. This theory is more or less discarded
today.
2. Climate Change Theory
This theory has been contributed by Marshall and Stein in the 1930s. An increase in aridity led to the failure
of the agro-based economy. However, there is no conclusive evidence to back this theory.
3. Tectonic Phenomena

Raikes and Dales investigated the banks of the Indus and its tributaries. They said that the Indus flooded
suddenly due to tectonic phenomena, causing massive destruction. However, later studies point out that evidence
of tectonic upliftis not demonstrable from the geomorphology of Indus basin.
stanta
4. Hydrological Changes
Lambrick said that the eastern shifting of Indus led to periodic inundations of arable land, which led to an
agricultural decline. V.N. Misra studied the palaeochannel of river Ghaggar, and said that the complete drying
up of Ghaggar deprived Sutlej and Indus of major water inflow. This led to silting of Indus, and thus crashing of
the agro-based economy.

5. Black Lightning Theory

Dmitriyev remarked that physicochemical formations in the atmosphere led to black lightning (explosion),
that contributed a massive increase in temperature and toxic agents in air. This led to the destruction of the

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 Anthropology Demystified

Harappan Civilisation. Supporters of this theory point out to the charred bodies and melted stones found at
certain sites.

None of these theories have universal recognition, and as such, conclusive reason behind the decline remains an

archaeological mystery.

Q.44 Post-Harappan culture (15M)

The post Harappan period marks the civilisation that emerged around 1900 BCE onwards, following the decline of
the Mature (urban) Harappan civilisation.

Context

The decline saw most of the urban Harappan centres being abandoned. Many regional cultures emerged across

East Punjab, Haryana and Western UP. These have shown varying degrees of influence of Harappan culture.

Features

The period signals a degeneration of the township. Several sites have a predominant rural character. Some mudbrick
structures have been found, but these do not compare with that of the previous period.

The pottery and ceramic content are described in terms of the three associated cultures

1. Jhukar and Jhangar Culture of Sindh Buff coloured pottery, followed by grey or black pottery
2. Rangpur Culture of Gujarat: Redware with a thick slip

3. Cemetery-H culture of Punjab - Reddish pottery with black motifs

However, unlike the fine wheel-made pottery of the mature period, the pottery here is ill-fired and coarse. The

ceramic content is also poorer in technique and quality of decoration, but does show new shape-types like carinated
and coconut shaped jars.
A new feature of u"n burials has also been observed at the citadel mound of Harappa (cemetery-H culture). It is

perhaps a sign of o itside invasion.

with materials such as marine
Finally, there is an apparent breakdown of the widespread trade of the Harappans,
shells no longer found.

Thus, the post Harappan phase marks the sunset on the glorious Harappan Civilisation.

Q.45 Discuss the contributions of tribal cultures to Indian Civilisation. (15M)

Ancient literary texts, ethno-archaeological evidences and historical records provide information on the contribution
of tribal cultures to the Indian civilisation. The contribution can be seen as follows

1. To ethnic complexities The culture contact between the Vedic people and the indigenous tribes led to the
assimilation of tribes into the Aryan fold. Simultaneously, tribalisation of Aryans happened as well.
2. To language Numerous words from tribal language have entered intro Indian language such as bala (hair),
bana (arrow) etc.

3. To social life - Recent anthropological studies reveal that the Brahmans borrowed the gotra system from the
Gonds. Further influence of tribal kinship system can be found in cross-cousin marriages and marriage-by-

exchange in Indian civilisation.

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 Chapter Archaeology, Prehistory, and Evolution of Indian Civilisation

4. To techno-economic life - Use of iron was learnt by the Aryans from the Asura tribe. Similarly, the skill of
raising rice crops and practice of magico-religious way of dealing with diseases are inherited from tribes.
5. To political life - The system of chiefdom of tribes finds reflection in the monarchic and republic system of
modern times. The sabhas, samitis and village assemblies are also of tribal origins.
6. To religion The interplay of little and great traditions led to the processes of universalisation and
parochialisation. For instance, Marriot says that Hindu festivals like Lakshmi Puja were a result of
universalisation of tribal festivals like Saurati Puja.
7. To arts- The mythologies, music and medicine of tribal diffused into Indian culture. For instance, the instrument
veena was derived from the tribal instrument of memerajan. Tribal medicines like aswagandhi and other

herbs entered Ayurveda.

Thus, due to the contribution of tribal cultures, the Indian civilisation has become a complete and composite civilisation.

Q.46 Palaeoanthropology (10M)

Palaeoanthropology is a sub-field of anthropology concerned with the origins and development of early humans. It
draws from and combines palacontology, biological and cultural anthropology.

Background and Scope

The field began in the late 19th century when important discoveries led to the study of human evolution. The
discovery of the Neanderthal in Germany, Thomas Huxley's 'Evidence as to Man's Place in Nature (1863),'
and Charles Darwin' "The Descent of Man (1871)' were all important to early paleoanthropological research.

The discovery of Java Man in 1891 stimulated research for a fmissing link' in our origins. In the 20th century, major
palaeoanthropological findings came from South and East Africa, led especially by the Leakey family.
21s century research has genetics playing an ever-increasing role, in particular to examine and compare DNA
structures to trace the evolutionary kinship lines of Hominids.

Development in India

The discovery of Narmada Man in 1982 by Arun Sonakia gave a huge boost to palaeanthropology in India. Since
then, research has oriented around the possibility of the Indian sub-continent as a cradle of humanity.

Q.47 Describe the palaeoanthropological fossil finds from SiwalikHills.Examinetheircontribution

to palaeoanthropological knowledge. (15M)

Siwalik Hills of the Himalayas are among the richest fossil sites of India. Since late 19th century, different Primate
fossils have been discovered here, belonging to the superfamily Hominoidea.

Discovery

In 1934, Lewis discovered some broken teeth and parts of broken jaws in Bilaspur district. He named
it as

to be different from Dryopithecus and

Ramapithecus, meaning Rama's ape. The general characters were found
similar to certain hominid features. Superficially, the evidences could be compared with humans.
But later evidences suggested Ramapithecus showed absolute similarities with Dryopithecus sivalensis,andthus,
the two were clubbed into a new genus Sivapithecus (meaning Shiva's ape).

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 Anthropology Demystified

Time Span8 8011

Sivapithecus evolved during middle of Miocene period, dated around 14-8 million years ago.
Physical Features

1. Skull

1.1. Small face with reduced snout

1.2.U-shaped dental arcade; slightly parabolic in Indian fossils

1.3. Large incisors but comparatively small canines

1.4. Large and thick enamelled molars, adapted for a diet of hard fruits

2. Post-cranial anatomy

The forelimbs of Sivapithecus had sufficient mobility and he could swing on his arms. His size was nearly that

of an orangutan. Tendency towards bipedalism is observed, but cannot be definitely concluded.

Habitat

Sivapithecus spent most of his time on ground, at periphery of forests, giving him the double benefit of food from
forests and open areas.

Contribution to Palaeoanthropological Knowledge

Until the 1980s, it was believed that in the direction of evolution of humans away from apes, Ramapithecus was the
first being (Fig. 1). These conclusions have been proven wrong since then. Ramapithecus, now included in the
genus Siva, was possibly an ancestor of orang, with the evolutionary lines of humans and apes separating around
six to eight million years ago (Fig. 2).

Hn Hs - H. sapiens
Hn Neanderthal

He H. erectus

A - Australopithecus
C - Chimpanzee
G - Gorilla
Gi
O - Orangutam
Gil Gigantopithecus
Ramapithecus
Si - Sivapithecus
(14-8 mya)
D - Dryopithecus

(23-18 mya)

Fig. : Evolutionary Tree Fig. 2 : Evolutionary Tree

(As Agreed Upto 1980s) (As Agreed Today)

There are three sub-species of Sivapithecus - punjabicus, wicker, brevirostris

Fossils of Sivapithecus have been located from Siwalik Hills (India), Lufang Valley (China), Hungary
(Europe), and some parts of Africa.

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 Chapter -1: Archaeology, Prehistory, and Evolution of Indian Civilisation

0.48 Delineate the

salient characteristics of the Narmada Man, and examine its phylogenetic
status and evolutionary significance. (20M)
Narmada man, or
Homo erectus narmadensis, is a sub-species of the extinct Homo erectus.
Discovery

In 1982,
Dr Arun Sonakia found a fossilised calvaria (skull cap) near Hathnora village in the Narmada valley of
Madhya Pradesh. It was named Narmada man. In 1997, the discovery of a right clavicle in the same region was
announced. Dr A.R. Sankhyan described it to be a part of the Narmada man.

Time Span

It has been dated to be at

least 400,000 years old, thus belonging to the Lower Palaeolithic period.
Physical Features

1. Cranial Capacity-Estimated to be between 1150 to 1400 c.c., within the range of H. sapiens.
2. Skull

Flat Cranial Vault

Large
Brow
Ridge

3. Post-cranial anatomy As per Dr Sankhyan, the clavicle is supposed to belong to a 25-30-year-old female,
the size of a modern adult pygmy of stocky build.

Cultural Features

The fossil was unearthed along with several stone tools, mainly handaxes and cleavers, typical of Acheulian
culture. This indicates habitual tool making. Broken bones of several animals found alongside point that Narmada
man was a hunter.

Phylogenetic Status

Dr Sonakia assigned it as H. erectus narmadensis due its association with Acheulian culture of Lower Palaeolithic
to

period. Dr Marie-Antoinette de Lumley labelled it an 'evolved H. erectus' due to its high

as
cranial capacity.
Certain archaeologists also claim it to be included in archaic H. sapiens. Thus, there are several views on its
phylogeny.

Evolutionary Significance

Narmada man is the

first and only recorded evidence of human skeletal remain from the Lower Palaeolithic period
of Indian sub-continent.

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 Anthropology Demystified

that
Dr Sankhyan (2017) has remarked that through the occurrence of the Narmada man, it may be postulated
Narmada valley contained common ancestors of the Holocene short-bodied populations of Indian mainland, including
the pygmies. This conclusion is also supported by recent genetic studies, and concurs with the 'Out of Africa'
hypothesis to explain the modern human origins in South Asia.

Q.49 Ethnoarchaeology (10M)

Ethnoarchaeology is a relatively new branch of archaeological anthropology. Coined by Jesse Fewkes in 1900,
ethnoarchaeology is concerned with the study of present societies for the purpose of reconstructing prehistoric
cultures, in conjunction with surviving archaeological remains.

Background and Scope

Until the 1950s, archaeologists gave little attention to ethnographic data in establishing chronologies and significance
of antiquities. However, post 1950s, archaeologists have started studying societies and their functioning in specific
environments. Combining the ethnographic data obtained with archaeological remains, they are able to understand
better the prehistoric cultures of that region.
For instance, Brian Havden (1987) examined the manufacturing of Mesoamerican quern-stones, gaining valuable
insights into the prehistoric stone age of Central America. Some more important works include the study of Bushmen
of South Africa by R.B. Lee, and that of Eskimos by L.H. Binford.

Development in India

Some College across a few Neolithic and Chalcolithic sites.

of the early studies were conducted by the Deccan
More recently, Indian archaeologists have begun studying the tribes of Odisha, Chhattisgarh and Jharkhand to
understand the prehistoric period of India.

Q.50 Explain the concept of survivals and parallels, and their role in ethnoarchaeology. (15M)

cultural phenomena that outlive the

E.B. Tylor, in his book, *The Primitive Culture (1871), "defined survivals as

set of conditions under which they were originally developed.

not have been in direct
Parallels, meanwhile, refer to cultural similarities that exist across cultures that may or may
contact with each other at any point of time.

Role in Ethnoarchaeology

Ethnoarchaeology is concerned with the study of present societies for the purpose of reconstructing prehistoric
cultures, in conjunction with surviving archaeological remains.
Survivals evokes the principle of continuity. For instance, the Juangs of Keonjhar have a dormitory called Mandoghar
it is a continuously burning wooden log, kept to preserve fire. According to folklore, the Juangs lost fire
at
Inside
The log was installed to prevent a repeat of the incident. As
some point. They regained it through divine blessings.
fire is a survival of prehistoric practice.
per Mahapatre, this practice of preserving

Parallels evoke the principle of similarity. For instance, Onges of Andaman and Nicobar are known to decorate
seen as a parallel to the
their bodies with microliths. But no Mesolithic site has been discovered here. This could be
prehistoric practice of decorating bodies with stones.
Thus, ethnoarchacologists seek the presence of survivals and parallels in contemporary societies to enhance their
understanding of archaeological remains. One such example in India is the study done by the Indira Gandhi Rashtriya
Manav Sangrahalaya (IGRMS). A team of local artisans in the region
from IGRMS studied the cultural practices

near Bhimbetka, in order to trace survivals and parallels for a better understanding of Bhimbetka rock paintings.

382