EBSCO Publishing Citation Format: APA 7th Edition (American Psychological Assoc.

):

NOTE: Review the instructions at http://support.ebsco.com.usd.idm.oclc.org/help/?int=ehost&lang=&feature_id=APA

and make any necessary corrections before using. Pay special attention to personal names, capitalization, and
dates. Always consult your library resources for the exact formatting and punctuation guidelines.

References
Armes, J. W., Harry, A. G., & Grimsby, R. (2022). Implementing Universal Design Principles in Music Teaching.
Music Educators Journal, 109(1), 44–51. https://doi-org.usd.idm.oclc.org/10.1177/00274321221114869
<!--Additional Information:
Persistent link to this record (Permalink): https://usd.idm.oclc.org/login?
url=https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=159438770&site=ehost-live&scope=site
End of citation-->

Implementing Universal Design Principles in Music Teaching

Students with disabilities (SWDs) in the United States have a right to the least restrictive learning
environment as enshrined in federal law. Until recently, conceptions about educating SWDs have drawn
from medical models of disability (i.e., that the student must be accommodated to interact with the
environment) rather than a social model of disability (i.e., that the environment can be cultivated for all
kinds of individual needs). Universal Design for Learning (UDL) is an educational framework that music
educators can use to shift their planning and instructional practices surrounding SWDs to encompass a
social model of disability. Here, we define UDL principles, describe UDL implementation in music
classroom contexts, and provide resources for further reading.

Keywords: choral; disability studies; general music; instrumental; Universal Design for Learning

Incorporating Universal Design for Learning principles in your music classroom can help create a more
accessible and inclusive learning experience for students.

Graph: Photo of Jocelyn W. Armes courtesy of the first author

In the United States, students with disabilities (SWDs) have a right to a free and appropriate education
in the least-restrictive learning environment as defined by the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act
(IDEA). In recent years, scholars have examined whether the legal requirements outlined in IDEA are
sufficient to provide SWDs with meaningful access to education. Teryl [ 5] and Joseph [ 1], both music
education researchers and scholars in disability studies, noted that special education policies have
traditionally defined disability using a medical model that describes students' learning needs as deficits
that require student-level intervention. SWDs are provided with individualized modifications or
accommodations after the teacher has planned instruction for a typical student population. This
approach does not require teachers to address educational barriers for SWDs at the systemic level.

Graph: Photo of Adam Harry by Mei-Ling Shaw

Graph: Photo of Rachel Grimsby by Kara Beth Photography

Barriers to access and inclusion in K–12 music classes are well documented by music education
researchers and practitioners ([ 1]; [ 3]; [ 4]). Music classrooms often present a number of cognitive,
communicative, behavioral, emotional, physical, and sensory barriers ([ 9]; [14]). The frequent
expectations that students decode notation, demonstrate music knowledge under highly specific
parameters, and process complex musical information instantaneously all present potential cognitive
and communicative barriers for SWDs. Music classes that require students to manipulate acoustic
instruments for participation also present physical barriers for some students.

Drawing on disability studies scholarship, [ 6] and Abramo (2017) described disabilities using a social
model in which the environment should be altered to better accommodate a broader range of bodily and
intellectual ways of being. Using a social model of disability, teachers intervene using different curricula
and pedagogical strategies to best meet the needs of all students from the outset of planning. To
facilitate planning instruction from a social conception of disability, teachers may wish to consider
Universal Design for Learning (UDL). While UDL is typically considered when teaching SWDs, it is
applicable to the instruction of all students. In this article, we explain the principles of UDL and offer
suggestions for its implementation in music education settings.

What Is UDL?
In the late 1980s, American architect Ronald Mace, with others, developed the architectural paradigm
"universal design" to provide integrated, universal access to buildings regardless of one's bodily
modality ([17]). In recent years, educators and researchers have applied principles of universal design to
research, curriculum development, and teaching practices to improve educational access for SWDs.
UDL is a framework developed by the Center for Applied Science and Technology (now CAST) to shift
the focus from addressing an individual's disability toward addressing barriers to student learning in
classroom environments and instruction ([13]). The principles of UDL are a guide for educators' praxis
based on the premise that all students engage in learning differently and that curriculum should be
presented in ways that meet students' learning modalities based on three core principles: provide (a)
multiple means of engagement, (b) multiple means of representation, and (c) multiple means of action
and expression.

Multiple Means of Engagement

In UDL, students' motivation to learn is harnessed through multiple means of engagement. To engage
students, music educators could consider (a) making content socially and culturally relevant to students,
(b) optimizing student choice through co-designed learning goals, and (c) minimizing sensory stimulation
and environmental distractions. In UDL, educators provide flexible and supportive instruction, develop a
classroom environment that centers on community, and focus on student growth rather than arbitrary
outcomes (CAST, n.d.). Additionally, educators could teach students how to respond to growth and
setbacks in emotionally healthy ways and embrace mistakes as an essential part of the learning
process. Music educators may need to guide students in understanding the intrinsic value of setting and
attaining their own goals and to take pride and ownership throughout the learning process. Developing
intrinsic motivation is essential in maintaining student interest and sustained effort in a subject (Evans,
2015).
Multiple Means of Representation
To provide multiple means of representation, music educators need to understand how their students
perceive and prefer to engage with content aurally, visually, and/or kinesthetically. Music educators who
make use of UDL ensure that language and symbols representing curricular content are accessible.
Music educators may choose to use graphics that highlight important "text" relationships, provide
content in the languages students speak, or use a variety of visual/audio tools, such as film, recordings,
and other digital media. Additionally, music educators who use UDL scaffold learning for student
comprehension. Music educators can support student comprehension by connecting new knowledge to
previous knowledge, using guiding questions to bring students' attention to critical content, and providing
flexibility for students' responses.

Multiple Means of Action and Expression

To provide multiple means of action and expression requires music educators to broaden their
understanding of how students may demonstrate mastery of course content. One of the most substantial
challenges, particularly for general and instrumental music educators, is addressing the physical
demands often required to participate in classroom activities that create barriers to entry into the
learning process. The options that music teachers provide for class participation and demonstration of
musical knowledge need to include low physical demands and a range of gross and fine motor skills
from which students may choose. Leveraging assistive technologies will likely be central to achieving
this goal in many music classes. While multiple means of representation demand that we present
information in different modalities, music educators may leverage multiple means of expression to allow
students to engage with curricula and demonstrate knowledge gained through a variety of media. If
students are asked to compose a melody, then all of them participate but may compose differently.
Students may use notation software, paper and pencil, pictures, voice recordings, or assistive
technology. Last, providing multiple means of action and expression suggests the need for music
educators to broaden their conceptions of musical literacy and differentiate the level of support that each
student may need to effectively demonstrate what they have learned.

When implementing principles of UDL, music educators should center student autonomy and choice
within learning processes. This may be done through providing options for how a student approaches a
learning objective, the context of content taught, and choice of materials used to complete tasks ([ 2]).
Student choice is fundamental in providing multiple means of engagement, representation, and action
and expression. This component of UDL has both ethical and pedagogical dimensions. First, providing
space for agency for SWDs affords them the autonomy that is frequently taken from them in most social
and learning environments. Second, student agency is grounded in the belief that individuals, regardless
of their capabilities, know best the ways they learn.

Implementing UDL in Music Education

Music educators may use UDL as a lens for critically examining their teaching and instructional
practices. Implementing UDL does not involve a checklist of principles or suggestions that one considers
after curriculum and lessons have been written. The principles of UDL are designed to be used from the
beginning of the curriculum and lesson planning process. In the following sections, we offer suggestions
for how music educators might implement UDL throughout their curriculum and instructional processes.

Elementary General Music

Singing games, canon singing, creative movement, folk dancing, and playing instruments are activities
elementary general music educators frequently use to develop students' musical skills. Using UDL
principles, elementary general music educators can make their instruction more accessible to all
learners regardless of intellectual and/or bodily differences. In the following example, we highlight a
learning scenario for a third-grade class based upon Orff processes and incorporating UDL principles for
multiple means of engagement, representation, and expression.

In this class, students will create an arrangement for the song "Hop Old Squirrel" over the course of
several lessons, culminating in a final performance. First, educators could sing the piece and invite
students to move in response to the beat or to create movements they believe best fit the song. For
example, the educator could ask, "What are other ways the squirrel could move in addition to hopping?"
Alternatively, students could keep the macro/micro beat while seated or walk around the room on the
macro/micro beat. The educator could keep time on a drum as they sing to assist students in beat
synchronization.

Next, the educator would invite students to sit behind a barred instrument (e.g., bass, alto, and soprano
metallophones and xylophones, and glockenspiels) as they model one or several of the following
borduns:[ 2] basic, broken, leveled, and crossover. Students then select a bordun and "noodle" on the
barred instruments to create a countermelody that fits with the main melody of the song. As a class,
students select which parts could be played by each instrument. To add unpitched percussion, students
might draw inspiration from the song lyrics ("hop," "squirrel," "eiddle-dum"). After parts are assigned and
the piece is practiced, students may consider adding B or C sections, additional movement, or additional
instrumentation in future classes. Across each lesson, the teacher invites students to refine, reflect on,
and adjust their "arrangement" until their final lesson day, when students perform.

Having multiple means of engagement often is the easiest way to provide students with multiple entry
points in movement, singing, playing, and/or creation of an arrangement. Students may choose to
remain nonlocomotive or locomotive regardless of their physical differences. All students are taught all
parts and are allowed to choose the part they play, allowing them to experience agency and success.
Finally, students are provided choice in the form, expressive elements, and complexity of a piece, its
rehearsal, and its final performance.

At first it may seem difficult for music educators to provide multiple means of representation, especially if
they adhere to a sound-before-sight pedagogy. Multiple means of representation can be visual, auditory,
and kinesthetic. To assimilate a song, students could be provided visuals that represent the lyrics rather
than a lyric sheet, kinesthetic input through moving to the beat, and/or auditory input through listening to
the teacher as the teacher sings. Additional means of representation may be included while teaching
borduns: naming the letter of the bars being played, projecting a visual of a xylophone with highlighted
bars, or having students partner up and teach one another each bordun. Visual anchors—either drawn
letters, pictures, or puppets to represent the decided form to be performed—also could be an additional
means of representing musical content.

Music educators can provide multiple means of expression in a variety of ways. Students might choose
how they demonstrate beat through locomotor or non-locomotor movement, autonomously choose a
bordun that best fits their skill level, or how they contribute to the arrangement "Hop Old Squirrel." In
allowing students agency in how the arrangement is composed, students can show an understanding of
musical knowledge through creation, singing, performance, and/or movement.

Choral Music
Choral music classroom practices are informed by a set of traditions that could impose artificial
limitations on instructional and curricular practices. Such limitations include part assignment (a role often
determined by vocal range or Fach, dependence on selecting and decoding written notation,
memorization, and standing for extended periods in rehearsal and performance). While many choral
educators may not strictly adhere to part assignments and full reliance on notation, these strategies are
commonly employed. Implementing UDL principles may require a departure from some practices. Using
[10] arrangement of "Somagwaza" in Two South African Ceremonial Songs, published by Alliance
Music, we present several ways in which a choral music educator might incorporate UDL principles in
their practice. Initially, educators may present the cultural significance of "Somagwaza" as a ceremonial
song signaling the rite of passage into adulthood for Bantu youth. There are several excellent reference
recordings by culture bearers, including Pete Seeger's recordings of Bantu youth during his travels in
South Africa.[ 3] To reflect the oral tradition of African folk music, choral educators should present this
octavo at least initially by rote.

There are several ways in which choral educators may incorporate multiple means of engagement.
Student choice is one of the simplest ways to support engagement. In this arrangement of
"Somagwaza," percussion is written to accompany the vocalists. The choral educator could allow
students choice in what percussion instruments, made or found, are played for the notated percussion
line. Additionally, choral educators could allow students to create complementary percussion ostinati
that they feel fit with the piece. Allowing students to choose their voice part is another way for the choral
educator to provide multiple means of engagement. Teaching students all parts in their respective vocal
ranges increases students' opportunities to engage in singing throughout rehearsals. Finally, choral
educators could invite student leaders to teach and conduct the octavo, thus alleviating the power
dynamic between student and choral educator that can create barriers for some student learners.

As previously discussed, multiple means of representation might at first appear challenging. Typically,
students engage with octavos that show Western notation: black notes on a white page. If the piece
lends itself to the whole-song approach ([15]) as in our example, then students could learn repertoire
without Western notation.[ 4] To internalize pulse, students could physically explore the classroom
space on the macro or micro beats, which are the same as the notated percussion ostinati. As students
walk on the macro/micro beats, or play on the macro/micro beats, the choral educator might sing each
part multiple times. As students learn parts, the choral educator moves to other vocal lines until all parts
are assimilated by the students. Notation can be provided, but alternative notation may be necessary for
some students. Rather than providing alternative notation for some students, the choral educator could
project visual representations, thus allowing students to choose to follow the traditional octavo or
projected representation. An example of visual notation could be using colored dots and line segments
to represent each voice part ([ 8]). The choral educator ought to consider students with color blindness
and other visual impairments when creating these visuals by offering full-color visuals and grayscale
and/or altering the size of provided visuals. Then, students could show the melodic/harmonic contours
through hand signs or student-created hand movement.
Choral educators may further increase students' engagement by providing multiple means of action and
expression to evidence learning. A simple example is providing adjustments in scoring for vocal range.
In the example repertoire, students in voice lines 1 and 2 are expected to sing an A3. This may be too
low for some students, but allowing students to sing either A3 or A4 would provide options to encourage
effort. Or, in keeping with oral tradition, the piece could be sung in any number of keys, depending on
the vocal range of the members in the group. Some students may struggle with performance anxiety or
be unable to sing "in time" with their peers. Recording some parts and adjusting them through digital
audio workstations (DAWs) may provide students options to self-regulate while still participating within a
performance. Prerecording parts also may allow students who use assistive devices to communicate,
such as switches, the ability to participate.[ 5] Adjusting the octavo and layering in vocal lines one at a
time, for example, m. 5, could scaffold student success and allow multiple entry points for student
singers. The use of hand signs or movement, for example, with scarves, while singing is another way for
the choral educator to provide multiple means of expression. Students who are not orally verbal, are
selective mute, or have performance anxiety may choose to sing and do motions or simply do motions,
providing them a way to participate in the performance.

Instrumental Music
Implementing UDL in instrumental music classrooms poses unique challenges and will necessitate
reimagining the ways we approach curriculum and pedagogy by departing from the traditional "on-the-
podium" rehearsal format. For example, a baseline expectation in most instrumental music classrooms
is that all students in the class are able to hold and effectively manipulate a complex acoustic
instrument. Ensemble instrumentation reflects performance traditions and practices within professional
performing ensembles that may limit the ways in which students engage with musical concepts, and
UDL would require instrumental music teachers to provide a wider variety of inclusive ways for students
to be involved in their class. Traditional instrumental music classrooms (i.e., band, orchestra) tend to
emphasize technique development, accurate replication of existing works, and recall of knowledge
related to musical elements (i.e., pitch, rhythm, dynamics, timbre, form; [11]). Implementing UDL
principles in instrumental classrooms may enrich musical learning for students by engaging them
through multiple musicking processes, including moving, listening, singing, composing, and improvising.
Further mimicking professional ensembles, these instrumental music ensembles are frequently
organized based on audition results and segregate students by ability level, a practice that is contrary to
the theoretical foundations of inclusive learning environments.

To illustrate curricular possibilities, we will consider one of the most traditional band experiences:
preparing an American march. For this example, we will use Jay Bocook's flex arrangement of John
Philip [16] "The Thunderer" published by Hal Leonard. Flex arrangements are pieces where each of the
voices of the arrangement have been scored for multiple transpositions and voicings. This flexible
approach to scoring allows each ensemble to create their own version of the piece by choosing the
instrumentation and voicing that works best for their students and ensemble. While using a flex
arrangement does not inherently conform to UDL principles, these works do offer more possibilities
when attempting to implement UDL in instrumental ensembles.

As with choral ensembles, providing multiple means of engagement to recruit student interest in
classroom activities involves centering student input and choice. This may mean allowing students the
opportunity to help pick concert repertoire. Using flex arrangements of traditional works, for example,
"The Thunderer," allows instrumental music educators to provide students the choice of what part is
most appealing and currently accessible to them. To "optimize relevance, value, and authenticity" ([ 2]),
instrumental music teachers could offer performing ensembles open to performing a diverse array of
literature, including popular musics that reflect student interests and listening preferences. Moreover,
musical diversity should manifest not only in content but also in the process of musical teaching and
learning—providing ways for students to compose, improvise, learn by ear, and so on.

When teaching a piece like "The Thunderer," a music teacher might recruit interest through a listening
activity. Students may be asked to deductively identify features that are "march-like." Following a close
listening, students could label those qualities in their own music (across the various parts of the flex
arrangement). The teacher could also draw on Dalcroze teaching methods and engage students in
movement-based interpretations of the musical style and phrasing gestures in ways that suit their bodily
modality. Using the "march-like qualities" from the listening and movement activities, students may
evidence understanding by designing a checklist or holistic rubric.

In traditional instrumental music curricula, teachers often focus intensely on developing students' literacy
skills using Western notation to decode a specific repertoire. For cognitively divergent or visually
impaired students, such expectations for experiencing music present a barrier to participation in class. In
implementing multiple means of representation, teachers could supplement existing music with assistive
or alternative notation (e.g., Braille music), replace printed music with conceptual maps, or eschew
notation entirely in favor of aural development. For example, in "The Thunderer," students performing
part 3 provide the upbeat rhythmic pulse frequently associated with French horn parts during the first
strain. This highly repetitive part does not necessitate constant tracking of a notated part to perform
successfully. Students could demonstrate understanding of the function of part 3 within the performance
of "The Thunderer" by drawing a pattern that iconically conveys the rhythmic organization of the part.
They could then use different colors to draw the melodic contour and rhythmic shape of the other parts
they hear in the band. Through this activity, all students on part 3 would come to realize that their part
rhythmically and stylistically complements the bass line and contrasts the melodic materials presented in
parts 1 and 2. Moreover, they would learn core elements about the construction of a march, which could
be later assessed as a transferred skill in the performance of other marches or through compositional
activities.

Providing multiple means of action and expression allows students in instrumental music classrooms the
opportunity to evidence understanding of musical learning outcomes in ways best suited to their needs.
Music teachers can provide multiple options for physical access and action to students with physical
disabilities by expanding the range of acceptable instruments available to students, mitigating the
physical effort required to play traditional orchestral and band instruments through assistive technology
(e.g., braces, stands, prosthetics). For example, a student may feel more confident expressing rhythmic
competency on downbeat quarter notes in part 5 (i.e., the bass line) by singing it or performing it via
DAW with a more approachable instrument input device (e.g., push pad). This allows students to
authentically participate in ways that do not necessitate the additional layers of technical and procedural
knowledge required to play an acoustic instrument.

The benefit of a flex arrangement is that student choice and opportunities for action and expression can
be maximized by the teacher depending on the learning outcomes. For example, each part could be
played by various instruments so that students can select the part that best reflects their learning needs.
The teacher could then rearrange the room by grouping students in pods by part (i.e., one of each of the
five parts and percussion) rather than by instrument ([ 1]; [12]). Notably, this approach requires
prioritizing students' learning needs over traditional orchestration and instrument voicing.

Finally, instrumental teachers can facilitate musical independence in students by allowing students to
plan their own journey toward a set of learning outcomes, either organically or by selecting from a bank
of options. If an outcome for learning "The Thunderer" was to understand the core components of an
American march, students might choose to compose their own march that exemplifies a co-created list
of components, compare and contrast multiple American marches in an oral presentation for the class,
or improvise contrasting first and second strain sections of a march over a prerecorded accompaniment
of part 5 and percussion.

Flexibility Means More Inclusion

By shifting their instructional paradigm from accommodating perceived student deficits toward
addressing instructional barriers, music educators can use UDL to develop a more inclusive classroom
for all students through flexible pedagogical practices and curricular design. While UDL at first appears
overwhelming, this framework may encourage music educators to provide multiple entry points for all
students and improve access to music for SWDs. Music educators interested in further reading on UDL
principles and their use in music classrooms can consult any of the resources provided in Figure 1.
Offering students choices, representing content in a variety of modalities, and providing a variety of
options for engagement and student expression may optimize student learning outcomes and allow the
music educator to include all those they teach in instruction. We hope that the examples provided, both
in this article and in Figure 2, will offer a starting point for readers to consider, understand, and use UDL
in their own teaching spaces.

Graph: Figure 1 Additional Suggested Resources

Graph: Figure 2 Universal Design for Learning Examples for Music Educators

Jocelyn W. Armes is a Lecturer of Music Education at the University of Southern Maine in Gorham; she
can be contacted at jocelynwarmes@gmail.com. Adam G. Harry is an Assistant Professor of Music
Education at the University of Iowa, Iowa City; he can be contacted at adam-harry@uiowa.edu. Rachel
Grimsby is an Assistant Professor of Music Education at Illinois State University, Normal; she can be
contacted at rlgrim1@ilstu.edu. To take a survey for professional development recognition after reading
this article, contact Ella Wilcox at EllaW@nafme.org.

References
1 Abramo J. (2012). Disability in the classroom: Current trends and impacts on music education. Music
Educators Journal, 99(1), 39–45. https://doi-org.usd.idm.oclc.org/10.1177/0027432112448824

2 CAST. (n.d.). The UDL guidelines. Retrieved December 20, 2021, from https://udlguidelines.cast.org/

3 Coyne P., Pisha B., Dalton B., Zephyr L. A., Smith N. C. (2012). Literacy by design: A Universal
Design for Learning approach for students with significant intellectual disabilities. Remedial and Special
Education, 33(3), 162–172. https://doi-org.usd.idm.oclc.org/10.1177/0741932510381651
4 Culp M. E., Clauhs M. (2020). Factors that affect participation in secondary school music: Reducing
barriers and increasing access. Music Educators Journal, 106(4), 43–49. https://doi-
org.usd.idm.oclc.org/10.1177/0027432120918293

5 Dobbs T. L. (2012). A critical analysis of disabilities discourse in the Journal of Research in Music
Education, 1990–2011. Bulletin of the Council for Research in Music Education, 194, 7–30. https://doi-
org.usd.idm.oclc.org/10.5406/bulcouresmusedu.194.0007

6 Dobbs T. L. (2017). Equity in music education: Being "schooled" on disability. Music Educators
Journal, 104(2), 51–53. https://doi-org.usd.idm.oclc.org/10.1177/0027432117732313

7 Evans P. (2017). Motivation. In The child as musician: A handbook of musical development (2nd ed.,
pp. 325–339). Oxford University Press.

8 Fuelberth R., Todd C. (2017). "I Dream a World": Inclusivity in choral music education. Music
Educators Journal, 104(2), 38–44. https://doi-org.usd.idm.oclc.org/10.1177/0027432117735875

9 Hammel A., Hourigan R. (2011). The fundamentals of special education policy: Implications for music
teachers and music teacher education. Arts Education Policy Review, 112(4), 174–179. https://doi-
org.usd.idm.oclc.org/10.1080/10632913.2011.592463

Kapstein K., Lyon C. (Ed.). (1997). "Somagwaza." In Two South African ceremonial songs: Somagwaza
and Nginani Na. Alliance Music.

Kaschub M., Smith J. P. (2016). The big picture: Developing musical capacities. Music Educators
Journal, 102(3), 33–40. https://doi-org.usd.idm.oclc.org/10.1177/0027432115622535

McCord K., Fitzgerald M. (2006). Children with disabilities playing musical instruments. Music Educators
Journal, 92(4), 46–52. https://doi-org.usd.idm.oclc.org/10.2307/3401112

Meyer A., Rose D. H., Gordon D. (2014). Universal Design for Learning: Theory and practice. CAST.

Rose D. H., Strangman N. (2007). Universal Design for Learning: Meeting the challenge of individual
learning differences through a neurocognitive perspective. Universal Access in the Information Society,
5(4), 381–391. https://doi-org.usd.idm.oclc.org/10.1007/s10209-006-0062-8

Sorrel N. K. (2006). The effects of immersion and phrase-by-phrase learning on elementary students'
song acquisition [Unpublished master's thesis]. Texas Tech University.

Sousa J. P. (2018). "The Thunderer" [Musical score]. Hal Leonard Publications. (Original work published
1889)

Story M. F., Mueller J. L., Mace R. L. (1998). The universal design file: Designing for people of all ages
and abilities. Center for Universal Design.

Footnotes
Jocelyn W. Armes
Graph https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5388-9665

A bordun is a pattern played on a barred instrument that typically outlines the harmonic function of a
piece. Basic borduns are performed on the beat with the first and fifth scale degrees being played
simultaneously. Broken borduns are performed alternating between the first and fifth scale degrees.
More information may be found at https://aosa.org/about/what-is-orff-schulwerk/.

Recordings may be found at https://folkways.si.edu/the-song-swappers-and-pete-seeger/bantu-choral-

folk-songs/world/music/album/smithsonian.

The whole-song approach is when the music educator repeatedly sings a song while students move,
play a game, or listen for certain elements within the song.

Switches, or BigMacs, are devices that record sound. When pressed by the student, the recording plays.
An example may be found here: https://enablingdevices.com/product/compact-switches/.

~~~~~~~~
By Jocelyn W. Armes; Adam G. Harry and Rachel Grimsby

Reported by Author; Author; Author

Copyright of Music Educators Journal is the property of Sage Publications Inc. and its content may not
be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express
written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use.